Vol 2, No 1 SEPTEMBER, 2023: Language Re iew: An In e na ional Jou nal o Linguis ics
(LRIJL)
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LINGUISTIC SCHEMA: A CATALYST FOR IMPROVING JSS
TWO STUDENTS PERFORMANCE IN READING FOR LITERAL
COMPREHENSION IN ZARIA METROPOLIS
BY
NMADUMELU OBI
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH,
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, ZARIA
08039317325
[email p o ec ed]
&
ANDOKARI ZAKU JAMES
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH,
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, ZARIA
08034782013
[email p o ec ed]
DOI : h ps://doi.o g/10.5281/zenodo.17715226
Abs ac
I is an undispu ed ac ha eading emains one o he mos cen al skills in he success o any
educa ional pu sui . This pape he e o e, x- ays he e ec s o linguis ic schema on he
pe o mance o JSS wo s uden s in eading o li e al comp ehension in Za ia me opolis. In doing
his, one objec i e, one esea ch ques ion, and a hypo hesis we e o mula ed. A eading
comp ehension es was adminis e ed o he s uden s comp ising an expe imen al and con ol
g oups. The popula ion o he s udy cons i u ed 32 public schools in Za ia Local Go e nmen A ea
o Kaduna S a e om which schools we e selec ed as he sample g oups. A pu posi e andom
sampling echnique was adop ed o he s udy. Da a collec ed we e analyzed using in e en ial
s a is ics and was used o answe he esea ch ques ion aised o he s udy. Based on he indings
o he esea ch, i was ecommended ha schema heo y (linguis ic schema) be adop ed as he
p ima y mode in eaching eading o li e al comp ehension. Simila ly, English language eache s
should ake he ad an age o schema heo y echnique o de eloping s uden s eading
comp ehension abili y.
Key wo ds: Reading, Reading Comp ehension, Schema Theo y and Linguis ic Schema
LINGUISTIC SCHEMA: A CATALYST FOR IMPROVING JSS TWO STUDENTS
PERFORMANCE IN READING FOR LITERAL COMPREHENSION IN ZARIA
METROPOLIS
2
In oduc ion
is so dishea ening ha he gene al pe o mances o second language lea ne s’ eading
comp ehension a e declining. Hence, go e nmen , language eache s, pa en s and public
examina ion bodies a e se iously owning a he si ua ion. The si ua ion has been one o he
dis u bing aspec s o he Nige ian educa ional sys em oday. Language lea ning includes ou
dimensions: lis ening, speaking, eading, and w i ing. The p esen esea ch ocuses on he
dimension o eading as i ela es o Linguis ic schema. E ec i e eading s a egies help build
eading me a-cogni ion and inc ease eading comp ehension. Reading comp ehension has been
ega ded as an impo an academic language skill (G abe and S olle , 2001; Gu, 2003) and has
ecei ed a lo o a en ion in second language eaching, i is essen ial pa icula ly o many English
as a o eign language lea ne s ha a ely ha e a chance o speak English in hei daily li es.
Schema a a e he unde lying connec ions ha allow new expe iences and in o ma ion o be aligned
wi h p e ious knowledge (McCa hy, 1991:168). Hence, schema a can be ca ego ized in o h ee
ypes-con en , o mal, and linguis ic. They a e all in any ex and a eade ’s expe ience a ec s
in e p e a ion. No possessing he p ope schema o being unable o ac i a e i leads o inaccu a e
cons uc s. Du ing he eading comp ehension p ocess, he eade is ac i ely ying o make sense
o he ele an w i en ex by in eg a ing p e ious ele an expe iences (schema a) wi h he ex
in o ma ion. Yu-hui(2010) p oposed h ee possible easons why s uden s canno unde s and a ex :
i s , s uden s lack p ope schema. Second, s uden s may possess adequa e schema, bu he au ho
does no p o ide enough clues o ac i a e he schema. Thi d, s uden s in e p e he ex in a
consis en way bu de ia e om he au ho ’s in en ion.
A numbe o s udies on second language lea ning eading show some common obs acles
encoun e ed by lea ne s. Mos s uden s a he seconda y school le el a e unin e es ed in eading
and hey ha e poo eading habi (Agumanu; 1980, Ikon a; 2004 and Odumuh; 2004). Acco ding
o mos eache s o English in a second language con ex like Nige ia, mos s uden s ead e y
slowly as a esul o hei inabili y o ela e hei p e ious expe ience o ailu e o ac i a e hei
schema a (linguis ic schema) o he p esen ex ha hey a e eading. They do no know how o
guess he meaning o he un amilia wo ds. Simila ly, s udies by Whi e, G a es and Sla e (1990)
I
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ha e shown ha poo eade s o en lack adequa e ocabula y (linguis ic schema) o unde s and
wha hey ead om a ex . Consequen ly, eading is di icul and edious o hem. Thei poo
expe iences wi h eading and linguis ic schema se hem in o a cycle o us a ion.
This esea ch he e o e is aim a inding ou he e ec s o linguis ic schema on Junio Seconda y
School Two s uden ’s pe o mance in eading o li e al comp ehension.
Resea ch Ques ion
Re e ing o he p ima y objec i e o he s udy, he main esea ch ques ion aised is as ollow:
i. Wha is he e ec o linguis ic schema on JSS wo s uden s pe o mance in eading o
li e al comp ehension?
Resea ch Hypo hesis
Below is he hypo hesis o mula ed o he s udy:
i. Linguis ic Schema has no signi ican e ec on JSS wo s uden s pe o mance in eading
o li e al comp ehension.
Re iew o Rela ed Li e a u e
Reading and Reading Comp ehension
Reading is a ecep i e skill ha is mean o go hand in hand wi h comp ehension. I can be
cons ued as he coo dina ed execu ion o a numbe o p ocessing s ages such as wo d encoding,
lexical access, assigning seman ic oles, and ela ing he in o ma ion in a gi en sen ence o
p e ious sen ences and p e ious knowledge. I in ol es di e en ac i i ies such as eye mo emen ,
wo d ecogni ion, speech, comp ehension and ocabula y, (Olao e and Masembe, 2006; Azikiwe,
1998). Wha his means in essence is ha when we ead, we use ou eyes o iew w i en symbols
and we use ou b ain o con e hem in o wo ds, sen ences and pa ag aphs ha communica e
some hing o us.
Reading comp ehension on he o he hand, is he ac o cons uc ing meaning while in e ac ing
wi h ex s. Amah (1999:83) sees eading comp ehension as “an exe cise aimed a imp o ing o
LINGUISTIC SCHEMA: A CATALYST FOR IMPROVING JSS TWO STUDENTS
PERFORMANCE IN READING FOR LITERAL COMPREHENSION IN ZARIA
METROPOLIS
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es ing a lea ne unde s anding o a w i en language”. I is he abili y o he eade o no ice pieces
o ex ha ela e o hei pas expe iences. Comp ehension e lec s who people a e, how hey ela e
o he wo ld and o he s in i , hei accumula ed s o e o ac ual and in ui i e knowledge, he social
en i onmen in which hey a e eading, and e en how hey eel in a gi en day (Ruddell, 2002).I
is he p ocess o de i ing meaning om connec ed ex .
Olao e and Masembe (2007:1) asse ha , “ he essence o eading comp ehension eaching and
lea ning is o de elop he skills o app ecia ing wha is w i en because we ead o meaning. F om
he e iewed abo e, i can be deduced ha eading comp ehension is bes achie ed when a eade
is ac i ely in ol ed in he eading p ocess by using his/he p io knowledge o in e p e an au ho ’s
message.
Schema Theo y
Recen esea ch on second language eading pu a g ea emphasis on he ole o backg ound
knowledge, which has been o malized as schema heo y. The e a e a ious ways o de ining
schema. Schema iews eading as depending on he in eg a ion o new knowledge wi h a ne wo k
o p io knowledge. Ba le explained he e m “schema” as “an ac i e o ganiza ion o pas
eac ions, o o pas expe iences, which mus be always supposed o be ope a ing in any well-
adap ed o ganic esponse” (Clapham, 1996:17).In he same ein, i is a cogni i e cons uc s which
allows o he o ganiza ion o in o ma ion in a long- e m memo y. Thus, i is a la ge complex uni s
o knowledge ha o ganize much o wha we know abou gene al ca ego ies o objec s, classes o
e en s, and ypes o people (Widdowson; 1983 and Van Dijk; 1983). Acco ding o schema heo y,
a ex i sel does no ca y meaning a he i p o ides di ec ions o eade s as o how hey should
cons uc meaning om hei own p e iously acqui ed knowledge, o backg ound knowledge.
The e o e, comp ehending a ex is an in e ac i e p ocess be ween he eade ’s backg ound
knowledge and he ex .
Backg ound knowledge is made up o a pe son’s expe iences wi h he wo ld (including wha he
o she has ead), along wi h his o he concep s o how w i en ex wo ks, including wo d
iden i ica ion, p in concep s, wo d meaning, and how ex is o ganized. Resea ch has shown ha
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eade s’ exis ing knowledge is c i ical in de e mining hei abili y o comp ehend wha hey ead.
Schema heo y iew eading as an ac i e p ocess which assis a eade in cons uc ing meaning
h ough connec ing old knowledge o schema a wi h he new in o ma ion being p esen ed in he
ex . Th ee main a eas o schema a connec ed o eading comp ehension a e Linguis ic, con en
and o mal schema. This pape has i s ocus on Linguis ic schema. Linguis ic schema a e e o
eade s’ exis ing language p o iciency in ocabula y, g amma and idioms. They a e he
ounda ion o o he schema a. Linguis ic knowledge plays an essen ial pa in ex comp ehension
wi hou which i is impossible o he eade o decode and comp ehend a ex . The e o e, he mo e
linguis ic schema a a eade has in his mind, he as e he eade acqui es in o ma ion and he
be e unde s anding he eade may ge . The mo e linguis ic schema a in a eade ’s mind,
he as e he can acqui e in o ma ion and he be e he can comp ehend.Linguis ic
schema is also called abs ac schema (Nassaji, 2002; Olle , 1995 ci ed in E en and Razi; 2009)
o s o y schema (Mandle ; 1984 ci ed inE en and Razi, 2009).
The e iew e eals ha comp ehension o any kind depends la gely on he amoun o schema ic
knowledge (linguis ic) eade s posses. Linguis ic schema e iewed abo e, e eals ha when a
eade poses good knowledge o sounds combined o o m wo ds, he ask o eading
comp ehension is educed because i is he ounda ion o o he schema a.
Schema Theo y and Reading o Li e al Comp ehension
Reading o li e al comp ehension e e s o he abili y o s uden s o unde s and wha is o e ly
s a ed in he ex . This equi es he knowledge he lea ne s acqui ed om he ex which does no
apply o he knowledge and he expe ience o he eade (Yusu , 1996; Olao e, 1983 and G elle ,
1981). When he w i e makes alse assump ions abou he ex en o which he eade is likely o
sha e his knowledge, belie , he eade may be conscious o ha ing s uggled o unde s and which
may some imes ail. Reading is wo hless unless s uden s unde s ood wha hey ead. Li e al
comp ehension in ol es ela ing he wo ds and clauses in he sen ences o o he in o ma ion in he
ex . Li e al comp ehension ques ions a e hose whose answe s a e di ec ly and explici ly a ailable
in he ex . The eade , in his ype o comp ehension exe cise is equi ed o ge he p ima y o
di ec dic iona y meaning o a wo d o an idea om he passage. The equi ed in o ma ion can be
LINGUISTIC SCHEMA: A CATALYST FOR IMPROVING JSS TWO STUDENTS
PERFORMANCE IN READING FOR LITERAL COMPREHENSION IN ZARIA
METROPOLIS
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easily ex ac ed om he linguis ic ou pu o he ex . The in ended li e al message is ead and hen
sen o he men al acul y as an inpu ha should only be accep ed and egu gi a ed wi hou making
any a emp o modi y, cla i y, c i ique e c.
Each sen ence o a connec ed discou se con ains some new in o ma ion as well as some old
in o ma ion ha a e edundan wi h he p eceding sen ences (Halliday, 1994 and Joanne, 1996).
The new in o ma ion ul illed he unc ion o communica ing new knowledge. Bu how does he
eade knows wha in o ma ion is old and which is new? The dis inc ion mus be communica ed
because he wo kinds o in o ma ion a e ea ed qui e du ing li e al comp ehension.
The e a e di e en linguis ic de ices ha signal cons i uen s ha a e old and new. In some cases,
he linguis ic s uc u e ha he w i e uses depend upon wha he hinks his eade al eady knows
and wha he is ying o communica e as new in o ma ion. Halliday (1994) sugges ed ha he
in o ma ion ma ked as old in a sen ence should usually co espond o he poin e . This
demons a es he ac ha , such co espondences acili a e comp ehension by examining some
linguis ic schema s uc u es, o mal schema pa e ns and pe haps he con en o a discou se ha
explici ly ma ked he old and he new in o ma ion in a sen ence.
In eading ins uc ion, we o en alks abou h ee di e en kinds o connec ions ha eade s make
o he ex :
Tex - o-Sel
When a eade makes a ex - o-sel connec ion, he is d awing upon his own pe sonal li e
expe iences o connec wi h he ex . Fo example, a eade may say, “Hey”, I ha e been o he
beach be o e and my dad and I walked along he sho e looking o s a ish p io o eading a book
abou he seasho e. Ques ions ha acili a e making ex - o-sel connec ions: Has his o some hing
like his e e happened o me? How simila o di e en is his o my li e? Wha does his emind
me o in my own li e?
Tex - o-Tex
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A ex - o- ex connec ion occu s when a eade makes a connec ion be ween a ex ha he will be
o is eading o ano he ex . A eade may make a connec ion be ween ex s w i en by he same
au ho , a s o y o a simila gen e, o ano he book o a icle on he same opic.Ques ions ha
acili a e making ex - o- ex connec ions: Does his emind me o ano he book I ha e ead? Ha e
I ead abou his opic be o e? How is his simila o di e en om o he ex s I ha e ead?
Tex - o-Wo ld
A eade makes a ex - o-wo ld connec ion when he connec s wha he is eading o ideas and e en s
occu ing in he wo ld. Reade s ha e ideas o how he wo ld wo ks ha go beyond pe sonal
expe iences and wha was ead in p e ious ex s. Reade s lea n abou he wo ld and e en s h ough
a a ie y o media and o he means such as con e sa ions wi h o he s.
Using Schema Theo y o De elop Reading Comp ehension
The ollowing a e he s eps o de eloping eading comp ehension ia schema heo y as sugges ed
by he esea che :
i. Decide on he eading comp ehension passage ( opic)
ii. Engage he s uden s in ho ough b ains o ming a ound he opic
iii. W i e down ela ed lexical i ems based on he b ains o m
i . Discuss issues ha a e ela ed o he eading comp ehension passage
. Allow he s uden s o isualize ound ela ed issues discussed-d awing in e ences o men al
pic u e o he ex which is abou o be ead
i. Reading o he comp ehension passage p ope ly
ii. Ca y ou comp ehension moni o ing: This in ol es checking o no icing wha you a e doing
when you a e eading and also being awa e o how you do i (also called me a-cogni ion o
hinking abou how you ead).
iii. Make a ex - o-sel connec ion o wha you a e eading by d awing upon you pe sonal li e
expe ience
ix. Make a ex - o- ex connec ion by ela ing ex A (P e ious ex s udied) wi h ex B (P esen
eading comp ehension ex )
LINGUISTIC SCHEMA: A CATALYST FOR IMPROVING JSS TWO STUDENTS
PERFORMANCE IN READING FOR LITERAL COMPREHENSION IN ZARIA
METROPOLIS
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x. Make a ex - o-wo ld connec ion by ela ing ideas o e en s you a e eading wi h he wo ld
(con en schema)
xi. Recall: Think abou impo an poin s you ead abou and connec o o he expe ience o
inc ease you comp ehension abili y
xii. A emp he eading comp ehension ques ions
Theo e ical F ame wo k
The eading p ocess is la gely unconscious. People a e awa e o he ou come o comp ehending a
ex bu no how he ou come was achie ed. The heo y o eading is based on connec ion made so
as o simula e he eading p ocess a a le el ha in ui ion does no easily pene a e. This s udy
howe e , elies s ongly on schema heo y as discussed abo e.
Resea ch Me hodology
This s udy adop ed Quasi-expe imen al design which will comp ise o wo g oups. Con ol g oup
and expe imen al g oup.
Popula ion and Sampling P ocedu e
All he Junio Seconda y School s uden s in Za ia Local Go e nmen A ea o Kaduna S a e
cons i u ed he a ge popula ion o he s udy. The s udy u ilized pu posi e andom sampling.
Go e nmen Junio Seconda y School Gyallesu and Go e nmen Junio Seconda y School Aminu
a e selec ed ou o he en i e popula ion o he s udy and i is conside ed adequa e because i me
he s a is ical equi emen s o popula ion sampling acco ding o Fowle (1988). The s uden s ha
o m he sample popula ion we e pu posely d awn om JSS 2.
Table 3.1: Numbe o s uden s D awn om Schools
Vol 2, No 1 SEPTEMBER, 2023: Language Re iew: An In e na ional Jou nal o Linguis ics
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Schools
Numbe o S uden Pe class
Numbe o S uden s d awn om
each G oup
GJSS Aminu
JSS 2A
2B
2C
89
90
91
60
GJSS Gyellesu
TOTAL
90 97 93
179 187 184
60
120
Table 3.1 indica ed ha 120 s uden s we e d awn om bo h school. This is because he en i e
popula ion canno be s udied as i would ha e ad e se e ec on he e iciency o he analysis. 60
o which o med he expe imen al g oup, while he o he 60, he con ol g oup. JSS 2A, B and C
in GJSS, Aminu a e he expe imen al g oups while 2A, B and C in GJSS, Gyallesu a e he con ol
g oups espec i ely.
Resea ch Ins umen
In o de o de e mine he e ec s o linguis ic schema on JSS s uden ’s pe o mance in eading o
li e al comp ehension, he ins umen used o his s udy is a eading comp ehension es .
Da a Collec ion P ocedu es
The me hod o da a collec ion in ol es adminis e ing o eading comp ehension es o he sampled
s uden s. In adminis e ing he ins umen o ga he da a, p ocedu al s eps will be aken.
S ep One: P e-Tes
A passage will be augh by he sampled eache in he wo schools. Teache s will use he
echniques hey no mally employ o each eading comp ehension a e which comp ehension
ques ions will be adminis e ed o es how well s uden s unde s ood he passage. Ma ks awa ded
will be p ope ly iled. The essence o he p e- es is o de e mine he s uden s’ p elimina y eading
abili y be o e conduc ing ea men
S ep Two: T ea men
