15
Sous la di ec ion de
Flo en MICHELOT e Simon COLLIN
P é ace de
Daniel Pe aya
La compé ence
numé ique en
con ex e éduca i
Rega ds c oisés
e pe spec i es in e na ionales
Sous la di ec ion de
Flo en MICHELOT e Simon COLLIN
La compé ence numé ique
en con ex e éduca i
Sous la di ec ion de
Flo en MICHELOT e Simon COLLIN
P é ace de
Daniel Pe aya
La compé ence
numé ique en
con ex e éduca i
Rega ds c oisés
e pe spec i es in e na ionales
Ca alogage a an publica ion de Biblio hèque e A chi es na ionales du Québec
e Biblio hèque e A chi es Canada
Ti e : La compé ence numé ique en con ex e éduca i : ega ds c oisés e pe spec i es
in e na ionales / sous la di ec ion de Flo en Michelo e Simon Collin.
Noms : Michelo , Flo en , 1982- édi eu in ellec uel. | Collin, Simon, 1982- édi eu in ellec uel.
Collec ions : Fo ma ion à dis ance (P esses de l’Uni e si é du Québec) ; 15.
Desc ip ion : Men ion de collec ion : Fo ma ion à dis ance = Dis ance Lea ning ; 15 | Comp end
des é é ences bibliog aphiques.
Iden i ian s : Canadiana 20240025369 | ISBN 9782760561465 (PDF)
Vede es-ma iè e : RVM : Technologies de l’in o ma ion e de la communica ion pou l’éduca ion. |
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Classi ica ion : LCC LB1028.43.C635 2024 | CDD 371.33/4—dc23
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23
Quali ying Educa o s o
De eloping C i ical Thinking
A Sys ema ic F amewo k
Di k JAHN, and Alina KAISER
wi h he Suppo o Luisa BÜCHER, Till LINK, and Hannah LENK
Dimension co e ed
De eloping c i ical hinking wi h ega d o he use o digi al echnology
Keywo ds
C i ical hinking; eache aining; empi ical indings; sys ema ic app oach
School le els co e ed
Seconda y; pos -seconda y (college, uni e si y)
Abs ac
As c i ical hinking (CT) has become mo e impo an as an essen ial skill o he
21s cen u y, he e a e many di e en cou ses o educa o s in nume ous speci ic
ields ha in end o u n educa o s in o e ec i e CT acili a o s. Which p og ams
ca e o high-quali y lea ning expe iences ha eally enhance eaching skills and
mindse s o os e CT p o essionally, and which do no ? Cu en esea ch has no
much o o e o add ess ha ques ion (Janssen e al., 2019). The e o e, we a emp
o na ow his concep ual and empi ical hia us wi h a quali a i e s udy o gi e clea
c i e ia and unde s anding o e alua ing o de eloping e ec i e aining concep s
o educa o s.
Résumé
La pensée c i ique é an de enue une compé ence essen ielle pou le 21ᵉ siècle, il
exis e de nomb eux cou s des inés aux pédagogues, dans de nomb eux domaines
spéci iques, isan à ai e de ces de nie s des acili a eu s en ma iè e de pensée
c i ique. Quels son les p og ammes qui p oposen des expé iences d’app en issage
de hau e quali é qui amélio en éellemen les compé ences e les men ali és des
enseignan s a in de a o ise la pensée c i ique de maniè e p o essionnelle, e quels
son ceux qui ne le on pas ? Les a aux de eche che ac uels n’on pas g and-
chose à o i pou épond e à ce e ques ion (Janssen e al., 2019). Pa conséquen ,
nous en ons de édui e ce hia us concep uel e empi ique a ec une é ude quali a i e
La compé ence numé ique en con ex e éduca i
466
a in de p opose des c i è es, ainsi qu’une comp éhension clai e pou é alue ou
dé eloppe des concep s de o ma ion e icaces à des ina ion des pédagogques.
n he ace o apid and d as ic global changes and challenges such as digi aliza ion,
global wa ming, species ex inc ion, o he sp ead o zoonosis, c i ical hinking
(CT) cu en ly appea s o be o pa icula impo ance among he needed skills o
he 21s cen u y in Wes e n coun ies (Fadel e al., 2017). Se e al coun ies ha e
go e nmen al educa ional p og ams, policies, and s a egies ha conside de eloping
CT as one o he mos c ucial skills in he 21s cen u y. Examples a e Quebec’s
elabo a ed Digi al Compe ency F amewo k o he Fou -C model, s emming om he U.S.
ini ia i e P21 (Pa ne ship o 21s Cen u y Lea ning), which is p omo ed by he
O ganiza ion o Economic Co-ope a ion and De elopmen (OECD) and ha e been
a ac ing a en ion in he Uni ed S a es and Eu ope o se e al yea s. Bu how should
hese c i ical CT skills and disposi ions be de eloped? I is indispu able ha he
educa ional sys em and i s educa o s ha e a c ucial ole in suppo ing s uden s o
become independen and c i ical hinke s. CT is an expec ed lea ning ou come. A he
same ime, his is a majo challenge. Al hough he e is a di e se and ich body o
scien i ic li e a u e a ailable on heo e ical concep s o CT and on he e ec i eness o
me hods and de eloping s a egies (see, o example, he me a-analysis o Ab ami e
al., 2015), esea ch on how educa o s should be ained o os e ing CT, howe e ,
seems unde ep esen ed (Jahn, 2012; Janssen e al., 2019).1
The e o e, in his pape , we a emp o na ow down his concep ual and empi ical
hia us. The aim is o cons uc and elabo a e a amewo k o he quali ica ion o
educa o s who wan o de elop CT in hei ield wi h espec o he use o digi al
media. The amewo k will mainly add ess he quali ica ion o educa o s who wo k
wi h adolescen and adul s uden s in “ o mal” educa ion p ocesses in seconda y and
highe educa ion.
We will cons uc he amewo k by d awing on Jahn’s esea ch and expe ience (a
design-based esea ch s udy om 2012, publica ions om 2014 and 2022) and expand
i wi h insigh s om new quali a i e expe in e iews and u he esea ch esul s. The
amewo k will add ess c ucial ques ions o he design o aining p og ams o
educa o s.
1 This hesis is suppo ed by he ci ed esou ces. To ensu e he accu acy o ha s a emen , we esea ched
li e a u e on ou own, using he da abases ERIC (Educa ion esou ces in o ma ion cen e ) and he
Ge man educa ion esea ch po al: o ge he mos sui able esul s we ocused du ing ou sea ch on he
e ms “ aining,” “ eache s,” and “c i ical hinking.” The sea ch on “ aining o os e ing c i ical
hinking,” o example, ound mo e han 100 publica ions in he educa ion esea ch po al and mo e han
20,000 in he ERIC da abase on Ma ch 30, 2023. Howe e , he e iew o he i s en pages espec i ely
did no show any ele an esul s o ou esea ch ques ions. In mos cases, he p ima y ocus is on he
need o and impo ance o CT p omo ion and he implemen a ion o CT in he class oom, bu no on
how pedagogical p o essionals can be p omo ed o os e ing CT. Due o he la ge amoun o da a, i was
no possible o look h ough e e y documen . The e o e, i is possible ha we ha e o e looked some hing
despi e an ex ensi e sea ch.
I
The digi al compe ency in ques ion
1. How should eache s be quali ied o os e CT skills and each hem in hei
indi idual eaching p ac ice?
Chapi e 23 / Quali ying Educa o s o De eloping C i ical Thinking
467
1 Empi ical E idence on he Impo ance o Educa o T aining o
E ec i e CT Ins uc ion
1.1 Two B anches o Resea ch on C i ical Thinking
The e is a owe ing in e na ional amoun o esea ch on many di e en aspec s o
c i ical hinking a ailable hese days, anging om small empi ical s udies o
comp ehensi e me a-analyses and elabo a ed heo ies ( o an o e iew, see Cu sio and
Jahn, 2021; Jahn, 2012).
One b anch o his discou se is mo e dedica ed o cons uc ing heo ies, and i
ocuses on he na u e, concep s, and ounda ions o CT as an objec . These wo ks deal
wi h concep ual, heo e ical, and phenomenological conside a ions such as he
cogni i e (Halpe n, 2007) and pe o ma i e p ocesses o CT (Ga ison & Ande son,
2003; B ook ield, 1987), hinking s yles and c i e ia o CT (e.g., Paul and Elde , 2003),
a i udes and ai s o a c i ical hinke (Facione, 1990), e c.
In his line o wo k, he equi emen s, challenges, and con ex s o he CT p ocess
a e also discussed and analyzed. Fo ins ance, CT demands a ce ain kind o senso y
and emo ional expe ience, i.e. ge ing in ouch wi h a segmen o he wo ld in a
esonan o dissonan way, which hen leads he indi idual in o he ongoing
ans o ma i e p ocess o c i ical hough and ac ion (Dewey, 1933; B ook ield, 1987;
Ga ison & A che , 2003). Recen ly, cogni i e biases due o men al e ec s like
aming, p iming, o ancho ing ha e been he ocus o ha line o CT concep s, wi h
he goal o iden i ying and b eaking i a ional hough pa e ns and aps inhe en in
hinking (see, e.g., Pe e sson, 2020).
Bu CT does no ake place only in seclusion o in one pe son’s mind and body. I
also akes place and un olds in discussions, ac ions, and in e ac ions wi h o he s and
he wo ld (B ook ield & P eskill, 2005). He e, ideas and claims o u h a e exchanged,
c i icized, o es ed. They ha e o li e up o hei p omises in ac ion. CT also occu s
while he body is in mo emen , o example, while walking in he woods o on a bicycle
ou , when he mind is a ease and ee om all dis ac ions (Cu sio & Jahn, 2022).
These and u he insigh s abou he p ocess o CT and i s condi ions gi e clues abou
de eloping se ings and s a egies, in which CT can be nu u ed. Va ious e sions o
CT wi h di e en goals ha e sp ung om ha s and o esea ch/ heo y om
di e en ields like psychology, philosophy, o neu oscience, da ing back a leas o
he ea ly 20 h cen u y and John Dewey (Jahn, 2019). On a b oade concep ual le el,
CT can be unde s ood as pa o a ans o ma i e p ocess in which an indi idual
applies analy ical (e.g., logical, in e en ial, me hodological, epis emological, e c.) and
e hical modes o hinking. They ake on di e en pe spec i es, pu hemsel es in o he
beings’ posi ions and e alua e, c ea e, and es assump ions and ideas in o de o
e en ually come up wi h in o med judgemen s, ac ions and a iche unde s anding o
a segmen o he wo ld. Tha implies, o example, becoming awa e o undamen al
2. Wha a e he main design p inciples and objec i es o he cons uc ion o a
CT in e en ion ha quali ies educa o s?
3. Wha ole can digi al media play in CT quali ica ion p og ams?
La compé ence numé ique en con ex e éduca i
468
assump ions abou a gi en issue o expe ience om di e en pe spec i es and soundly
e alua ing hese assump ions ha ame expe ience on a logical, empi ical,
epis emological, aes he ical, e hical, and cons uc i e le el in o de o judge, decide,
and ac mo e independen ly and esponsibly (Jahn, 2019). Rega ding digi al media
con en , his could mean analyzing no only he gi en explici in o ma ion con aining
o al o w i en speech on a logical o empi ical le el bu also aking a deepe look a
he way a message is con eyed o p esen ed. Images, isualiza ions, pain ings, pho os,
sound eco dings, collages, memes, ideos and he like o en ha e a much g ea e
impac in e ms o g ipping us emo ionally, shaking us up, ou aging us, dis u bing and
e en in luencing us. In he age o syn he ically c ea ed media, which can be p oduced
e e mo e easily, quickly and p o essionally wi h gene a i e AI (keywo d “deep akes”),
c i ical hinking is inc easingly needed and challenged. Howe e , he analysis he e
wo ks wi h di e en c i e ia and s a egies han is he case wi h he a o emen ioned
logical, empi ical and epis emological examina ion. Ques ions a e on how some hing
is s aged and p esen ed (use o edi ing, pe spec i e, sound and music, ligh , colo s,
con as s, a angemen , e c.), wha is no shown (bu would be ele an ) o on how
some hing is pe cei ed o is in ended o pe cei e. Fu he , he u h alue o wha is
shown is e lec ed in di e en ca ego ies. In his mode, c i ical hinking becomes
c i ical-aes he ic analysis. In he con ex o p omo ing media li e acy (see Baacke, 1996;
Che y e al., 2017), lea ne s should, o example, be enabled o c i ically engage wi h
(digi al) media – whe he as ecipien s o as use s. This is also one o he main goals
o Quebec’s Digi al Compe ency F amewo k and i s 12 in e dependen key dimensions.2
He e, CT is also abou he explici and implici consequences and isks o digi al media
use. Fo example, i you always o ien you sel wi h a na iga ion de ice, you migh
soon lose you bea ings. CT, in his con ex , is also abou unde s anding he
mechanisms, po en ials, and isks o digi al media. Fo example, social media
algo i hms o en lush up pos s o he i s places ha a e clicked o liked he mos .
Howe e , he mos appealing con en does no necessa ily cons i u e he mos well-
ounded, balanced, o objec i e con ibu ions bu o en he mos aes he ic,
emo ionalizing, o simpli ying ones.
Tha leads us o he second b anch o esea ch and o he ques ion o how CT can
be ained, os e ed, o assessed e ec i ely. On a me hodological le el, nume ous
s udies ha add ess he ques ion ely on empi ical es ing o pedagogical in e en ions.
Many o hese s udies ocus on he e ec i eness o di e en ins uc ional app oaches
and s a egies, didac ical me hods and condi ions o success ul CT p omo ion, CT
ins uc ion p inciples, he ole o digi al media in os e ing CT, s a egies o p ope CT
assessmen , e c. Insigh s gained om his b anch ha e shed ligh on some highly
deba ed ques ions conside ing e ec i e CT ins uc ion s a egies. On an ins uc ional
o me hodological le el, me a-s udies sugges ha in o de o inc ease he p obabili y
o success, i is i al o wo k wi h discussion-based lea ning o ma s (Soc a ic
ques ioning and p o-con a deba e, among o he s) o make use o au hen ic ins uc ion
scena ios (case s udies, simula ions, ole plays, e c.), o o combine hese wo o ma s
and o add men o ing app oaches (like modelling CT) (Ab ami e al., 2015). These
esul s hold ue o lea ne s o nea ly all ages and ela e no only o eaching and
lea ning in in-pe son o ma s. In addi ion o hese, plen y o s udies ha e also indica ed
ha specially designed, s imula ing sel -lea ning ac i i ies like e lec i e w i ing and
c i ical eading, among o he s, can also help o p omo e CT (see Meye s, 1986; Van
2 The Digi al Compe ency F amewo k is a ailable unde : h p://www.educa ion.gou .qc.ca/en/cu en -
ini ia i es/digi al-ac ion-plan/digi al-compe ency- amewo k/
Chapi e 23 / Quali ying Educa o s o De eloping C i ical Thinking
469
Gelde , 2001; Moon, 2008). This also applies o well-c a ed and ca ied ou eaching-
and lea ning scena ios ha a e en iched by digi al media o a e comple ely
implemen ed wi h digi al media (using me hods and p inciples o au hen ic o
ancho ed ins uc ion, dialogue, men o ing, o indi idual s udy – o example, wi h e-
po olios, WebQues s, se ious games, and so on [ o an o e iew, see Cu sio and
Jahn, 2021]).
1.2 The Impac o Teache T aining
Ha dly su p ising, Ab ami e al. (2008) ha e also shown ha aining eache s o CT
ins uc ion can ha e a s ong e ec on ins uc ion quali y and ask designs and hence
success ul CT p omo ion. Based on a li e a u e e iew o 117 quan i a i e,
he e ogeneous s udies om 1960 o 2005 on he p omo ion o CT – mos o which
used s anda dized and accep ed es s o assess CT —, Ab ami and colleagues (2008)
demons a ed ha he p epa a ion o educa o s o os e ing CT plays a c ucial ole
o e ec i e p omo ion: he in e en ion “ins uc o ecei ed aining” (k = 16 s udies,
SE = 0,04) showed a e y high a e age sco e o e ec size (g = 1.0) ha ou sco ed
many o he in e en ions such as ce ain CT ins uc ion app oaches (e.g., in usion
app oach, g = 0,54) o s a egies like in eg a ing clea and p ecise CT objec i es in o
he cu iculum (g = 0,13) (Ab ami e al., 2008, p. 1119.) When ins uc o s a end special
ainings as p epa a ion o eaching CT (p e-se ice and in-se ice), he p obabili y
ha hey will achie e quali a i e and success ul ins uc ion o CT s ongly inc eases:
Ma in (2005), o example, e iewed mul iple s udies ha analyzed e ec s o CT
ins uc ion aining o eache s on hei eaching s yles. He concluded ha eache s
who ake pa in hese ainings use mo e discussion-based lea ning scena ios (asking
open-ended ques ions and he like), model CT mo e o en, and so on (2005).
These esul s a e cohesi e wi h quali a i e and quan i a i e s udies on eache s’
p epa edness o CT in e en ion in di e en coun ies ha did no ecei e special
aining o os e ing CT. These s udies mos ly ocused on eache s’ unde s anding o
CT (concep cla i y) and CT ins uc ion knowledge and skills. Some ecen as well as
olde s udies om a ious coun ies sugges ha i is likely ha eache s wi hou
special aining (p e-se ice o in-se ice) ha e no clea and elabo a ed concep and
unde s anding o CT (Paul e al., 1997; As lei ne e al., 2002; G übel, 2010; Janke, 2021;
S edman & Adams, 2012). Hence, i can be di icul o eache s o de i e clea lea ning
objec i es ela ed o CT and e ec i ely design and deli e lea ning expe iences ha
enhance CT skills and disposi ions o he s uden s. In some s udies, eache s e en go
es ed in hei CT skills and did no sco e much be e han hei s uden s did, whom
did no sco e e y well (As lei ne e al., 2002).
Fo una ely, he e has ecen ly been an in e na ional p oli e a ion o aining
cou ses, handou s, and online cou ses o educa o s in mul iple subjec a eas ha
in end o u n educa o s in o e ec i e CT eache s. A glimpse a he cou ses and
handou desc ip ions online shows ha hey a e qui e he e ogeneous in e ms o many
aspec s o CT eaching (e.g., he concep o CT, subjec speci ici y, me hods o e ed,
e c.) and also a y widely in e ms o aining design aspec s (du a ion, ype o o ma ,
deg ee o online elemen s, assessmen , e c.). I is ha d o ell which o hese cou ses
and p og ams ca e o high-quali y lea ning expe iences ha ac ually enhance eaching
skills and mindse s in o de o os e CT p o essionally. The e a e only a ew s udies
on he e ec i eness o eache aining a ailable, as desc ibed ea lie , ha show o
which deg ee eache aining can be use ul o p omo ing CT. Fo example, Janssen
La compé ence numé ique en con ex e éduca i
470
and colleagues conside hei s udy on e ec i e eache aining om 2019 o be one
o he i s e e o ocus on eache s’ CT skills and a i udes in he con ex o aining
(Janssen e al., 2019): “To he bes o ou knowledge his was he i s s udy ha
explo ed he po en ial e ec s o CT aining on eache ’s CT skills and a i udes”
(Janssen e al., 2019, p. 22).
In ha s udy, Janssen and colleagues show ha eache s no only need o be ained
in he me hods and app oaches o os e ing CT bu ha i makes sense o s eng hen
he eache s hemsel es in CT and in i s appa en ele ance. In a quasi-expe imen al
s udy, 32 eache s om he Du ch Uni e si y o Applied Sciences we e p epa ed in
h ee modules (each o h ee hou s) o p omo e CT. In he i s module, he eache s
deal in ensi ely wi h CT as a concep wi h a ocus on cogni i e biases, hei de ec ion
and a oidance in conc e e asks. The aim was o deepen eache s’ unde s anding o
wha CT is and how i wo ks. The o he wo modules aimed o emphasize he
ele ance o CT and o show how i can be p omo ed success ully. To do his, he
eache s also wen h ough exe cises in which hey de eloped and discussed hei own
asks o p omo ing CT in hei p ac ice. A e each indi idual module, eache s we e
es ed on hei acqui ed espec i e skills, o example, h ough pe o mance
assessmen (e.g., CT es s, ecognizing cogni i e biases in s uden wo k). In addi ion,
he e was a p e es be o e he aining s a ed. The ained eache s pe o med
signi ican ly be e in CT es s and in de ec ing and explaining cogni i e biases in
s uden ma e ial han hose in he con ol g oup. Al hough hese eache s we e be e
a pe o ming CT and de ec ing and explaining cogni i e biases, hey pe o med a a
a he low le el. They imp o ed only in asks o which hey ecei ed aining (no in
no el asks), and hey had p oblems explaining he de ec ed hinking laws in s uden
ma e ial, which is essen ial o gi ing eedback o he s uden and hence is an impo an
ac o o os e ing CT. Mo eo e , he al eady high- a ed a i ude owa d he ele ance
o CT could no be inc eased any u he . In addi ion, he indi idual e alua ion o how
well eache s can p omo e CT dec eased sho ly a e he i s module and hen
inc eased again (e.g., because he eache s ealized how li le hey knew and could do
abou CT).
Besides he in e es ing esul s o he inno a i e s udy, quan i a i e esea ch designs
like his wi h a s ong ocus on measu ing he gene a ed e ec s o ce ain inpu s o en
all sho o explaining p ecisely wha wo ks well and how ce ain aining elemen s
should be designed gene ally. The au ho s hemsel es s a ed: “[. . .] we canno d aw
conclusions on wha aspec s o he aining we e mos e ec i e o which ou comes”
(Janssen e al., 2019, p. 21). The s udy has shown, howe e , ha eache s need an
elabo a e idea o CT and mus be able o apply CT ou inely in hei p ac ice. Fu he ,
i is impo an ha eache s ega d os e ing CT as an impo an educa ional goal.
2 De i ing Design P inciples om Resea ch and Theo y o
E ec i e T aining Designs
2.1 In oduc ion: Model o T ans e P ocess (Baldwin & Fo d, 1988)
As indica ed be o e, he e is no much esea ch a ailable on he ques ion o how o
design e ec i e aining o CT acili a o s (Janssen, 2019), especially wi h a ocus on
using digi al media as a ool o os e ing CT in i sel and CT in he con ex o digi al
Chapi e 23 / Quali ying Educa o s o De eloping C i ical Thinking
477
dis inguished in his con ex , as well as gene al and specialized app oaches. The ole
o digi al media was add essed a he a ely and is mainly used as a me hodical ool.
4 Cons uc ing a F amewo k o Quali ying Educa o s o
Fos e ing C i ical Thinking
Ins ead o p esen ing he esul s in a a he ch onological and desc ip i e way, we
decided o s uc u e he gained insigh s in a p ac i ione - iendly manne in o de o
p o ide help ul impulses o de eloping CT quali ica ions o beginne s. The guiding
p inciple he eby is he logic o planning a wo kshop.
4.1 Gene al Aspec s
The a ge g oup o he aining a e mainly eache s o (young) adul s in seconda y o
e ia y educa ional ins i u ions. When asked abou he a ge g oup, se e al expe s
named a second a ge g oup, i.e., he one ha ul ima ely bene i s om he eache
quali ica ion. This seconda y a ge g oup also in luences he design o he aining
p og am. Expe #7 e e ed o his connec ion as a me a-le el: “. . .and i is impo an
ha we always ha e a double le el he e, and his is gene ally he case in highe
educa ion aining. So, unlike he p ima y le el o eaching, whe e eache s each
con en o s uden s, we a e dealing wi h his ained- aine le el. We enable eache s
o do some hing which hey a e hen supposed o pass on o s uden s” (Expe #7).
This also esul s in a special challenge o he pa icipan s o he quali ica ion. They,
oo, mus ake hei u u e a ge g oup in o accoun when de eloping hei own
unde s anding o CT, as ano he in e iewee explains. They ha e o hink abou how
hey ge hei a ge g oup used o CT.
Acco ding o he cou se design, he du a ion o he di e en aining p og ams
di e s as ly, anging om one-hou wo kshops o cou ses las ing se e al weeks. The
aining ime ame is usually se by ins i u ions and ends o be a he limi ed
(“E e y hing is igh ened up; you only ha e h ee hou s” [Expe #2]). Thus, he
aining design mus adap acco dingly. This is c ucial since du a ion and wo kload
signi ican ly shape he lea ning con en , cu iculum, lea ning objec i es, and me hods,
including assessmen and eedback. These consequences mus hus be conside ed
du ing cou se design: “Fi s o all, we ha e o be e y awa e o he limi s o ou
si ua ion. Wha can I possibly accomplish in his class ha mee s wice a week— o
one o men ion, igh ?” (Expe #4).
The expe s ag ee ha e y sho ainings ha e a limi ed bene i ha does no go
beyond a b ie s imulus. In his con ex , hey c i icize ha a sus ainable ans e in o
p ac ice and he de elopmen o a pe sonal unde s anding o CT can ha dly be
accomplished in b ie aining sessions. A p ac ical solu ion, men ioned by Expe s #5
and #7, could be blended lea ning concep s ha combine class oom sessions and sel -
lea ning phases in which he impa ed knowledge can be deepened o es ed. Expe
#4 emphasizes he impo ance o some o m o didac ic pos -in e en ion: “To
summa ize, you need he o ien a ion and a sys em o ollow-up.” A possible sys em
o dealing wi h limi ed ime is o encou age he aine s o implemen a weekly mee ing
o discuss and sha e hei expe iences in os e ing CT.
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4.2 CT Concep s o he Expe s
While pa icipan s o all wo kshops had o deal wi h he concep ual unde s anding
o CT, cou se ins uc o s emphasized qui e di e en concep s. To gi e some
examples: Expe #1’s unde s anding o CT is mo e ca ego ized by hinking s yles ha
e e o c i ical heo y and hey he eby emana e empowe men o s uden s. His
concep o CT is elabo a e bu plain and comp ehensible, o mula ed in a simple,
illus a i e and memo able language (e.g., checking assump ions ha in o m ac ions
and expe iences): “I end no o speak oo much abou he heo e ical backg ound.
Mos o he people I wo k wi h a e no e y in e es ed in ha . They a e in e es ed in
e y p ac ical aspec s” (Expe #1). In con as , Expe s #5 and #7 ha e elabo a ed a
a he complex model o CT o hei aining, which is amed by concep s and
e minology o logic, epis emology, e hics, aes he ics, o psychology. Expe #4 elies
on ce ain in ellec ual c i e ia om he ield o analy ic philosophy, like logic o
accu acy, which a e supposed o unc ion as a ame o e e ence o CT. His concep
o in ellec ual s anda ds seems a he like a scheme o checklis o guidelines ha can
be used o all kinds o occasions. Expe #3, on he o he hand, s essed ha he e is
no gene ally comp ehensi e concep ual app oach o CT, as i is con ex -bound.
Ra he , he pa icula , speci ic disciplina y con ex and associa ed eaching goals dic a e
wha cons i u es CT and how i is exp essed. The di e en e sions o CT and he
used e minology may be in luenced by he aine s and hei backg ounds, bu hey
migh also be aligned wi h hei espec i e a ge g oups. Teache s, o example, may
no be used o he echnical language o epis emology o cogni i e sciences. The
concep s, models, and e minology used mus i he espec i e audiences wi hou
i ializing o o e simpli ying di icul concep s o ques ions.
Essen ial Lea ning Objec i es and Aligned T aining Designs. The essen ial
lea ning objec i es wi hin aining designs can be summa ized in h ee ca ego ies:
Concep Cla i y, P ocess Cla i y and Fos e ing Readiness. A he beginning o each
pa ag aph, possible lea ning objec i es wi hin he ca ego ies o mula ed by he expe s
a e men ioned. Fu he mo e, design p inciples and examples o a p ac ical
implemen a ion ha a e used by he expe s o achie e hese lea ning objec i es a e
p esen ed.
Unde s anding CT: Concep Richness and Cla i y.
● Teache s should be able o desc ibe and elabo a e a ich unde s anding o CT
and align i wi h subjec ma e ;
● Teache s should be able o demons a e CT in au hen ic con ex s.
All in e iew pa ne s emphasized he impo ance o concep ual cla i y and
ichness o eache s. Wi h a clea and ich unde s anding o CT in mind, eache s can
much mo e p ecisely elabo a e o demons a e he skills and disposi ions hey wan o
os e in hei lessons.
By elabo a ing a clea and ich concep ualiza ion o CT, i s hinking s yles, le els,
and c i e ia, eache s will be able o o mula e lea ning objec i es ela ed o CT skills
and disposi ions. This is a undamen al s ep owa ds planning lessons a ound hese
objec i es and e alua ing hei e ec i eness – so i is assumed. Six o he se en expe s
s essed ha i is no su icien o ha e a clea gene al unde s anding o CT bu ha
educa o s need a p ecise concep o hei subjec and ield o wo k (CT in. . .), which
hey mus de elop and wo k on. “I hink one o he o he hings I’m ying o do is o
wo k om e y speci ic conc e e expe iences and ac ions ha people a e aking. I
Chapi e 23 / Quali ying Educa o s o De eloping C i ical Thinking
479
don’ each CT as a disconnec ed o emos men al analysis. [. . .] I’m always ying o
each i in he con ex o he speci ic decisions and ac ions ha people a e acing”
(Expe #4). Expe #3 akes a simila iew: “I hink ha , o me, i is he key o c i ical
hinking in any a ea o he disciplina y amewo k.”
A he same ime, i is impo an o be awa e ha one is aking a limi ed pe spec i e
wi hin his disciplina y amewo k. In his espec , Expe #7 calls o a egula c i ical
examina ion o one’s own hough p ocesses. “So i ’s always abou gene a ing a
e lexi e le el. So ha people always hink: ‘Wha did I jus assume o wha did I no
conside ?’” (Expe #7).
Expe #1’s ins uc ions o CT, which summa ize he impo an basic hinking
s eps, can be applied he e.
I hink ha he co e p ocess ha is en ailed is becoming awa e o
assump ions ha guide ac ions and ha ame he decisions and judgmen s
ha we make. I is subjec ing hose assump ions o some kind o app aisal
whe eby we decide ha he assump ions a e accu a e and, alid and well-
g ounded o ha hey need u he in es iga ion o pe haps ha hey a e
no jus i ied in he si ua ion we ind ou sel es. So, he co e p ocess would
be examining assump ions, esea ching, and app aising assump ions.
(Expe #1)
Designs P inciples o Achie e Concep Richness and Cla i y. Al hough all
expe s emphasized ha concep cla i y is c ucial o os e ing CT, he p ocess o
achie ing his is handled di e en ly in aining wi h di e en audiences. A mino i y o
he expe s ope a e in a media ing push-modus in hei aining: hey p esen mo e o
less elabo a ed concep s o CT, which he pa icipan s should in e nalize, apply o hei
subjec and ield o educa ion, and some imes demons a e hemsel es in au hen ic
con ex s. The o e is ealized in an induc i e and deduc i e way: he induc i e app oach
leads om conc e e, au hen ic si ua ions o which he pa icipan s a e exposed and on
which hey e lec – o example, ambiguous si ua ions ha pa icipan s expe ienced
in p o essional o p i a e se ings – o he applica ion o ce ain CT s yles ha a e
help ul o unde s and he au hen ic si ua ion be e . These a e hen made isible and
explici by he aine s. F om he e, a concep ual supe s uc u e is some imes
in oduced. In he deduc i e app oach, he gene al p inciples, le els, o c i e ia o CT a e
p esen ed wi hou con ex and hen applied o au hen ic si ua ions. Those in e iew
pa ne s ha had a e y closed and c i e ia-d i en concep o CT (#4) pu much e o
in making hese c i e ia isible ia lec u es on hese concep s and ia exe cises in which
pa icipan s demons a ed hei applica ion and con on a ion wi h hese c i e ia. The
goal was o de elop he abili y o analyze p oblems based on hese hinking s anda ds
and hus make in elligen decisions. The hinking s anda ds included c i e ia such as
cla i y, accu acy, o logic. In addi ion, pa icipan s a e made awa e o he impo ance
o CT and a e mo i a ed o use and p omo e i . This can be encou aged by showing ha
CT is an essen ial lea ning compe ence o he espec i e subjec and p oblem-sol ing
compe ence o he lea ne ’s e e yday li e, be i a wo k, as a ci il ci izen o as a p i a e
pe son.
O he expe s a he ollow a pull modus. They do no wan he pa icipan s o
commi on a speci ic model bu push hem o come up wi h hei own concep s and
e sions o CT i ing o hei espec i e ield and subjec : hey ask he pa icipan s o
elabo a e and de ine CT on a gene al basis and in hei speci ic subjec o ield o wo k.
Expe #3, o example, does no e en p esen a concep o CT a all. Ins ead, lec u e s
La compé ence numé ique en con ex e éduca i
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in highe educa ion om di e en backg ounds de elop an unde s anding o CT in
hei ield in phases o sel -s udy. In a second s ep, hese unde s andings a e u he
cla i ied and imp o ed in an ongoing p ocess o discussion and e lec ion wi h pee s
and he aine . In compa ison o he o he ainings, he ins uc o akes a ese ed
ole. He classi ies he pa icipan s and hei discussions, he c i icism p ac iced in each
case, and he join s uggle o a sui able p ac ice o p omo ing CT as mo i a ing and
pa icula ly insigh ul.
Expe s #5 and #7 de eloped a mixed app oach o push and pull in an induc i e
s yle. Fi s , hey s imula e hinking abou CT in gene al ia p omp s in sel -s udy and
w i en assignmen s (e.g., pa icipan s mus de ine CT in gene al and in hei ield).
Then, hey analyze, sys ema ize, clus e and isualize he esul s o all pa icipan s ia
Padle o o he pinboa d ools o ge an o e iew o he concep ual unde s anding o
all pa icipan s. In he nex s ep, hey discuss and e lec on ha o e iew wi h he
g oup and in oduce hei comp ehensi e and ex ensi e model o CT le els and
hinking s yles, o which he pa icipan s can adjus hei concep s. In a join e o ,
he g oup de elops i s own concep o CT, which is hen compa ed o a
comp ehensible model. In hei opinion, i is help ul o ha e a di e se g oup wi h
di e en concep ions o CT om di e en ields which discuss he di e en
pe spec i es o CT. Thus, demons a ing he di e si y o concep ual app oaches (e.g.,
logic, philosophy o science, e hics, cogni i e biases, and so on) can posi i ely
in luence e e y single unde s anding o CT and educe one-sided concep ualiza ions.
Expe #5 epo ed, o example, a sligh endency in some b anches o na u al science
o omi he e hical side o CT. A concep ualiza ion can hen be help ul in ecognizing
he impo ance o ce ain aspec s o CT and in eg a ing hem. Expe #6 also wo ks
wi h ha induc i e, con ex -sensi i e app oach: In he i s s ep, pa icipan s e lec on
and explica e hei de ini ion o CT. F om his indi idual pe spec i e, she mo es on
and ocuses on he espec i e science and inhe en eaching and lea ning cul u es o
he pa icipan s and how CT skills become isible in he pe o mance o he espec i e
s uden s. F om he e, when pa icipan s ha e adjus ed and discussed he di e en
cha ac e is ics and exp essions o CT and e lec ed on hem, she in oduces a gene al
and uni ying model o CT.
All expe s use di e en ways o illus a e, expe ience, and exe cise CT a wo k. Expe #5
le s he pa icipan s expe ience ce ain c i ical and unc i ical hinking s yles, o
example, by exposing hem o exe cises in which hey can ins inc i ely lea n how
ce ain cogni i e biases, like he ancho ing e ec o p iming, can ame o dis o hei
own hough p ocesses. Fo illus a ion, some expe s wo k wi h au hen ic s uden
a i ac s (essays) ha demons a e c i ical and con used hinking on di e en le els.
Being designed o highe educa ion, he cou se aims o p o ide pa icipan s wi h a
b oad o e iew o he adi ions and pe spec i es o CT and o e s a concep ual
unde s anding o he highe educa ion con ex . To ge an unde s anding o CT in
ela ion o he epis emological de elopmen o he s uden s, he pape s o be analyzed
co e he spec um be ween unc i ical and high-le el CT as unde s ood by he expe .
Pa icipan s a e encou aged o cla i y ce ain e minology wi hin hei own discipline
and o de elop an unde s anding o CT in hei own con ex . O he in e iew pa ne s
wo k wi h exe cises in which CT mus be applied, e alua ed, and demons a ed. Expe
#1, o example, used me hods like Scena io Analysis o Pe sonal Re lec ion
Exe cises, mos ly consis ing o s imula ing cases (pa icipan s’ own o in en ed) and
e lec i e ques ions ha in i e pa icipan s o hink c i ically abou hese challenging
expe iences o cases. The expe models and illus a es CT ac i i ies ha he iden i ied
Chapi e 23 / Quali ying Educa o s o De eloping C i ical Thinking
481
in he wo kshop by p esen ing and s uc u ing he hough s and assump ions o
pa icipan s collec ed h ough he me hods he used. The aining design o Expe #1
s ongly elies on sel -expe ience in he applica ion o CT. Mos o his me hods p omp
e lec ion on one’s own ( u u e) p o essional p ac ice as an educa o . In some o he
ainings (#3, #5, #7), pa icipan s a e also eques ed o o mula e lea ning objec i es o
hei u u e lessons ha e e o ce ain CT skills o disposi ions wi hin hei subjec .
This is ano he me hod o ge he pa icipan s o hink and alk abou CT wi h espec
o hei subjec .
Discussions, coope a i e eedback, and e lec ion on CT as a concep and i s meaning o
eaching in each case and subjec play a c ucial ole in all expe s’ cou se designs.
Th ough hese p inciples and he espec i e app oaches and me hods, he aining
should p o ide an in-dep h elabo a ion o wha CT means and wha i could mean in
he espec i e subjec cul u es and con ex s, which can be seen as an impo an
ans e e o . Fu he mo e, in all ainings, pa icipan s a e in i ed o expe ience a
leas ce ain s eps o a CT p ocess by expe iencing me hods and ac i i ies ha p omo e
CT on hei own. This leads hem o demons a e, apply, and model CT in au hen ic
con ex s. Some o he expe s indica ed ha discussing and e lec ing on CT concep s
a e also impo an o imp o ing eache s’ CT.
Unde s anding CT in Ac ion: P ocess Richness and Cla i y.
● Teache s should be able o explain he p ocess o CT holis ically (e.g., om a
cogni i e, emo ional, social, o pe o ma i e pe spec i e) and be able o
desc ibe he di e en s eps and ac ions he pe son akes in he p ocess, he
inhe en equi ed condi ions, and possible challenges on a gene al basis and
also in hei conc e e subjec -con ex s.
Some o he in e iew pa ne s (#1, #4, #5, #7) s essed ha i is no enough o
in e nalize and adop he concep o CT as a me ely cogni i e phenomenon, a b ain
p ocess like hinking in ce ain in ellec ual c i e ia. Ins ead, eache s mus deeply
unde s and he p ocess o CT in ac ion om an in e nal and ex e nal s uden
pe spec i e – a holis ic ans o ma i e, cogni i e, and bodily e en in which he
hinke goes h ough di e en a ec i e, emo ional, o a ional phases and akes on
di e en ac ions o discou se, in e ac ion, in es iga ion, explo a ion, e alua ion,
es ing ou ideas and decisions wi h o he s, e lec ing in soli ude, e c. (see chap e 2.1)4.
“The pa icipan s who unde go such a p ocess o c i ical hinking should be e y ac i e
and casual, ha hey also eally y o b eak i down o p ac ice, o adap i , o hink
abou how i looks and how i could look o me, ha ’s how I see i ” (Expe #5).
Only when eache s know abou he condi ions, s eps, ac ions, o challenges ha CT
as a ans o ma i e p ocess o lea ning and change eques s o h i e, hey can
unde s and and de i e i ing eaching s a egies and design lea ning si ua ions ha
os e CT in he espec i e and indi idual phases. Fo example, conside ing he basic
condi ions o CT o g ow means nu u ing a clima e o mu ual espec , app ecia ion,
and unde s anding, in which e e y social o cul u al backg ound is welcomed as
en ichmen , whe e expe iences, opinions, assump ions, and ideas can be sha ed
4 The p ocess o CT is o en p esen ed in he li e a u e in phase models, which desc ibe wha s uden s
expe ience and do in he di e en s eps o he p ocess and he skills and disposi ions ha a e needed o
succeed in each o hese phases. The models o en ha e a ou -s ep o i e-s ep linea s uc u e, which is
as ollows: eeling o a disc epancy, which is caused by ce ain expe ienced e en s o obse a ions,
explo ing he phenomenon, e acua ion, coming up wi h plans o ac ions and es ing hem in he eal
wo ld.
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482
wi hou he ea o ep ession om pee s o he eache (in o m o g ades o a loss
o acknowledgemen o example) and whe e making mis akes o jux aposing no
longe alid wo ld iews is alued.
Designs P inciples o Achie e P ocess Cla i y. In e iew pa ne #5 indica ed ha
o demons a e and discuss he p ocess o CT, i is help ul o wo k wi h models ha
can i idly depic and illus a e he complex and mul ilaye ed p ocess o CT. This
allows pa icipan s o eally g asp and concei e wha CT as a eal-li e phenomenon is
abou – wi h ega d o he hinke , hei ac ions, he ole o e lec ion, he
p e equisi es, he in lux o he en i onmen , and so on.
Al hough he e a e gene al models a ailable, o example, he CT Model o
S ephen B ook ield (1987) o he P ac ical Inqui y Model by Ga ison and A che
(2000), ha gi e many p ac ical hin s o pedagogical endea ou s, In e iew pa ne
#4 emphasized ha eache s should de elop hei own p ocess models o hei subjec s and
con ex s in o de o enable a be e ans e . In his wo kshop, pa icipan s ha e o
de elop and isualize hei own CT p ocess models ha a e highly connec ed o he
espec i e subjec and unde s anding o CT – in line wi h he lea ning objec i es
pu sued.
Th ough eedback and discussions, pa icipan s con inually cons uc and imp o e
hei models in se e al mee ings in o de o i idly illus a e he ideal- ypical p ocess
o CT o a speci ic subjec ma e , e.g., CT in his o ical s udies. In e iew pa ne #5
discusses gene al p ocess models wi h he pa icipan s and highligh s ce ain didac ical
implica ions ha can be de i ed om hese models, o example, he need o se ing
up a good lea ning clima e in which lea ne s do no ha e o ea cons ain s o g ading
o he p essu e o say he “ igh hing.” Then, he pa icipan s a e in i ed o de elop
hei own models. They isualize hei app oaches on lipcha s o Powe Poin s and hen
p esen hem o he audience membe s who also play he ole o s uden s. Wi h his
exe cise, eache s can check i hei models a e comp ehensible and comple e. The
inalized models could hen be used in class o demons a e CT p ocesses.
Some in e iew pa ne s also ely on sel -expe ience as a design p inciple o he
wo kshop (#1, #5, #6, #7). By s uc u ing he aining a leas pa ly in acco dance
wi h he phases o he CT p ocess (e.g., igge ing e en , explo a ion, in eg a ion and
esolu ion/ac ion), pa icipan s expe ience pa s o he CT p ocess on hei own.
Th ough e lec ion and discussion, hey come o an unde s anding o how he p ocess
eels like and can be os e ed.
P omo ing CT P omo ion: Skills and A i udes.
● Teache s should be able o apply eaching s yles and me hods ha suppo CT
a he app op ia e s age (me hod skills in he class oom);
● Teache s should be able o design eaching and lea ning en i onmen s ha
s imula e CT a he app op ia e s age (design skills p io o class oom
in e ac ions);
● Teache s should cul i a e a p o essional a i ude and mindse o os e ing CT
( ole o he eache , eaching and lea ning).
These lea ning objec i es show how demanding he de elopmen o CT is in
ega d o he eques ed eache skills and a i udes. No only should eache s be able
o use suppo i e me hods and eaching s yles in he class oom o acili a ing and
sca olding CT, like modelling CT ( h ough hinking aloud and isualizing CT, among
Chapi e 23 / Quali ying Educa o s o De eloping C i ical Thinking
483
o he hings), mode a ing c i ical dialogue o igge ing hinking. They should also be
designe s and c ea o s o inspi ing and s imula ing lea ning si ua ions ha gene a e
s i ing and au hen ic expe iences ha p omp and ca y he p ocess o CT. These
lea ning si ua ions o scena ios a e labelled in li e a u e as p oblem-based lea ning,
explo a o y lea ning, se ice lea ning, e c. These si ua ions, which hea ily ely on
au hen ic ins uc ion, b ing no mal eaching o ma s and esou ces (90 minu es, he
eache ca ies he lesson as an expe . . .) o hei limi s because hey demand mo e
a en ion and esou ces. Fu he mo e, eache s need a ce ain a i ude as e lec i e
p ac i ione s i hey wan o os e CT as an open and ans o ma i e lea ning p ocess.
Fo example, he p omo ion o CT includes he p omo e s hemsel es: eache s
should be open o examining and expanding hei hinking as well as o abandon any
p econcei ed no ions i new insigh s eplace he old ones. To en ice CT, eache s need
o p ac ice hei hinking and c i ical spi i a eye le el wi h s uden s. They ha e o
build up us and a lea ning clima e o openness in which e e ybody eels welcome.
In o de o do so, eache s ha e o hink abou hei ole as eache s, ques ion hei
assump ions abou s uden s, eaching and lea ning, o e lec on he angible and
in angible e ec s o cu icula and he way school is p ac iced and li ed ( he e ec s o
compe i ion, habi us, powe s uc u es, e c.)
I becomes clea ha knowledge abou CT as a concep and p ocess is impo an
o design au hen ic si ua ions and asks ha lead he s uden s in o he di e en phases
o CT and o use app op ia e me hods ha s imula e and guide he p ocess. Mo eo e ,
he p ocess e eals wha he ole o a eache could be as a acili a o o CT and how
school as a sys em mus be designed in o de o bene i CT and no in e e e wi h i .
Designs P inciples o P omo ing CT P omo ion Skills and A i udes. The
in e iew pa ne s epo ed di e en app oaches in aining o ge he pa icipan s
eady o de eloping CT. One use ul design p inciple is, again, sel -expe ience. Sel -
expe ience, in his con ex , can be di e en ia ed in o an ac i e and ecep i e
expe ience. In he ac i e o m, pa icipan s y ou and expe ience me hods and ask
se ings hemsel es in he ole o eache s who aim a os e ing CT wi h hei s uden s. In
he ecep i e o m, pa icipan s expe ience me hods and asks in he ole o s uden s. Bo h
o ms enable a di ec esonance o he pe o mance and he e ec o he me hod o
ask. Wi h his oppo uni y, pa icipan s can expe ience he e ec i eness and he e ec
o he app oach. Addi ionally, eache s ge i s clues on how hey can use he me hods
and design p inciples and hey can adap he espec i e me hod o design p inciple o
hei con ex o eaching ( ans e ).
Recep i e sel -expe ience: Expe s #1 and #2 each me hods and p inciples o
os e ing CT h ough he ecep i e me hod i sel and le pa icipan s disco e and
analyze au hen ic lea ning si ua ions ha o he eache s use o os e ing CT. Fo
example, hey wo k wi h au hen ic, ambiguous, s unning, and poignan ideos o
ideo-based me hods such as he b anching scena io5 ha a ec he iewe in di e en
ways, o hey le he pa icipan s y ou WebQues s,6 which also c ea e cogni i e
dissonance, mul i-pe spec i i y, and wo k wi h ambigui y. Pa icipan s a e in i ed o
expe ience he espec i e ask and hen e lec on and discuss he expe ience. The
pa icipan s become acquain ed wi h he ad an ages and disad an ages o he
espec i e me hod, can judge he e ec and imp ession he espec i e me hod has on
hem and hei s uden s, and look ou o ways o adap he me hods o hei eaching
5 C . h ps://h5p.o g/b anching-scena io
6 C . h ps://webques .o g/
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con ex . Expe #5 poin ed ou ha hey should wo k wi h me hods ha a e
manageable and i many eaching con ex s, such as he hink-pai -sha e me hod. Mos
o he me hods used a e in he a ea o p omo ing CT, modelling CT as a eache , o
using ce ain kinds o dialogue o ma s o os e CT. One example is he Ci cle o
Voices, in which e e y pa icipan can u e hei assump ions and ideas in a elaxed
a mosphe e and wi hou in e up ion o coe cion. In addi ion, Expe s #5 and #7
designed hei aining in such a way ha he pa icipan s expe ienced lea ning
si ua ions ha p omp ed hei CT.
Ac i e sel -expe ience: Expe #3 emphasizes he impo ance o ac i e pa icipa ion:
“I hink ac i e lea ning is he key o c i ical hinking.” In his con ex , an e o - iendly
lea ning cul u e appea s signi ican o him. The pa icipan s need pe mission o make
mis akes and expe imen wi h di e en app oaches and me hods. Expe #5, o
example, demons a es and discusses a lo o me hods and design p inciples/ ask
designs ha suppo CT in di e en phases o he p ocess. Then, he pa icipan s ha e
o apply he me hods and design p inciples o hei subjec ield and plan a lesson in
which hey wan o add ess speci ic aspec s o CT. A e planning such a lesson, some
o all pa icipan s (dependen on he du a ion o he wo kshop) simula e a sho
sequence o ha lesson in he aining (ac i e expe ience) in which hey demons a e
he way in which hey design lessons and asks o CT and how hey as eache s
pe o m o os e CT (modelling, using ambigui y, using me hods like igge ing,
Soc a ic ques ioning, e c.). The o he pa icipan s ac as s uden s (a ecep i e o m o
sel -expe ience). Expe #3 also wo ks wi h he ans e and simula ion app oach. In
his wo kshop, he uni e si y eache s each p epa ed a w i en assignmen ha aimed
o p ac ice he skills and p ocesses o CT hey had de ined in hei CT model in a
p o essional con ex . Then, he pa icipan s in he s uden ole es ed he w i en
assignmen s and ga e eedback o he ins uc o . Th ough his app oach, eache s
ound ou how misleading and unclea hese asks we e a imes in ela ion o he
lea ning objec i es o CT. Th ough discussion and expe eedback, pa icipan s
e ised and imp o ed hei asks se e al imes.
In bo h app oaches, he expe s use e lec ion, eedback, and discussion o gene a e and
ini ia e ans e and imp o e he skills wi h ega d o eaching me hods and ask designs. In
he ac i e sel -expe ience app oach, he ans e eally connec s o he espec i e
subjec and p ac ice, as eache s apply he me hods and ask designs in hei con ex
(planning lessons o w i en asks and hen simula ing hem/ es ing hem). All
in e iewees ag ee ha a high deg ee o pa icipa ion du ing he quali ica ion is
impo an o success ul aining, as i ensu es a sus ainable ans e , gi es he
pa icipan s he oppo uni y o p ac ice, encou ages hem o ac i ely deal wi h CT, and
enables hem o expe ience sel -e icacy.
Fu he mo e, all discussed wo kshops illus a e ha he p o essional de elopmen o
he pa icipa ing (p ospec i e) eache s wi hin he quali ica ion plays an impo an ole
in ini ia ing longe - e m, ui ul de elopmen o os e ing CT. “Well, I ind his
aspec o pe sonali y de elopmen impo an in he academic con ex , [. . .] because i
has a e y s ong connec ion o pe sonali y de elopmen — he abili y o hink
c i ically” (Expe #6). Expe #5 emphasizes his own a i ude owa ds he possibili y
o pe sonal de elopmen as a c i ical hinke and aine . “So, I would like o p omo e
CT also in mysel , ne e eel done wi h CT o so and also always emain open o wha
wha is ye o come and o o he a gumen s o poin s o iew. Because p omo ing CT
in he class oom also means ha I can de elop mysel as a eache and so on” (Expe
#5).
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485
In addi ion o concep ual and didac ic aspec s ha a e conside ed in he
de elopmen o a aining, he pa icipan s’ willingness and mo i a ion a e also decisi e
o a success ul quali ica ion. Acco ding o he li e a u e, de icien mo i a ion educes
he chance o ans e o hei e e yday eaching eali y. Hence, in o de o achie e a
sus ainable, p ac ically ele an e ec , he ques ion is: How does one engage he
pa icipan s? The (in insic) mo i a ion o he pa icipan s plays an impo an ole
he e – which can be in luenced a leas indi ec ly. The expe s ci e a ious aspec s in
his ega d, such as c ea ing an a ac i e lea ning se ing as well as a ousing posi i e
emo ions and in e es among he pa icipan s. “I hink a ac ion is he bes way. I
mean, making i a ac i e, making lea ning un. I migh sound e y simple, bu I eally
belie e ha i a lea ne is engaged and ha ing un, hings will go well” (Expe #3).
Fu he mo e, asks mus appea manageable and meaning ul; hey mus be
conside ed impo an . To p omo e his, Expe #1 egula ly in i es o me
pa icipan s a he beginning o his wo kshop o alk abou hei expe iences. “I jus
ask hem o speak o he g oup abou how his p ocess helps hem and how i wo ks
o hem. I hink i is impo an o es ablish in he lea ne ’s mind ha his is a bene icial
p ocess ha will help hem in hei own li es” (Expe #1).
The pedagogical p o essionals a e encou aged o engage in an in ensi e c i ical
examina ion o he impo ance o good eaching p ac ice, o hei own assump ions
abou he eaching p o ession, eaching and lea ning, as well as he ole o educa ional
ins i u ions. Howe e , he expe s accen ua e his di e en ly in hei wo kshops. In
he wo kshop o Expe #1, o example, he c i ical expe imen a ion, discussion, and
e lec ion aim a ecognizing possible hegemonic powe s uc u es and he ole o
powe in gene al in he con ex o educa ion. Expe #3, o b ing up ano he example,
encou ages collabo a i e, collegial exchange and he de elopmen o a communi y
in e es ed in eaching p ac ice o p omo e CT in which exis ing eaching p ac ice is
collec i ely e lec ed upon and imp o ed.
4.3 The Role o Digi al Media
The ole o digi al media a ies in he expe s’ aining designs, especially ega ding he
ac i e use o digi al ools. Excep o wo expe s, all o hem iew digi al ools a he
c i ically. The sha ed skep icism is summa ized by Expe #3: “I ha e a bias; I hink
he e a e ce ain limi a ions o compu e ized o e-lea ning. I hink some hing akes
place when wo human beings a e nex o each o he ha you can’ qui e measu e, bu
I hink i ’s e y impo an in e ms o he e ec i e de elopmen o he lea ne in e ms
o hei own, again, ego-s eng h [sic] and g ow h.” The e o e, Expe s #3 and #2
p opose a combina ion o e-lea ning and eal in e ac ion. Bo h s ess he signi ican
ole o in e ac ion and how he pa icipan s can wo k oge he and discuss ace- o-
ace.
Expe s #5, #6, and #7 a e posi i e abou digi al media as a usable ool in hei
cou ses. Expe #5, o example, uses e-lea ning as a me hod in his own aining and
o en wo ks wi h ilms as a medium o his aining sessions. Fu he mo e, he
demons a es how pa icipan s can use digi al media and ools in hei own eaching
p ac ice. Expe #6 applies cha s, se ious games, o WebQues s as possible ools in
he eaching con en . Digi aliza ion i sel and ela ed p oblems, such as ake news o
ques ions abou he oppo uni ies and isks o digi aliza ion, a e also only add essed
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by hese expe s. This can p obably be explained by he inc eased impo ance o his
social de elopmen in ecen yea s.
4.4 Challenges
The expe s epo a ious challenges hey ha e o deal wi h du ing he aining. These
ela e o ins i u ional and indi idual- o pa icipan - ela ed dimensions. As Expe #6
no ed, he main challenges on he ins i u ional le el a e ime cons ain s, a lack o
suppo om supe io s, a lack o eamwo k, and a di e en app ecia ion o CT in he
ins i u ions.
Acco ding o Expe s #5 and #7, a ypical p oblem ha a ises om he
pa icipan s’ side is e y speci ic subjec - ela ed ques ions and he ole o pa adigms.
In his con ex , a limi ed pe spec i e on science and eaching impedes he dialogue
wi hin a he e ogeneous g oup o pa icipan s. “[T]ha hey conside hei epe oi e o
me hods o be he eal hing and ha is also a s yle ha is e y o en cul i a ed a
uni e si ies [sic]. And he unny hing is ha people who a e like ha hink hey a e he
mos c i ical hinke s o all and don’ ealize ha hey a e exac ly he opposi e, ha
hey a e limi ed o hei lea ned ools and ha i is a limi a ion and no he objec i e
iew o he wo ld” (Expe #7). Expe #5 desc ibes his phenomenon as “expe
dilemma” and a ibu es his o he ac ha ce ain pa icipan s (usually uni e si y
eache s) al eady conside hemsel es expe s o CT and eaching CT, especially since
hey equa e hei espec i e pa adigm o science wi h CT.
I is appa en ha he g oup s uc u e is seen as a challenge, oo. Expe #6
emphasizes he high deg ee o lexibili y in aining design ha is needed o deal wi h
his. “Well, I also belie e [. . .] ha he e can’ be a pe ec p og am o a quali ica ion
in c i ical hinking because i always depends on he people who a e in ol ed in i .
Wha you can do is o c ea e packages ha ha e o be pa o such a p og am. Bu a
which poin hey ha e o appea can depend on he in e ac ion o he ac o s” (Expe
#6).
Conclusion
As esea ch p o es, CT quali ica ion p og ams o eache s ha e an eno mous
in luence on he quali y o CT p omo ion. A he same ime, he e is li le scien i ic
e idence on how such aining p og ams should be designed o p omo e CT
e ec i ely. Hence, he leading ques ion o his p ojec was: how should an ins uc o
aining be designed o quali y educa o s o p omo ing basic CT skills in seconda y
and highe educa ion? The cen al indings o ou esea ch a e p esen ed in he
ollowing amewo k.
