Faith, state, and religious competition in Georgia

FAITH, STATE, AND
RELIGIOUS COMPETITION
IN GEORGIA
Tsypylma Da ie a
ZOiS REPORT
No. 1 / 2021 · Janua y 2021
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
2
Con en
02 ___ Summa y
04 ___ In oduc ion
05 ______ Me hodology
06 ___ Fai h and s a e in Geo gia: he dominance o he O hodox Chu ch
09 ___ Religious ends in Adja a
13 ___ Access o eligious educa ion
15 ___ Con es ed si es o wo ship
17 ______ The Ahali Mosque: he mos con o e sial si e
20 ______ The Ba umi Ca hed al o he Mo he o God: an in isible con lic
22 ___ Conclusion
24 ___ Imp in
Summa y
This epo in es iga es he ela ionship be ween s a e and ai h in Geo gia
and demons a es how eligious plu ali y has un olded in he coun y, wi h
pa icula a en ion on he hegemonic posi ion o he Geo gian O hodox
Chu ch. Inc easing eligious plu alisa ion and he p esence o eligious di -
e ence ha e esul ed in public deba es on he disad an aged posi ion o eli-
gious mino i ies. In u ban spaces, eligious con es a ion has become isible.
The epo is based on an analysis o policy documen s, expe in e iews,
and e hnog aphic obse a ions du ing ieldwo k conduc ed in 2018 and 2019
in Ba umi, Geo gia’s mul i- eligious second ci y, loca ed on he Black Sea
coas . The s udy discusses he legal amewo k o go e ning eligious di e -
si y and looks a local nego ia ions and pe cep ions o eligious inequali y.
The s udy is pa o a ZOiS esea ch p ojec ha explo es pa e ns o eli-
gious plu alisa ion in pos -a heis socie ies and he condi ions ha gene a e
con es a ion and peace ul co-habi a ion in mul i-e hnic and eme ging mul i-
eligious socie ies.1 By analysing quali a i e in e iews wi h secula expe s
and eligious leade s, he epo sheds ligh on he ise o eligious compe i-
ion and inequali y in Geo gia.
1 See Tsypylma Da ie a, ‘Fai h and S a e in Aze baijan: Go e ning Religious Plu ali y’, Cen e o Eas Eu opean and
In e na ional S udies (ZOiS), Repo 3 / 2020.
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
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Key indings
– One o he legacies o Geo gia’s socialis pas is a lack o es ablished a -
angemen s and amewo ks o go e ning eligious plu ali y.
– Na ional, Geo gian iden i y and eligious, O hodox Ch is ian iden i y ha e
con e ged o e he las hi y yea s. A he same ime, in e es in a plu alis
ision o he coun y has been g owing, and Geo gian socie y is becoming
mo e eligiously di e se.
– When i comes o eligious eedom, he ela ionships be ween eligious
ac o s and he s a e a e no always ha monious. Accommoda ing eligious
mino i ies is an uneasy and une en p ocess.
– While na ional laws and he s a e’s ecen policy owa ds ai h claim o
be sou ces o eligious egula ion and ole ance o di e si y, ci ies p oduce
hei own on- he-g ound modes o egula ion ha p i ilege dis inc eli-
gious g oups in public spaces.
– Gi en he hegemonic posi ion o he O hodox Chu ch, eligious compe i-
ion o s a us and ecogni ion among eligious mino i ies can ake di e -
en o ms. Con lic ing app oaches o a gi en eligious si e can emain la en
o hidden o can escala e in o isible con on a ion.
– Owne ship o e i o y, con ol o e places o wo ship, and access o eli-
gious educa ion a e c ucial o he analysis o eligious plu ali y.
– Geo gia’s uling eli es ace poli ical and cul u al challenges as new iden-
i y con igu a ions eme ge based on he possibili y o being simul aneously
Geo gian and non-O hodox. Con es a ion o e he es ablishmen o non-
O hodox places o wo ship in u ban spaces may become pa o la ge po-
li ical compe i ion ha could challenge no only adminis a i e au ho i ies
bu also pa e ns o na ional belonging.
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
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In oduc ion
Pos -So ie Geo gia is among he mos eligious o hi y- ou Eu opean
coun ies. Acco ding o a 2018 su ey by he Pew Resea ch Cen e and he
2018 Caucasus Ba ome e su ey, almos 50 pe cen o Geo gia’s popula ion
is highly eligious.2 Se en y- h ee pe cen belie es in God wi h absolu e
ce ain y, 60 pe cen o hose aged 18 – 35 go o chu ch once a mon h o
mo e, and ela i ely ew adul s iden i y as a heis . Jus o e 83 pe cen o
Geo gia’s popula ion is O hodox Ch is ian.
Wi hin his amewo k, he Geo gian O hodox Chu ch has aken on a
p ominen ole in he o ma ion o he na ion, in he coun y’s iden i y poli-
ics, and in e e yday li e. The eligious ins i u ions o he O hodox Chu ch
ha e an impo an impac on a wide ange o cul u al, social, and poli ical
issues. Especially no iceable is he s ong p esence o he O hodox Chu ch
in he public sphe e, which has led o ising ensions in ela ions wi h ci il
socie y ep esen a i es and eligious mino i ies.3
A he same ime, Geo gia is one o he mos mul i- eligious socie ies in he
Sou h Caucasus. Mo e han 13 pe cen o he popula ion is made up o Sunni
and Shia Muslims, and 3 pe cen belongs o he A menian Apos olic Chu ch.
These wo g oups a e he la ges eligious mino i ies in Geo gia. A u he
3 pe cen o he popula ion consis s o Roman Ca holics, Yezidis, G eek O -
hodox Ch is ians, Jews, and a g owing numbe o new eligious g oups,
such as Bap is s, Pen ecos als, Jeho ah’s Wi nesses, he In e na ional Soci-
e y o K ishna Consciousness, and he Baha’i ai h.4 Like in o he pos -So ie
socie ies, he public p esence o eligious di e si y in Geo gia is d i en by
a libe alisa ion o eligious policy and globalisa ion. In addi ion, ex e nal
in luences om Tu key, Russia, and he Uni ed S a es play signi ican oles
in Geo gia’s eligious di e si y.
Since 1991, a law on eligious eedom has allowed public exp essions o
eligiosi y in Geo gia. As Geo gia’s main na ional na a i e is based on
he uni y o O hodoxy, he Geo gian language, and he homeland, e hnic
and eligious mino i ies pose a a ie y o challenges o exis ing pa e ns
o iden i y.5 As wo b oad ca ego ies, e hnic and eligious mino i ies can
o e lap, al hough his is no always he case. This epo asks how eligious
plu ali y is accommoda ed and pe cei ed in a socie y domina ed by one e-
ligion. Despi e inc easing eligious di e si y, which calls in o ques ion he
s a us o he na ional sel , he O hodox Chu ch emains he cen al symbol
o na ional cul u al iden i y in oday’s dominan social na a i e.
2 ‘How eligious is you coun y?’, Pew Resea ch Cen e , 5 Decembe 2018, h ps://www.
pew esea ch.o g/in e ac i es/how- eligious-is-you -coun y/; ‘Caucasus Ba ome e
2019 Geo gia’, Caucasus Resea ch Resou ce Cen e , h ps://caucasusba ome e .o g/en/
cb2019ge/RELIMP/.
3 See Sil ia Se ano, ‘The Geo gian Chu ch: Embodimen o Na ional Uni y o Opposi-
ion Fo ce?’, Russian Poli ics and Law 52, no. 4 (Decembe 2014): 74 – 92, h ps://doi.
o g/10.2753/RUP1061-1940520404.
4 Na ional S a is ics O ice o Geo gia, www.geos a .ge.
5 The le el o e hnic mino i ies’ engagemen in public li e in Geo gia is ela i ely low. This is
pa icula ly e iden wi h ega d o hei pa icipa ion in poli ical li e as well as hei ep e-
sen a ion in elec ed bodies and go e nmen al agencies.
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
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Me hodology
To examine he dynamics o eligious plu alisa ion on he na ional and lo-
cal le els, his epo akes a wo old app oach: op down and bo om up. On
he na ional le el, he esea ch examines how he au ho i ies espond in a
op-down way o g owing eligious di e si y, wha agencies o secula and e-
ligious go e nance ope a e in con empo a y Geo gia, and how mino i ies pe -
cei e eligious issues in ela ion o he O hodox Chu ch. Based on analyses o
policy documen s and in e iews wi h local expe s, his app oach p o ides
a gene al amewo k o unde s anding ela ions be ween ai h and s a e in
Geo gia.
On a local le el, a bo om-up pe spec i e includes in-dep h explo a ions o
li ed eligious plu ali y in Ba umi, he capi al o he Au onomous Republic o
Adja a, a egion o Geo gia ha bo de s Tu key. Adja a is a unique bo de land
in Geo gia because o i s s a us o peace ul e i o ial au onomy. Despi e cul-
u al di e ences, u al-u ban mig a ion, and some con es a ion, he e ha e
been no secessionis claims in he egion, unlike in Abkhazia and Sou h Os-
se ia.
As a ib an and apidly de eloping mul i- eligious ci y on he Black Sea coas ,
Ba umi o e ed an app op ia e se ing o his bo om-up pe spec i e. An a e-
na o powe and u ban econs uc ion, he ci y is a locus o he mani es a-
ion, nego ia ion, and app op ia ion o places o wo ship, and he p esence
o eligious di e ence c ea es challenges o u ban go e nance and belie e s
alike. Mo e p ecisely, eligious si es unc ion as enues o con ac , ension,
and a i ma ion o na ional iden i ies. No only do he iconic o ms o hese
si es igge an in e es in he ci y’s eligious objec s, bu hey also c ea e ools
o unde s anding di e en pe cep ions, o de ing con es ed na a i es, and
egula ing eligious compe i ion.
To analyse pa e ns o in e ac ion be ween ai h and s a e, he au ho em-
ployed a mixed-me hods app oach by collec ing quali a i e and quan i a i e
da a co e ing a a ie y o eligious communi ies in Ba umi.6 Al oge he , he
sample con ained six eligious a ilia ions: O hodox Ch is ians, Sunni Mus-
lims, Ca holics, P o es an s, and he A menian Apos olic and Jewish communi-
ies.
In addi ion o e hnog aphic obse a ions, wen y- h ee semi-s uc u ed in e -
iews we e conduc ed be ween win e 2018 and sp ing 2019. They can be clas-
si ied in o h ee main g oups: six in e iews we e wi h eligious leade s and
ep esen a i es o he cle gy, se en we e wi h secula expe s, and en we e
wi h eligious expe s. Fo he pu poses o his epo , eligious leade s a e
hose who hold a spi i ual o ice; secula expe s a e no p ima ily ollowe s
o a eligious communi y bu speak as p o essional expe s abou eligious de-
elopmen s; and eligious expe s a e p ima ily ollowe s o membe s o a e-
ligious communi y o a e employed by a eligious ins i u ion. The a e age age
o he in e iewees was 45. Eigh een men and i e women we e in e iewed.
6 The au ho is g a e ul o Ke e an Khu sish ili and Bo is Komakhidze o Tbilisi S a e Uni e -
si y o hei esea ch coope a ion du ing ieldwo k in Ba umi and o Sina Giesemann o
ZOiS o he suppo in he da a analysis.
Religious si es unc ion
as enues o con ac ,
ension, and a i ma ion
o na ional iden i ies.

ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
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The da a collec ion was aimed a conduc ing a ep esen a i e s udy on a ci y
le el seeking o e eal ends in sel -pe cep ions on he g ound and modes o
eligious compe i ion.
Fai h and s a e in Geo gia: he dominance o
he O hodox Chu ch
O icially, eligion in Geo gia is sepa a e om he s a e. Howe e , he Geo -
gian cons i u ion ecognises an excep ional ole o he Geo gian O hodox
Chu ch in he coun y. The chu ch has he igh o each eligious s udies in
s a e schools, and O hodox ins i u ions a e in ol ed in he p ocess o ew i -
ing pos -So ie Geo gia’s his o y as i appea s in school ex books. The chu ch’s
p i ileged s a us was ixed in 2002 o ensu e he pa ia ch’s legal immuni y
and gi e he chu ch a consul a i e ole in go e nance issues. Consequen ly,
poli ical pa ies — bo h libe al and conse a i e — e e o he au ho i y o he
chu ch o s eng hen hei posi ions.
A conco da , o cons i u ional ag eemen , shapes legal ela ions be ween he
s a e and he O hodox Chu ch. The ag eemen de ines he chu ch’s unique
s a us as a legal en i y o public law (LEPL), so ha he chu ch enjoys eedom
on legal and ax ma e s, including ques ions o p ope y, and ee use o e-
ligious buildings. The s a e ecognises all O hodox chu ches and monas e -
ies ac oss Geo gia, as well as hei emains and he land on which hey a e
buil , as possessions o he chu ch. Only he O hodox Chu ch has he igh o
acqui e ag icul u al s a e p ope y ee o cha ge; all o he eligious o ganisa-
ions mus pay a ee.7
While he conco da and o he legal amewo ks we e es ablished o consoli-
da e he hegemonic posi ion o he O hodox Chu ch, eligious li e in Geo gia
has become inc easingly di e se. A wide ange o s uc u es go e ns he cu -
en une en ela ions be ween majo i y and mino i y eligious communi ies.
Like o he pos -So ie coun ies, Geo gia has classi ied eligious communi ies
as ei he adi ional o non- adi ional denomina ions. This op-down classi i-
ca ion is based on each communi y’s his o ical ies o he coun y. Among he
communi ies conside ed adi ional a e Muslims, Jews, he A menian Apos-
olic Chu ch, and he Roman Ca holic Chu ch.
In esponse o g owing c i icism om in e na ional and human igh s o gani-
sa ions, in 2011 Geo gia amended i s Ci il Code. The amendmen allowed he
ou non-O hodox adi ional eligious g oups o egis e as LEPLs. Gene ally,
o ob ain legal ecogni ion and ce ain bene i s, a eligious associa ion can
egis e wi h he Na ional Agency o he Public Regis y as ei he an LEPL
o a non-comme cial o ganisa ion. Bu only hose ha can demons a e a his-
o ical link o he coun y o a e e i ied as a eligion by he Council o Eu-
ope ecei e LEPL s a us. Regis a ion did no p o ide any p i ileged s a us
o he non-O hodox g oups; hey a e s ill ea ed as p i a e o ganisa ions
7 ‘2019 Repo on In e na ional Religious F eedom: Geo gia (June 10)’, U.S. Embassy in
Geo gia, 10 June 2020, h ps://ge.usembassy.go /2019- epo -on-in e na ional- eligious-
eedom-geo gia-june-10/.
Religious li e in
Geo gia has become
inc easingly di e se.
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
7
and, unlike he O hodox Chu ch, a e no exemp om p ope y axes. Public
unding o eligious o ganisa ions akes he o m o di ec subsidies. How-
e e , unlike o he O hodox Chu ch, s a e au ho i ies con ol he pu pose
and unding o non-O hodox eligious g oups, aising ques ions abou he
au onomy o hese o ganisa ions.
Since 2014, he e has been a loose ins i u ionalisa ion o he go e nance o
Geo gia’s eligious di e si y. Pa ly in line wi h ulings by he Eu opean Cou
o Human Righ s and he Eu opean Cou o Jus ice, in 2014 he Geo gian go -
e nmen es ablished he S a e Agency on Religious A ai s, which became a
cen alised agency o eligious policy. Simila ins i u ions exis in o he o -
me So ie epublics, and o en hei p inciples o go e nance a e inhe i ed
om he So ie pas . Geo gia’s agency imposes con ols and es ic ions on mi-
no i y eligious o ganisa ions and is less ocused on he p o ec ion o mino i y
igh s, he p omo ion o plu alis iews, o any inclusi e policy owa ds non-
O hodox denomina ions.8 The Adminis a ion o All Geo gian Muslims — he
pa o he s a e agency ha deals wi h Muslim a ai s — is pe cei ed by many
Muslims as a o mal, op-down adminis a i e body and has so a no been
ully ecognised by Geo gian g ass- oo s Muslim o ganisa ions.
Religious di e si y has been p esen o cen u ies in he e ogeneous Geo gia.
In e es ingly, in a su ey ca ied ou in Augus 2018 by he Caucasus Resea ch
Resou ce Cen e , 47 pe cen o Geo gians said hey iewed eligious di e si y
as a h ea o hei cul u e and adi ions, while 31 pe cen hough di e -
si y made li e mo e in e es ing.9 FIGURE 1 The cu en Geo gian cons i u ion
8 Au ho and Gio gi Tadumadze in e iew wi h Tam a Mikeladze, associa e p o esso in public
law a Ilia S a e Uni e si y and di ec o o he Equali y Policy P og amme a he Human
Righ s Educa ion and Moni o ing Cen e, No embe 2019.
9 ‘Ha e c ime, ha e speech, and disc imina ion in Geo gia: a i udes and awa eness’, Council
o Eu ope, No embe 2018, h ps:// m.coe.in /ha e-c ime-ha e-speech-and-disc imina ion-
in-a i udes-and-awa eness-e/16808e 62a.
FIGURE 1
Responden s‘ iew on eligious di e si y
posi i e nega i e
Di e si ymakesli emo ein e es ing 31%
Di e si yisposi i einando i sel 23%
Di e si ycon ibu es o hecoun y'scul u alde elopmen 17%
Di e si ys eng henseconomicde elopmen  17%
Di e si yleads omo eideas 10%
Don' know/Re use oanswe 2%
Di e si y h ea ensou cul u eand adi ions 47%
Di e si yweakensna ionaluni y 17%
Di e si yexposes hecoun y osecu i yissues 13%
Di e si ydi ides hecoun y 9%
Di e si y h ea ensou  eligion 8%
Di e si ycons ainseconomicde elopmen 2%
Don' know/Re use oanswe 3%
Anme kung1:Bi edieP ozen zahlen"47,0%"P ozen und"31,0%" e  o ma ie en(siesinddiewesen lichenKennzahlen,dieauchimRepo au geg i enwe den).
Anme kung2:DielinksbündigenAn wo eninne halbG a ikensollenimRepo gänzlichsich ba sein?
Figu e2Reasons o  hinkingdi e si yisposi i eandnega i e
Ques ion:Selec  hemain easonwhyyou hink[di e si y]isa[posi i e/nega i e] hing(%)
F equencydis ibu ion(%)
Sou ce:au ho s´owng aph;da asou ce:Councilo Eu ope,No embe 2018;Ha ec ime,ha espeech,and
disc imina ioninGeo gia,Augus 2018
31%
23%
17%
17%
10%
2%
47%
17%
13%
9%
8%
2%
3%
Di e si y makes li e mo e in e es ing
Di e si y is posi i e in and o i sel
Di e si y con ibu es o he coun y's cul u al de elopmen
Di e si y s eng hens economic de elopmen
Di e si y leads o mo e ideas
Don' know / Re use o answe
Di e si y h ea ens ou cul u e and adi ions
Di e si y weakens na ional uni y
Di e si y exposes he coun y o secu i y issues
Di e si y di ides he coun y
Di e si y h ea ens ou eligion
Di e si y cons ains economic de elopmen
Don' know / Re use o answe
Reasons o hinking di e si y is posi i e and
nega i e
posi i e nega i e
Sou ce: au ho s´own g aph; da a sou ce: Council o Eu ope, No embe 2018; Ha e c ime, ha e
speech, and disc imina ion in Geo gia, Augus 2018
posi i e nega i e
Di e si ymakesli emo ein e es ing 31%
Di e si yisposi i einando i sel 23%
Di e si ycon ibu es o hecoun y'scul u alde elopmen 17%
Di e si ys eng henseconomicde elopmen  17%
Di e si yleads omo eideas 10%
Don' know/Re use oanswe 2%
Di e si y h ea ensou cul u eand adi ions 47%
Di e si yweakensna ionaluni y 17%
Di e si yexposes hecoun y osecu i yissues 13%
Di e si ydi ides hecoun y 9%
Di e si y h ea ensou  eligion 8%
Di e si ycons ainseconomicde elopmen 2%
Don' know/Re use oanswe 3%
Anme kung1:Bi edieP ozen zahlen"47,0%"P ozen und"31,0%" e  o ma ie en(siesinddiewesen lichenKennzahlen,dieauchimRepo au geg i enwe den).
Anme kung2:DielinksbündigenAn wo eninne halbG a ikensollenimRepo gänzlichsich ba sein?
Figu e2Reasons o  hinkingdi e si yisposi i eandnega i e
Ques ion:Selec  hemain easonwhyyou hink[di e si y]isa[posi i e/nega i e] hing(%)
F equencydis ibu ion(%)
Sou ce:au ho s´owng aph;da asou ce:Councilo Eu ope,No embe 2018;Ha ec ime,ha espeech,and
disc imina ioninGeo gia,Augus 2018
31%
23%
17%
17%
10%
2%
47%
17%
13%
9%
8%
2%
3%
Di e si y makes li e mo e in e es ing
Di e si y is posi i e in and o i sel
Di e si y con ibu es o he coun y's cul u al de elopmen
Di e si y s eng hens economic de elopmen
Di e si y leads o mo e ideas
Don' know / Re use o answe
Di e si y h ea ens ou cul u e and adi ions
Di e si y weakens na ional uni y
Di e si y exposes he coun y o secu i y issues
Di e si y di ides he coun y
Di e si y h ea ens ou eligion
Di e si y cons ains economic de elopmen
Don' know / Re use o answe
Reasons o hinking di e si y is posi i e and
nega i e
posi i e nega i e
Sou ce: au ho s´own g aph; da a sou ce: Council o Eu ope, No embe 2018; Ha e c ime, ha e
speech, and disc imina ion in Geo gia, Augus 2018
posi i e nega i e
Di e si ymakesli emo ein e es ing 31%
Di e si yisposi i einando i sel 23%
Di e si ycon ibu es o hecoun y'scul u alde elopmen 17%
Di e si ys eng henseconomicde elopmen  17%
Di e si yleads omo eideas 10%
Don' know/Re use oanswe 2%
Di e si y h ea ensou cul u eand adi ions 47%
Di e si yweakensna ionaluni y 17%
Di e si yexposes hecoun y osecu i yissues 13%
Di e si ydi ides hecoun y 9%
Di e si y h ea ensou  eligion 8%
Di e si ycons ainseconomicde elopmen 2%
Don' know/Re use oanswe 3%
Anme kung1:Bi edieP ozen zahlen"47,0%"P ozen und"31,0%" e  o ma ie en(siesinddiewesen lichenKennzahlen,dieauchimRepo au geg i enwe den).
Anme kung2:DielinksbündigenAn wo eninne halbG a ikensollenimRepo gänzlichsich ba sein?
Figu e2Reasons o  hinkingdi e si yisposi i eandnega i e
Ques ion:Selec  hemain easonwhyyou hink[di e si y]isa[posi i e/nega i e] hing(%)
F equencydis ibu ion(%)
Sou ce:au ho s´owng aph;da asou ce:Councilo Eu ope,No embe 2018;Ha ec ime,ha espeech,and
disc imina ioninGeo gia,Augus 2018
31%
23%
17%
17%
10%
2%
47%
17%
13%
9%
8%
2%
3%
Di e si y makes li e mo e in e es ing
Di e si y is posi i e in and o i sel
Di e si y con ibu es o he coun y's cul u al de elopmen
Di e si y s eng hens economic de elopmen
Di e si y leads o mo e ideas
Don' know / Re use o answe
Di e si y h ea ens ou cul u e and adi ions
Di e si y weakens na ional uni y
Di e si y exposes he coun y o secu i y issues
Di e si y di ides he coun y
Di e si y h ea ens ou eligion
Di e si y cons ains economic de elopmen
Don' know / Re use o answe
Reasons o hinking di e si y is posi i e and
nega i e
posi i e nega i e
Sou ce: au ho s´own g aph; da a sou ce: Council o Eu ope, No embe 2018; Ha e c ime, ha e
speech, and disc imina ion in Geo gia, Augus 2018
posi i e
nega i e
Sou ce: au ho s’ own g aph; da a sou ce: Council o Eu ope, No embe 2018;
Ha e c ime, ha e speech, and disc imina ion in Geo gia, Augus 2018
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
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p o ides o eedom o eligion and equali y o all, ega dless o eligion.
Howe e , gi en he monopolising iews o he O hodox Chu ch, oday
some mino i y eligious g oups complain ha hey a e no ea ed equally.10
In his con ex , wo p ocesses a e occu ing simul aneously: he ise o he
O hodox Chu ch a he poli ical le el and he ma ginalisa ion o eligious
mino i ies, which ace sys ema ic di icul ies in hei public exp essions o
eligiosi y. The s a e is openly loyal o he dominan eligious ins i u ion,
and wi hin he exis ing amewo ks he s a e o en sides eps issues o eli-
gious egula ion.
Fo ins ance, he di e gen esponses o ai h leade s o he measu es im-
posed o deal wi h he Co id-19 c isis e lec ed unequal ela ions be ween
majo i y and mino i y eligions. In con as o Ca holic, P o es an , and
Muslim communi ies, he O hodox Chu ch explici ly ope a ed indepen-
den ly om he s a e egula ions and — no wi hs anding g owing c i icism
om ci il socie y o ganisa ions — sha ed he powe -poli ical s age wi h he
go e nmen . While mos eligious si es emained closed o o e ed online
p aye s du ing he pandemic, he O hodox Chu ch la gely con inued o
hold i s adi ional se ices in chu ches. Despi e he go e nmen ’s exho a-
ions, chu ches kep hei doo s open o Eas e celeb a ions. In sp ing 2020,
he chu ch b oadly igno ed go e nmen -imposed es ic ions such as physi-
cal dis ancing and hygiene ules.
This con inued adhe ence o adi ional eligious p ac ices has cas he
special ole and au ho i y o he O hodox Chu ch, as compa ed wi h o h-
e ai h communi ies in Geo gia, in o sha p elie . By con as , Geo gia’s
Muslim leade s suspended p aye ga he ings du ing Ramadan, while he
Ca holic Chu ch, he E angelical Bap is Chu ch o Geo gia, and he A me-
nian Apos olic Chu ch op ed o li e-s eam Sunday se ices. Despi e he in-
c eased isk o he i us being sp ead by adi ional eligious p ac ices, he
Geo gian go e nmen seemed eluc an o impose eme gency ules on he
O hodox Chu ch.
Besides he au ho i y o he O hodox Chu ch du ing he Co id-19 pandem-
ic, he chu ch’s isible dominance is appa en in e e yday eligious place-
making. Alongside classical chu ches and monas e y complexes, O hodox
Ch is ian symbols a e widesp ead in u ban public spaces. O e he las wo
decades, many small, in o mal sac ed si es ha e appea ed, deco a ed wi h
c osses and icons. O dina y esiden s a e allowed o ins all small, home-
made wooden, i on, o conc e e c osses on s ee co ne s, in cou ya ds
o esiden ial neighbou hoods, in ci y pa ks, o on beaches. Backed by he
O hodox cle gy, ci y adminis a ions widely ole a e such small cons uc-
ions.11
Geo gia lacks es ablished amewo ks o ai h-s a e in e ac ions and
he e o e sees g owing claims and coun e claims om a a ie y o eli-
gious mino i ies. The p esence o eligious di e ence has esul ed in public
deba es on he disad an aged posi ions o eligious mino i ies. Beyond an
10 Inga Popo ai e, ‘Sunni and Shia Muslims in Geo gia: a Socie al Ma gin in Mo ion?’, Cauca-
sus Analy ical Diges 81 (2016): 13 – 17; in e iew wi h Ruslan Ba amidze, a senio esea ch-
e a Ba umi Sho a Rus a eli S a e Uni e si y, Be lin, 14 No embe 2019.
11 Au ho in e iew wi h Gio gi Ramish ili, an a chi ec , Ba umi, Ma ch 2019.
The di e gen
esponses o he
Co id-19 measu es
e lec ed unequal
ela ions be ween
majo i y and mino i y
eligions.
Sou ce: Jens Liebchen
FIGURE 2
C oss a he beach in Ba umi,
Ma ch 2019
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
9
asymme ic legal and ins i u ional en i onmen , non-dominan eligious
g oups expe ience mo al exclusion and legal inequali y.12 Fo ins ance, ac-
co ding o a s udy by he no - o -p o i Tole ance and Di e si y Ins i u e
(TDI), in 2012 – 14 ‘pe secu ion, limi a ion, and disc imina o y ea men o
Muslims and Jeho ah’s Wi nesses ob ained a mo e sys ema ic and la ge-
scale o ma , and became especially p oblema ic’.13 As examples, he s udy
ci ed a acks on Kingdom Halls — he places o wo ship o Jeho ah’s Wi -
nesses — in se e al ci ies, he illegal demoli ion o a mina e in he illage
o Chela.
The e a e also inequali ies in issues o main aining eligious in as uc-
u e. Dispu es o e places o wo ship play a pa icula ole. Fo ins ance,
dispa i ies exis among eligious communi ies on ques ions o pos -So ie
es i u ion, planning pe mission o build o epai places o wo ship, and
access o o p omo ion o eligious educa ion. Acco ding o he TDI s udy,
in 2014 he A menian Apos olic Chu ch eques ed om he Geo gian go -
e nmen he es i u ion o six chu ches ha had been le unc ionless and
we e e e ed o as ‘con es ed chu ches’ because he O hodox Chu ch also
claimed owne ship o hem.14 As o his w i ing, he es i u ion eques is
s ill un esol ed a he local le el.
Religious ends in Adja a
Geo gia’s Au onomous Republic o Adja a is a unique egion no only in his-
o ical and e i o ial con ex s bu also in e ms o i s eligious and e h-
nic composi ion. As a pe iphe al au onomous dis ic ha bo de s Tu key
( FIGURE 3), Adja a is home o Geo gia’s second-la ges Muslim communi y:
Sunni Muslims o Geo gian e hnici y and language. They di e om o he
Muslim g oups in Geo gia, in pa icula Aze i-speaking Muslims in Tbilisi
and he sou h-eas e n pa o he K emo Ka li egion and he Sunni Mus-
lim Kis s who li e on he bo de be ween Geo gia and Russia. In compa i-
son wi h Aze i-speaking Shia Muslims and o he Sunni Muslims in Geo gia,
Adja ian Muslims a e in a peculia si ua ion as hey iden i y as e hnic Geo -
gians. Howe e , some imes Geo gians iew Adja ians as no ‘comple ely’
Geo gian because o hei ai h; bu a he same ime, Adja ians a e pe -
cei ed as no comple ely ‘o he ’ ei he because hey speak Geo gian as hei
na i e language.
Religious demog aphy in Geo gia has become inc easingly di e se, and in
Adja a’s capi al, Ba umi, di e en eligious g oups end o li e oge he . Ac-
co ding o he S a e Agency o Religious Issues, Ba umi has a popula ion
o a ound 153,000. O his o al, O hodox Ch is ians make up 60 pe cen ,
Muslims 33.8 pe cen , and membe s o he A menian Apos olic Chu ch 0.4
pe cen . O he mino i ies include Ca holics, Jeho ah’s Wi nesses, Yezidis,
Jews, and o he s.15 O hodox Ch is ians, Muslims, Ca holics, he A menian
12 See Tam a Mikeladze, ‘F eedom o Religion: C i ique o Disc imina o y and Nonsecula
S a e Policy’, Human Righ s Educa ion and Moni o ing Cen e (EMC), 2016, 7.
13 ‘Assessmen o he Needs o Religious O ganisa ions’, Tole ance and Di e si y Ins i u e,
2014, 9.
14 Ibid., 22.
15 S a e Agency o Religious Issues, h ps:// eligion.go .ge (las accessed 26 Oc obe 2020).
FIGURE 3
Map o Adja a
Sou ce: ZOiS
GEORGIA
ARMENIA
Adja a
RUSSIA
Black
Sea
TURKEY
Ba umi
AZER-
BAIJAN
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
16
be cha ac e ised as ei he suppo i e o unsuppo i e. In his way, he ma-
ix can h ow ligh on ce ain condi ions o he con es a ion o eligious
places. The componen s do no ep esen he quali y o he ela ionships,
bu a he he p esence o absence — and in ensi y — o con es a ion.
Fi s , he p oposed Ahali Mosque (New Mosque) in Ba umi is he mos con-
es ed si e in he ci y, and he Geo gian s a e’s beha iou owa ds he Mus-
lim communi y can be desc ibed as unsuppo i e. A new mosque is needed
because he communi y’s exis ing place o wo ship is no su icien o he
numbe o wo shippe s. Ye , he communi y has aced s ong esis ance o
he cons uc ion o he mosque, including he e usal o he ci y au ho i ies
o g an planning pe mission o he building. Ba umi’s Muslims pe cei e
his e usal as a case o pe asi e disc imina ion agains Muslims in Geo -
gia. The Ahali Mosque is discussed in mo e de ail in he ollowing sec ion.
Second, he Ca hed al o he Mo he o God in cen al Ba umi can be also
classi ied as con es ed. Howe e , his eligious place is he si e o an in is-
ible con lic be ween he s a e au ho i ies and he O hodox Chu ch, on he
one hand, and he Ca holic communi y, on he o he . In con as o he is-
ible con lic o e he p oposed Ahali Mosque, he e is an in isible ension
be ween he Ca holic and O hodox Chu ches abou he his o ical igh o
own he Mo he o God Ca hed al, which has been app op ia ed by he O -
hodox Chu ch. O icially, he posi ion o he Geo gian s a e owa ds he
Ca holic communi y can s ill be desc ibed as suppo i e wi h ega d o he
legal and ins i u ional en i onmen . A e he ca hed al was epu posed in
a ou o he O hodox communi y, he ci y adminis a ion unde Saakash-
ili eloca ed he Ca holic chu ch o ano he u ban dis ic , and he munici-
pali y ga e pe mission o a new Ca holic building.
Thi d, he A menian Apos olic Chu ch in Ba umi is less con es ed, while he
beha iou o he Geo gian s a e is unsuppo i e o he A menian commu-
ni y. The A menian communi y in Ba umi has su icien space o i s eli-
gious li e. Ye , he communi y a gues ha he ci y au ho i ies ha e no gi en
i pe mission o cons uc an annex o i s p ies s. As a mino i y eligious
g oup, he A menian communi y has expe ienced inequali y in ge ing pe -
mission o build a eligious si e.
Fou h, he synagogue in Ba umi also anks as less con es ed. The Jewish
communi y has expe ienced no inequali y in e ms o accessing p ope y
o land o ob aining pe mi s o build o es o e eligious si es. Jews ha e a
long his o y o li ing in Geo gia, which is one o he ew coun ies wi hou a
his o y o an i-Semi ism. Two independen Jewish communi ies a e es ab-
lished in Adja a: Geo gian and Ashkenazi Jews. F eedom House s a ed in
2009 ha Jews’ eligious eedom was espec ed in Geo gia. The esea ch
o his epo can con i m he suppo i e beha iou o he Geo gian s a e
owa ds he Jewish communi y in 2019: in e iewees o ha communi y
pe cei ed hemsel es o be well in eg a ed in o e e y sphe e o Geo gian
social li e. Howe e , one should keep in mind he e y low numbe o Jews
in Ba umi — and in Geo gia gene ally — due o he mass emig a ion o Geo -
gian Jews o Is ael, he Uni ed S a es, Russia, and Eu ope.
These ou modes o ela ions show a ia ion in sel -pe cep ions and e-
eal ha ques ions o he cons uc ion, ebuilding, and app op ia ion o
public places o wo ship ha e become cen al o he poli ical and symbolic
The eligious places
exp ess he cu en
dynamics o ela ions
be ween mino i ies
and he s a e a he ci y
le el.

ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
17
con es a ion be ween he alliance o he s a e and he O hodox Chu ch, on
he one hand, and mino i y con essions, on he o he .
The Ahali Mosque: he mos con o e sial si e
The e is only one his o ical Geo gian mosque in cen al Ba umi, called O a
Came ( FIGURES 11 + 12). Buil in 1863, i is oo small o a g owing numbe o
wo shippe s. In 2014, Bidzina I anish ili, hen he de ac o leade o Geo -
gia’s go e nmen , p omised o suppo he Muslim communi y in he con-
s uc ion o a second mosque in he ci y, o be known as he Ahali Mosque.
This c ea ed a g ea sense o expec a ion among Ba umi’s Muslims.
Sho ly a e wa ds, he go e nmen in Tbilisi ook back i s p omise unde
p essu e om he O hodox Chu ch, na ionalis igh -wing pa ies, and
in luen ial membe s o Ba umi’s in elligen sia. A e mul iple eques s o
pe mission o build he new mosque and he e usal o Ba umi’s Ci y Hall o
g an i , he dispu e emains un esol ed. The mayo ’s o ice a gued ha he
loca ion o he new mosque was no sui able o a eligious si e as i was in
a high-densi y esiden ial zone. Howe e , he e a e i e O hodox chu ches
in he same a ea. The Ci y Hall, backed by he O hodox Chu ch, has ied
o obs uc he p ocess.
This un esol ed and uns able si ua ion has esul ed in he g owing engage-
men and mobilisa ion o belie e s. They ha e de eloped a ious s a egies
and ac ics in hei s uggle o wha hey see as hei igh o he ci y. This
public ac i ism illus a es ha he p ocess o cons uc ing a new mosque
in Ba umi is no me ely one o physical place-making. Ba umi is also an
a ena o eligious compe i ion and public s uggle — and a space in which
Sou ce: Jens Liebchen Sou ce: Tsypylma Da ie a
FIGURE 11
O a Came, Ma ch 2019
FIGURE 12
O a Came, Ma ch 2019
The dispu e abou
he mosque emains
un esol ed.
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
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ma ginalised popula ions can make hemsel es isible. Agains he hegem-
onic posi ion o he O hodox Chu ch, Geo gian Muslims ha e mobilised
hei communi y in h ee mani es a ions o g ass- oo s eligious ac i ism:
collec i e p aye on he s ee , a new le el o sel -o ganisa ion, and coope a-
ion wi h secula and in e na ional o ganisa ions.
Collec i e p aye on he s ee
Public p aye ou side he O a Came mosque is a egula p ac ice among Ba-
umi’s Muslims. I is an ac ha con es s he go e nmen ’s e usal o allow
he building o a new place o wo ship. Slogans such as ‘Help build a new
mosque!’ and ‘Enough p aying on he s ee s!’ can be hea d in he Ba umi’s
his o ical mosque a e e y F iday p aye .
Each week, o e 3,000 wo shippe s a end O a Came and a empo a y
mosque on he si e o he p oposed Ahali Mosque. In on o he building
a e banne s and signs ha ead ‘Ahali Mosque’ in Geo gian and English.
Ta ge ed a non-Muslim and non-Geo gian isi o s, a la ge pos e showing
he mode nis design o he new mosque hangs in he cou ya d o he em-
po a y Ahali Mosque. The mobilisa ion o Ba umi’s Muslims in claiming he
ci y as hei own by p aying ou side is a speci ic way o aising awa eness
o hei p esence and can be seen as a ype o s ee p o es agains being
subjuga ed as ‘o he ’ Geo gians.
A new le el o sel -o ganisa ion
In June 2016, local Muslims es ablished he Founda ion o E ec ing a New
Mosque in Ba umi. Since hen, hanks o he ounda ion’s und aising e -
o s, membe s o he Muslim communi y pu chased a plo o land o he
Ahali Mosque. Wi hin his le el o sel -o ganisa ion, Muslim ac i is s col-
lec ed 12,000 signa u es and submi ed a eques o he local and cen al
go e nmen s asking o a piece o land on which o build a new mosque.
Communi y membe s pu up a ence a ound he si e o he u u e mosque in
Abashidze S ee , buil a empo a y wooden cons uc ion, and had a sewe -
age sys em and wa e pipes connec ed. FIGURE 13
Ini ia ed by he ounda ion and he Geo gian Muslim Union, a modes em-
po a y cons uc ion o he u u e mosque was symbolically inaugu a ed
on 26 May 2017, Geo gia’s independence day. In he wo ds o Ta iel Nakaid-
ze, he chai man o he Geo gian Muslim Union:
„„26 May was also a F iday, so we used he pe ec coincidence and opened
he new mosque on Jummah day [ he Muslim day o collec i e p aye ]
and he coun y’s na ional holiday a he same ime.32
Acco ding o he ounda ion, he u u e mosque should be no only a p aye
house o belie e s bu also a cul u al cen e o con e ences and educa-
ional and cul u al ac i i ies as well as a social enue o locals and ou is s
o all backg ounds.33
32 Au ho in e iew, Ba umi, Ma ch 2019.
33 Au ho in e iew wi h a ep esen a i e o he Founda ion o E ec ing a New Mosque in
Ba umi, 15 Decembe 2018.
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
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Coope a ion wi h secula and in e na ional o ganisa ions
O e he las decade, he e has eme ged a new solida i y wi h non- eligious
ex e nal ac o s ha empowe Adja a’s s igma ised Geo gian Muslims.
Th ough a ange o a - eaching ac i i ies, Muslim ac i is s ha e p oduced
a new sense o agency and os e ed no only a eligious bu also a ci ic iden-
i y. Ba umi’s Muslim ac i is s a e suppo ed by a se o ac o s ou side he
eligious communi y: Geo gian non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions like he
Human Righ s Educa ion and Moni o ing Cen e (EMC)34 and he Tole ance
and Di e si y Ins i u e (TDI) as well as in e na ional o ganisa ions such as
he Uni ed S a es Agency o In e na ional De elopmen .
Acco ding o Tam a Mikeladze, a membe o he EMC, he main ole o he
non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions was as ollows:
34 The EMC wo ks on human igh s causes and aims o suppo he c ea ion o a ee and
equal socie y based on solida i y.
FIGURE 13
The p oposed Ahali Mosque, Ma ch 2019
Sou ce: Tsypylma Da ie a
Muslim ac i is s ha e
os e ed no only a
eligious bu also a
ci ic iden i y.
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
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„„We ha e been suppo ing he Muslim communi y mainly wi h legal
and igh s- ela ed suppo , legal counselling ( o example, in pu chas-
ing a plo o land), ep esen ing hei in e es s in cou , mee ing wi h
ep esen a i es, and suppo ing hem wi h legal ad ocacy.35
Con o e sial deba es abou he cons uc ion o places o wo ship ein-
o ced eligious compe i ion on he g ound ha can escala e in o in ole -
ance o eligious mino i ies. In he case o Ba umi’s Muslims, his compe i-
ion mo i a ed he communi y o adop ci ic s a egies in he igh o hei
igh s o he ci y.
The Ba umi Ca hed al o he Mo he o God: an in isible con lic
A less isible pa e n o con es a ion can be obse ed be ween he O ho-
dox Chu ch and Ca holic Ch is ians. The Ba umi Ca hed al o he Mo he
o God ( FIGURE 14) was buil be ween 1898 and 1902 as a Roman Ca holic
Chu ch h ough he sponso ship o powe ul Ca holic Geo gian business-
men, he Zubalash ili b o he s.
Du ing he So ie pe iod, he ca hed al was closed, deconsec a ed, and e-
pu posed as a high- ol age labo a o y. In 1989, wi h he beginning o na-
ionalis poli ics in Geo gia, he building was ans e ed o he O hodox
Chu ch. Because o his ans e , Ba umi’s Ca holic communi y con inues o
35 In e iew conduc ed by Gio gi Tadumadze, a esea ch assis an , in No embe 2019.
Sou ce: Tsypylma Da ie a
FIGURE 14
Ba umi Ca hed al o he Mo he o God, May 2018
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21
iew he chu ch as a ‘dep i ed ca hed al’.36 The Ca holic communi y ci es
he building’s ypical Go hic a chi ec u e as e idence o he communi y’s
cul u al he i age and i s igh o his eligious si e. Indeed, he ca hed al’s
a chi ec u e is no eminiscen o he Geo gian O hodox a chi ec u al a-
di ion.
The ensions be ween he wo eligious g oups a e heigh ened by he allega-
ion ha he O hodox Chu ch is des oying Ca holic he i age by le ing he
building all apa . In he wo ds o one Ca holic eligious expe :
„„E e yone needs hei own p ope y, and we need ou s oo. Nobody pays
a en ion o he in e io o he old ca hed al. The escoes a e damaged,
wa e is leaking om he dome, [ he O hodox Chu ch] is delibe a ely
no epai ing he emple, hey wan o emo e any e idence o Ca holic
he i age.37
A he same ime, he Ca holic communi y epo s expe iences o exclusion
and hos ili y om he O hodox communi y:
„„I wen inside he ca hed al se e al mon hs ago. I made he sign o he
c oss in he Ca holic adi ion. When he O hodox pa ishione s no-
iced ha , hey app oached me and called me Sa an and o de ed me
o lea e he emple. The e was ano he case when Ca holic s uden s a -
i ed om [ he Geo gian ci y o ] Akhal sikhe and wan ed o go inside
he ca hed al, bu O hodox wo shippe s did no le hem in. I does no
ha e o be so; i is un o una e when Ca holic he i age does no belong
o i s legal hei s.38
Despi e he injus ice pe cei ed by Ba umi’s Ca holic communi y and occa-
sional p o es s agains he con inued possession o he ca hed al, he con-
lic ecei es li le public a en ion. Acco ding o one Ca holic eligious lead-
e , ‘ ou go e nmen s ha e changed since Geo gia’s independence bu none
o hem had a eadiness o speak abou he dep i ed ca hed al’.39 No does
he esponsible au ho i y, he Depa men o Cul u al He i age, ake any ac-
ion o p ese e he cul u al he i age o he Ca holic communi y.
Acco ding o Ca holics, he eason o his si ua ion is he small size o hei
communi y in Ba umi. The di ision be ween he eligious majo i y and mi-
no i y is an impo an ac o in ongoing nego ia ion p ocesses in he ci y.
Like he Ca holic communi y, he O hodox communi y ci es he numbe
o i s ollowe s and he scale o i s in luence on poli ical p ocesses when
jus i ying i s igh o occupy eligious spaces in Ba umi. Acco ding o one
secula expe :
„„The go e nmen would no le non-dominan g oups ha e a cul u al
cen e in he main pa o Ba umi, and his is why hey cons uc ed a
new Ca holic chu ch nea he po .40
36 Au ho in e iew wi h a Ca holic eligious leade , 25 No embe 2018.
37 In e iew wi h a Ca holic eligious expe , Ba umi, No embe 2018.
38 In e iew wi h a Ca holic eligious leade , Ba umi, No embe 2018.
39 In e iew wi h a Ca holic eligious leade , 25 No embe 2018.
40 In e iew wi h a secula expe , 21 No embe 2018.

ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
22
In 1999, he Ca holic Chu ch ecei ed a new, mode nis place o wo ship, he
Chu ch o he Holy Spi i ( FIGURE 15), hanks o he suppo o Adja a’s hen
leade , Aslan Abashidze. Bu he Ca holic communi y con inues o ega d
he Ca hed al o he Mo he o God as i s cul u al he i age. The new Ca holic
building is loca ed in a pe iphe al, disad an aged u ban zone, close o a
main oad and su ounded by a mini an axi ank. Tensions be ween he
O hodox and Ca holic communi ies o e he ca hed al show ha con o-
e sial deba es in Ba umi ake place no only on a isible le el in ol ing
Geo gian Muslims bu also in a less isible manne by shaping he ci y’s
uneasy accommoda ion o eligious di e si y.
Conclusion
Dynamic p ocesses o in e - eligious con es a ion and g owing eligious
compe i ion aise he ques ion o whe he u ban en i onmen s allow o
hinde isible eligious plu alisa ion in Geo gia. While na ional laws and
he s a e’s ecen policy owa ds ai h claim o be sou ces o eligious eg-
ula ion and ole ance o di e si y, ci ies ha e hei own modes o on- he-
g ound egula ion ha p i ilege dis inc eligious g oups in public spaces.
Religious compe i ion can ake di e en o ms. Con lic ing app oaches o a
gi en si e can emain la en o hidden o can escala e in o isible con on-
a ion. A ha s age, he e is only a limi ed possibili y o isible eligious
plu ali y in u ban spaces ha a e domina ed by he Geo gian O hodox
Chu ch. Mo eo e , he close connec ion be ween he O hodox communi y
and he poli ical sphe e is e iden . The O hodox Chu ch is a p i ileged e-
ligious communi y and a poli ical playe in Geo gia, while non-dominan
eligious g oups a e o en sidelined by s a e ins i u ions and ci y adminis-
a ions.
As o eligious places, he in ensi y o con es a ion in hese si es depends on
he le el o suppo om he s a e and on he ole o he O hodox Chu ch.
Sys ema ically igno ing he demands o eligious mino i ies o ecogni ion
o hei igh s c ea es a gap be ween he na ional policy o ole ance and
bo om-up p ac ices ha can inc ease he po en ial o con lic in he e-
gion. The main indings o his epo ela e o he speci ic con ex o Adja a,
bu hey may also be ele an o o he egions o mul i- eligious Geo gia
ha ha e been shaped by pos -socialis unce ain y, globalisa ion, and in-
e -e hnic ensions.
The geopoli ical loca ion o Adja a’s capi al, Ba umi, on he bo de be ween
Geo gia and Tu key signi ican ly de e mines he cu en uneasy nego ia-
ions o e eligious plu ali y in he ci y. Owne ship o e i o y, con ol
o e places o wo ship, and access o eligious educa ion a e c ucial in
he analysis o he ways in which eligious mino i ies a e accommoda ed.
Membe s o hese mino i ies seek o pa icipa e in u ban s uc u es as ec-
ognised ci izens; howe e , a lack o clea legal amewo ks o he ope a ion
o eligious di e si y means ha he managemen , p o ec ion, and egula-
ion o claims o e Geo gia’s sac ed si es a e no ye ixed.
The u ban con ex plays an impo an ole as a space and amewo k o
he mobilisa ion o bo h silen con es a ion and oiced p o es by eligious
Ba umi’s geopoli ical
loca ion signi ican ly
de e mines he cu en
uneasy nego ia ions
o e eligious plu ali y.
Sou ce: Jens Liebchen
FIGURE 15
Chu ch o he Holy Spi i , Ma ch 2019
ZOiS Repo 1 / 2021 Fai h, s a e, and eligious compe i ion in Geo gia
23
mino i ies. The main ac o s in his con ex a e no only ci y adminis a ions
bu also ci il socie y ep esen a i es. The u ban en i onmen may emanci-
pa e ma ginalised ac o s and e eal new iden i y con igu a ions ha chal-
lenge he dominan concep o a singula eligious and na ional iden i y.
The ole o ai h-based non-go e nmen al ci ic ac i ism in Geo gia is pa
o a b oade democ a ic and social mo emen ha may lead o a elaxa-
ion o conse a i e, adi ionalis iews o e i ed eligious o ganisa ions.
Tha , in u n, may gene a e a new unde s anding o wha i means o be
bo h Geo gian and non-O hodox.
Imp in
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