Co esponding au ho : Paul E ungwo o Okayim
Copy igh © 2025 Au ho (s) e ain he copy igh o his a icle. This a icle is published unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License 4.0.
Assessmen o clay mine al deposi s om Nkemkol in Ogoja local go e nmen a ea o
c oss i e s a e o applica ion as aw ma e ials in ce amic indus ies
O u Oga Njo 1, Gab iel Moshe Mo od 1 and Paul E ungwo o Okayim 2, *
1 Depa men o Chemis y, Uni e si y o C oss Ri e S a e, Nige ia.
2 Depa men o Physics, Uni e si y o Calaba , Nige ia.
Wo ld Jou nal o Ad anced Resea ch and Re iews, 2025, 27(03), 001-015
Publica ion his o y: Recei ed on 11 June 2025; e ised on 15 July 2025; accep ed on 01 Sep embe 2025
A icle DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.30574/wja .2025.27.3.2666
Abs ac
This esea ch e alua ed he po en ial o clay deposi s om Nkemkol, Ogoja in C oss Ri e S a e, Nige ia as local aw
ma e ials o indus ial use. Fou samples we e ga he ed om a ious si es in he a ea. The clays we e analyzed using
X- ay luo escence, X- ay and physical p ope y es s o de e mine hei geochemical composi ion, mine al con en , and
key cha ac e is ics. The analysis e ealed high le els o silica (56.41%) and alumina (32.82%), which a e ypical o
aluminosilica e clays. I on oxide con en was mode a ely high a 3.34% Fe2O3. The p edominan clay mine als iden i ied
we e kaolini e (18.9-37.0%) and illi e (0.5-4.15%), along wi h non-clay mine als such as qua z, eldspa s, and me al
oxides. The clays exhibi ed signi ican plas ici y (a e age plas ici y index o 26.61%), acili a ing easy molding and
shaping. The a e age po osi y was 21.33%, sui able o e ac o y applica ions. Fi ing sh inkage anged om 6.5% o
19.2%, wi h densi y measu emen s be ween 1.54 and 1.76 g/cm³, bo h wi hin accep able limi s. Pos - i ing s eng h
me he minimum s anda d o 15 N/mm², wi h an es ima ed e ac o iness o 1680.22°C. O e all, he Nkemkol clays
possess a o able chemical, mine alogical, and physical p ope ies o use in e ac o ies and s uc u al ce amics,
pending some p ocessing modi ica ions. U ilizing hese local deposi s could enhance impo subs i u ion, os e u al
indus ializa ion, and suppo sus ainable de elopmen in Nige ia. Fu he pilo es ing is ecommended o e ine
o mula ions and p ocesses o speci ic ce amic p oduc s, along wi h a comp ehensi e na ional su ey o clay deposi s.
The clays a e deemed sui able o applica ions such as e ac o y b icks, ce amic ablewa e, a chi ec u al ce amics, wall
iles, and po e y i ems.
Keywo ds: Clay mine al deposi s; Ce amic indus ies; C oss Ri e S a e; Geochemical composi ion; Aluminosilica e
clays
1. In oduc ion
Ce amics ha e played a i al ole in human ci iliza ion o cen u ies, se ing a ious pu poses anging om unc ional
o deco a i e applica ions. Ba soum (2003) opined ha he ce amic indus y, which encompasses he p oduc ion o a
wide ange o p oduc s such as b icks, iles, po e y, sani a y wa e, and ad anced echnical ce amics, is a signi ican
con ibu o o he global economy. The success o his indus y hea ily depends on he a ailabili y and quali y o clay
esou ces, as clay is he p ima y aw ma e ial used in ce amic manu ac u ing. Acco ding o Guggenheim and Ma in
(1995), clay is a na u ally occu ing ma e ial composed p ima ily o hyd ous aluminum silica es, along wi h o he
mine als and impu i ies. Mo e speci ically, i is mos ly made up o hyd ous aluminosilica e mine als ha a e o ganized
in igh ly packed laye s o shee s using well-de ined oc ahed al and e ahed al geome y. Acco ding o Ke (1952), i
clay is composed o single uni s o alumina oc ahed al and silica e ahed al, i is ca ego ized s uc u ally as (1:1); i clay
is composed o wo silica e ahed al uni s, wi h an oc ahed al alumina uni sandwiched be ween he silica shee s, i is
classi ied a chi ec u ally as (2:1). The unique p ope ies o clay, including i s plas ici y, wo kabili y, and i ing beha io ,
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make i an indispensable ma e ial in ce amic p oduc ion. El Quahabi e al. (2014) s udied he ce amic indus y's
po en ial o using clay aw ma e ials om he no he n Mo occan egions o Te ouan and Meknes. The au ho s no ed
ha he Te ouan clays ha e medium o low SSA (speci ic su ace a ea) and CEC (ca ion exchange capaci y), acco ding o
he da a, he clayey samples, SiO2 (35–54.3% w ), Al2O3 (20.6–43.9 % w ), and Fe2O3 (9.7–22.4% w ) we e he p incipal
oxides. Whe eas CaO was exclusi ely ound in some Te ouan clay, i anges om 8.0 o 12.0% weigh pe cen in Meknes
clays. The au ho s also no ed ha he majo i y o Te ouan clays showed a no able densi ica ion o ce amic a i e
empe a u es exceeding 1000 °C, whe eas Meknes clays shown his phenomenon s a ing a 800 °C. Consequen ly, he
au ho s concluded ha Te ouan and Meknes clays' chemical, ex u al, and ce amic quali ies sugges ha hey a e
sui able o he c ea ion o s uc u al ce amics.
Resea ch on he cha ac e is ics o Co ombian clay and i s po en ial as an adso ben was conduc ed by Macias-Qui oga
e al. (2018). The au ho s poin ed ou ha acco ding o he chemical analysis, he main oxides a e SiO2 (55.81% w ),
Al2O3 (16.25 w %), and Fe2O3 (7.51 w %) and ha he bulk clay's speci ic su ace a ea, as de e mined by ni ogen
adso p ion, is 45.1 m2/g. They added ha he po en ial o homogenized clay and o ganoclay o he emo al o hea y
me als in aqueous solu ions was demons a ed by hei achie emen o C (III) and C (IV) emo als g ea e han 85.05
± 2.04% (pH be ween 3 and 4) and 82.93 ± 1.03 % (pH be ween 3 and 5), espec i ely.
Aghaye and Kucukuysal (2018) in es iga ed Usak clay's ce amic quali ies in ela ion o Uk ainian clay. The esul s
demons a ed ha he samples di e ed, wi h qua z domina ing USC (uni ies soil classi ica ion) and kaolini e
domina ing UKC (unmodi ied kaolini e clay). Gi en ha USC mel s a ound 1300°C, i is unlikely ha i can be ca ego ised
as e ac o y. This ea u e does, howe e , poin o a po en ial inancial bene i o USC in e ms o c ea ing echnological
ai s a educed empe a u es.
Akowanou e al. (2017) conduc ed a s udy o cha ac e ize clays om he "Se" egion in he Sou he n pa o Benin, which
a e u ilized in he p oduc ion o ce amic wa e il e s. Th ee clay samples we e ob ained om a qua y in "Se", si ua ed
in he sou hwes e n egion o he Benin Republic. The samples unde wen g anulome ic e alua ion, X- ay Powde
Di ac ion (XRD), loss on igni ion (LOI), ca ion exchange capaci y (CEC), and measu emen o A e be g's limi s o
cha ac e iza ion. The clays' majo elemen al composi ions we e es ablished. The chemical and mine alogical
in es iga ion e eals ha all o he samples consis o di e en p opo ions o qua z and kaolini e, wi h musco i e and
e miculi e being p esen as well. Addi ionally, hey sugges ha he clay componen s a e composed o silico-aluminous
clays. The CEC and N2 adso p ion esul s indica e a low CEC and speci ic su ace a ea, which is consis en wi h he
exis ence o qua z and kaolini e qua z. The examined samples demons a ed ha he clays possess a high deg ee o
plas ici y, wi h an o ganic ma e concen a ion a ying om 7.8% o 9.8% (as de e mined by loss on igni ion). The
TGA ( he mog a ime ic analysis) esea ch indica ed ha he op imal sin e ing empe a u es ange om 700°C and
highe . The au ho s no ed ha based on hei mine al composi ion and physical p ope ies, he clays a e excellen as
aw ma e ial o ce amic indus ies, no ably o ce amic wa e il e s. Abuh e al. (2018) explo ed he ce amics
applica ion o Mgbom clay: cha ac e isa ion and mic o-s uc u al esea ch. The physical, chemical and spec al
cha ac e iza ion o he clay was ca ied ou . I was e ealed ha band co esponding wi h qua z, ca bona es and
kaolini e we e obse ed. The x- ay examina ion e ealed he exis ence o qua z (SiO2). Kaolini e (Al2Si2O5 wi h
hema i e (Fe2O3). The physical cha ac e iza ion also indica ed alues o modulus o plas ici y (1.23) and wa e o
plas ici y (46%) which cha ac e ises he clay as s ong, plas ic and expansi e. F om he chemical composi ion p oduced
o SiO2 is deemed accep able o pape , pain , mid- empe a u e e ac o y, glazes and clay wa es ce amics bu low
alues o Al2O3 and high alues o Fe2O3.
Ombaka (2016) de e mined he cha ac e is ics and ca ego iza ion o clay-based subs ances o p ospec i e applica ions
in Rugi Wa d, Kanya. The chemical and physical cha ac e is ics o he clayey mine als go e n hei employmen in he
p ocess indus ies and bene icia ion necessa y be o e usage. The s udy aimed a es ablishing he po en iali y o clayey
mine als om he s udy a ea, and he possibili ies o explo ing and u ilising hem in o de o accele a e indus ial
de elopmen and imp o e economic sel - eliance o Kenya as a na ion. I was shown ha he clay samples composed o
albi e (5 - 16.7 %), kaolini e (11.4 - 36.2 %), mic ocline (15.2 - 35.3 %), qua z (24.3 - 68.1 %), ho nblend (7.6% in
samples om Nyamwa alone) and o he mine al impu i ies in iny amoun . The da a shows ha clayey mine als om
he esea ch a ea can be u ilised o comme cial manu ac u ing o ce amic p oduc s ollowing bene icia ion using low
cos and en i onmen ally iendly p ocesses in o de o educe he amoun s o i on, qua z, and o he impu i ies o
accep able le els.
I uma e al. (2018) explo ed he applica ion o Nkpuma-Akpa akpa clay in ce amics; cha ac e iza ion and mic o
s uc u al esea ch. Chemical, mechanical and spec al analysis o he clay was ca ied ou o acqui e addi ional
in o ma ion om his clay ound in comme cial quan i y a Ebonyi S a e Nige ia. The examined samples we e
cons i u ed o qua z, qandili e, a agoni e, musco i e and a a ase. Po osi y o he clay was oo much o e ac o y,
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he mal insula ion and o he high po osi y desi able ce amics applica ions. Chemical e alua ion demons a ed he
p esence o luxing oxides a ele a ed le els which a e esponsible o he poo e ac o iness and limi s he applica ion
o he low o mid- empe a u e ce amics p oduc s.
Cha ac e ising he Dabagi clay deposi o i s po en ial in ce amics was s udied by Abubaka e al. (2014). In addi ion o
conduc ing physical p ope y es s o bulk, densi y, pe meabili y, linea dis o ion, he mal shock esis ance, and cold
c ushing s eng h e ac o iness, X- ay lo escence spec ome y was used o he chemical analysis. The indings o
chemical examina ion indica ed ha he clay was cons i u ed o silica (SiO2), 64.50 %; alumina (Al2O3) 16.30 %; i on
oxide (Fe2O3), 14.20%; calcium oxide (CaO), 0.2%; po assium oxide (K2O), 0.74 %; i anium oxide (TiO2), 1.71 % and
o he oxides in aces. While he physical in es iga ion showed ha he clay has an appa en po osi y o 28.46 %, bulk
densi y o 1.81 g/cm3, linea sh inkage o 6.8% he mal shock esis ance o se en cycles, loss on igni ion es 4.46 %,
cold c ushing s eng h o 14138 nm2 and es ima ed e ac o iness o 1,349 °C.
Resea ch on analysis o Mbaukwu clay om Awka, Sou h Anamb a S a e, Nige ia, o Indus ial Pu poses was conduc ed
by Chikwelu e al. (2018). The sample was examined o making plas ici y, sh inkage, mois u e, appa en hickness,
olume ic densi y, loss on igni ing, modulus o up u e, and wa e abso p ion applying es ablished p ocedu es. The
indings o he chemical in es iga ion e ealed ha : SiO2: 42.97%, Al2O3: 23.34%, Fe2O3: 4.95%, Na2O: 2.04%, K2O:
3.67%, MgO: 2.93%, CaO: 3.48%, MnO: 0.97%. Physical s udy indica ed a mean modulus o plas ici y o be 3.43 kg/cm3,
mean making mois u e (26.24%), o al sh inkage ange om 13.5- 15.4%, appa en po osi y om 33.65-28.95%, bulk
densi y o 1.66-1.71 g/cm3 h oughou a empe a u e ange o 900-1200 °C and LOI o 14.55%. The clay is ai ly pu e
due o i s alumina/silica a io (Al2O3:SiO2) o 0.54 compa a i e o 0.84 o pu e kaolini e. The s udy also sugges ed ha
Mbaukwu clay could be sui able o manu ac u e o some ce amic indus ial i ems like iles, able wa e and o he
ce amics wa es p oduc ion. Resea ch on ab ica ion o elec ical po celain insula o using ce amic aw ma e ials o
O omia egion, E hiopia was ca ied ou by Me ga e al. (2019). The aw ma e ials mine alogy, chemical composi ion,
and he mal cha ac e is ics de e mined by u ilising x- ay di ac ome e (XRD), a omic abso p ion spec ome e (AAS)
and he mog a ime y (TGA), espec i ely. Based on he aw ma e ial’s chemical composi ion, i e dis inc po celain
insula o es bodies we e c ea ed a i ing empe a u e o 1000 °C, 1100 °C, 1200 C and 1300 °C. Wa e abso bance,
appa en po osi y, bulk densi y, dielec ic s eng h and mic os uc u e o bu n po celain insula o s we e examined as
a unc ion o i ing empe a u e. The XRD and AAS esul s e ealed ha in Bombowha clay, kaolini e mine al was
disco e ed o be a main mine al cons i uen wi h app eciable silica (46.84 w %) and alumina (36.74 w %) con en wi h
mode a e plas ici y (PI 1/4 19-21%). The po celain insula o body ha was es ed had be e cha ac e is ics han he
o he s. I was composed o 45% kaolin, 45% eldspa , and 10% qua z. I had a wa e abso bance o 0.010%, po osi y
o 0.088%, densi y o 2.466 g/cm3, dielec ic s eng h o 8 K /mm, and a i ing empe a u e o 1300 °C. Addi ionally, i
had enough glassy phase o con ain he qua z and mulli e phases. The e o e, he expe imen al esul e i ied ha
s anda d po celain insula o can be p oduced om locally accessible ce amic aw ma e ials (clay and qua z) in
E hiopia a op imal condi ion.
2. Ma e ials and Me hods
The ieldwo k and sampling ac i i ies in ol ed he use o se e al ma e ials such as a B un on map, sample bags,
hamme , spade, opog aphic maps, GPS de ice, clinome e , measu ing ape, hamme , spade and digi al came a. The
sample p epa a ion p ocess in ol ed he u iliza ion o sealing bags, g inding equipmen , sie e and a jaw c ushe . The
labo a o y was equipped wi h an X-Ray Fluo escence Spec ome e (XRF), p essing equipmen , sample mill, o en o
chemical and mine alogical cha ac e iza ion. The necessa y ma e ials o he physical es ing we e g oo ing ools,
plas ici y cans, an elec onic balance, a kiln, hyd aulic p ess and a u nace. The a ea was dug using a digge while a soil
auge was used o collec he soil om he desi ed dep h and s o ed in an ai igh con aine . A li le po ion o he soil
was imme sed in a beake con aining dis illed wa e whe e he pH and conduc i i y we e measu ed and eco ded. The
empe a u e o he soil was also de e mined insi u by c ea ing a con ac be ween he he mome e and he soil.
The esea ch a ea consis s o clay deposi s ound in sand mining pi s loca ed in he Nkemkol loca ion, Ogoja local
go e nmen a ea o C oss Ri e S a e, Nige ia. A o al o ou samples (A, B, C and D) we e chosen wi hin he la i ude
ange o La i ude: 6° 39' 30.24" N and he longi ude ange o 8° 47' 57.23" E. Figu e 3.1 displays he spa ial a angemen
o sampling loca ions wi hin he a ea o Nkemkol.
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Figu e 1 Geological map o Ogoja
2.1. Field Sampling
To ex ac he ine-g ained, smoo h clay sedimen s, exca a ion ools such as picks and hamme s we e u ilized. The
ex ac ion p ocess ocused on sedimen laye s loca ed be ween 3 o 5 me e s deep wi hin designa ed mining pi s. Access
o hese clay deposi s as shown in igu e 3.2 was con ingen upon he success ul emo al o he o e bu den laye . This
o e bu den, cha ac e ized by i s eddish-b own hue, consis ed o a composi e o la e i ic soil, consolida ed sands one,
and/o loose sand. The p ocess in ol ed sys ema ically emo ing his o e bu den o expose he unde lying clay uni .
The clay laye , once unco e ed, appea ed as subs an ial bed ock o ma ions wi h a ange o colo s including whi e, ligh
g ey, and b own. Wi hin his clay ma ix, occasional inclusions o iable sands one we e also obse ed. These sands one
agmen s exhibi ed a c umbly ex u e, di e en ia ing hem om he mo e solid and consis en clay bed ock. The
emo al o he o e bu den laye was a c i ical s ep in he mining ope a ion, as i allowed o he e icien ex ac ion o
he clay sedimen s. The eddish-b own o e bu den no only consis ed o a ious soil ypes bu also included di e en
sedimen a y ock o ma ions, each equi ing dis inc handling echniques o a oid con amina ion o he clay. As he
o e bu den was s ipped away, ca e ul a en ion was gi en o minimize dis u bance o he unde lying clay uni . This
ensu ed ha he quali y o he clay emained in ac o i s in ended use. O e all, he ex ac ion p ocess was me hodically
execu ed o maximize accessibili y o he clay sedimen s while e ec i ely managing he emo al o he o e bu den. The
use o picks and hamme s acili a ed he p ecise ex ac ion o he clay, while he ca e ul handling o he o e bu den
helped in e ealing he clay uni in i s na u al s a e, albei wi h he occasional p esence o iable sands one elemen s.
2.2. Sample P epa a ion
A e being allowed o ai d y o wo weeks, he clay samples we e mechanically c ushed wi h a jaw c ushe un il hey
we e educed in g ain size o less han 150 mic ons. A po ion o he powde ed ac ion, a ound 40 g ammes, we e
b ough o he lab o mine alogical and chemical analysis and kep in sealed bags. Fo physical es ing, he bulk sample
ha emained was kep . To p e en c oss-con amina ion, he c ushe was comple ely cleaned be o e each new sample.
2.3. Chemical Analysis
The majo oxide composi ion o he clay ac ion was sys ema ically analyzed using X-Ray Fluo escence (XRF)
Spec ome y. To p epa e he samples o accu a e analysis, he clay was i s milled o achie e a ine pa icle size o
less han 150 mic ons. Each sample, consis ing o app oxima ely 30 o 40 g ams o powde ed clay, was ca e ully placed
in o sample cups. The XRF spec ome e was ope a ed wi hin a ol age ange o 35 o 40 kV, which is c ucial o
op imizing he de ec ion o a ious elemen s. Du ing he analy ical p ocess, di ac ion spec a we e eco ded, cap u ing
he unique luo escence emi ed by he di e en elemen s p esen in he clay. These spec al da a we e hen compa ed
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agains a comp ehensi e da abase o ma ch he peaks obse ed. This compa ison allowed o he p ecise de e mina ion
o he weigh pe cen ages o he majo oxides in he clay sample, p o iding de ailed insigh in o i s chemical
composi ion.
2.4. Physical Tes
A comp ehensi e se ies o es s was conduc ed o assess he p ac ical pe o mance cha ac e is ics and indus ial
applicabili y o he Ogoja clay deposi s. These e alua ions aimed o de e mine he clay’s sui abili y o a ious
applica ions and we e ca ied ou ollowing es ablished s anda ds. The es s included assessmen s o he liquid limi ,
plas ic limi , and plas ici y index, all pe o med in acco dance wi h ASTM D4318. These pa ame e s a e c i ical o
unde s anding he wo kabili y and beha io o he clay unde di e en mois u e condi ions. Addi ionally, he i ing
sh inkage o molded clay ba s was measu ed ollowing he p ocedu e ou lined in ASTM C326. This es p o ides insigh s
in o how he clay con ac s upon hea ing, which is essen ial o p edic ing dimensional s abili y du ing indus ial
p ocessing. The e alua ion also encompassed he physical p ope ies o he clay, such as appa en po osi y, wa e
abso p ion, bulk densi y, and appa en speci ic g a i y. These p ope ies we e assessed acco ding o ASTM C20
s anda ds, p o iding a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he clay’s densi y and po osi y cha ac e is ics, which a e
c ucial o i s pe o mance in manu ac u ing applica ions. To u he e alua e he ma e ial’s s uc u al in eg i y, he
comp essi e s eng h o cubic clay specimens was de e mined. This measu e is i al o unde s anding he clay’s load-
bea ing capaci y and i s po en ial use in cons uc ion and manu ac u ing applica ions. Addi ionally, he e ac o iness
o he clay was p edic ed based on i s chemical oxide con en . Re ac o iness is a c i ical a ibu e o ma e ials used in
high- empe a u e applica ions, as i de e mines he clay’s abili y o wi hs and he mal s ess wi hou de o ming o
mel ing. Toge he , hese es s p o ide a de ailed assessmen o he Ogoja clay deposi s, o e ing aluable insigh s in o
hei p ac ical pe o mance and po en ial indus ial applica ions.
3. Resul s
The esul s ob ained in his s udy a e p esen ed in igu es 2 o 10. and in ables 1 and 2.
Figu e 2 Linea sh inkage
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Figu e 3 Loss on igni ion
Figu e 4 Plas ici y
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Figu e 5 Making mois u e
Figu e 6 Cha o he appa en po osi y, appa en densi y and bulk densi y
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Figu e 7 Liquid limi , plas ic limi and plas ic index
Figu e 8 Cold c ushing es
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Table 1 Cold c ushing es
Sample
Cold c ushing es (Nmm2)
A
23.8
B
15.9
C
20.6
D
28.15
Table 2 Majo oxide composi ion o he s udied clay compa ed o indus ial speci ica ions
S udied sample
Indus ial Speci ica ions
Elemen al
Oxides
A
B
C
D
Mean
Range
C m %
R %
Bld %
SIO2
56.39
56.46
56.76
54.38
55.88
54.38-
56.70
45.30-
47.90
67.5
51.00-
70.00
Al2O3
29.6
29.02
30.1
29.25
29.38
29.02-
31.23
37.90-
38.40
26.5
25.00-
44.00
Fe2O3
4,66
4.75
4.88
4.95
4.63
4.06-4.98
13.40-
13.80
0.50-
1.20
0.2-0.7
TiO2
1.13
1.25
1.19
1.27
1.23
1.13-1.34
-
-
-
CaO
1.66
1.75
1.81
1.69
1.7
1.61-1.81
0,03-0.25
0.18-
0.30
0.1-0.2
P2O5
-
0.04
0,04
0.05
0.04
0.04-0.05
-
-
-
K2O
0.89
0.98
0.76
0.88
0.88
0.76-1.01
0.10-0.40
1.10-
3.10
-
MnO
0.07
0.08
0,08
0.06
0.07
0.06-0.08
-
-
-
MgO
4.69
4.99
4.99
4.84
4.81
4.29-4.99
0.20-0.30
0.10-
0.19
0.2-0.7
Na2O
0.87
0.9
0.72
0.82
0.84
0.72-0.90
0.20-0.35
0.20-
1.50
0.8-3.5
LOI
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.03
0.03
0.02-0.05
Sum
100.03
100.24
101.35
98.22
SiO2/Al2O3
6.565
6.6955
6.7657
6.8091
Al2O3/SiO2
0.5249
0.5139
0.5303
0.5378
SiO2/Al2O3
1.9051
19,455
1.8857
1.8591
Na2O/K2O
0.9775
0.9183
0.9473
0.9318
Al2O3/Fe2O3
34.26
33.71
34.98
34.2
CIA
89.6426
88.882
90.1467
89.6139
CIW
921,257
91.8354
92.2463
92.0969
*CIA – Chemical Index o Al e a ion; *CIW – Chemical Index o Wea he ing
