G an Ag eemen numbe :
101058371
P ojec ac onym:
ESTELLA
P ojec i le:
Design o bio-based he mose polyme
wi h ecycling capabili y by dynamic
bonds o bio-composi e manu ac u ing
G an Ag eemen numbe :
101058371
P ojec ac onym:
ESTELLA
P ojec i le:
Design o bio-based he mose
polyme wi h ecycling capabili y by
dynamic bonds o bio-composi e
manu ac u ing
P o o ype Cha ac e iza ion
DELIVERABLE 3.4
Con ac ual Da e o Deli e y:
31-05-2025
Ac ual Da e o Deli e y:
04-07-2025
Lead con ac o o his deli e able:
Au ho (s):
CID
Pa icipan s(s):
CID, WK+
WP con ibu ing o he deli e able:
WP 3
Na u e:
PU
Ve sion
V. 2
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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REVISION TABLE
Documen e sion
Da e
Modi ied sec ions - De ails
V1
04.07.2025
Fi s e sion w i en by CID and WK+
V2
21.07.2025
Second e sion e iewed by ICSO
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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Table o Con en s
TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................................... 3
ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................................... 4
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................................................................. 5
1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 6
2. PROTOTYPES MANUFACTURED ........................................................................................... 7
3. METROLOGICAL EVALUATION ........................................................................................... 9
3.1. PROTOTYPE 1: SCOOTER PLATFORM ................................................................................... 9
3.2. PROTOTYPE 2: WINDOW PROFILE ..................................................................................... 13
4. MECHANICAL TESTS .......................................................................................................... 18
4.1. PROTOTYPE 1: SCOOTER PLATFORM ................................................................................. 19
4.1.1. S a ic Tes ......................................................................................................... 20
4.1.2. Dynamic Tes ................................................................................................... 23
4.1.3. Fa igue Tes ...................................................................................................... 24
4.2. PROTOTYPE 2: WINDOW PROFILE ..................................................................................... 26
4.2.1. S a ic Tes ing .................................................................................................... 27
4.2.2. Dynamic Tes ................................................................................................... 30
4.2.3. Fa igue Tes ing................................................................................................. 33
5. NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING ............................................................................................. 35
6. POST-PROCESSED MICROSTRUCTURAL CHARACTERISATION ........................................ 38
7. LONG-TERM BEHAVIOR EVALUATION.............................................................................. 42
7.1. PROTOTYPE 1: SCOOTER PLATFORM ................................................................................. 43
7.2. PROTOTYPE 2: WINDOW PROFILE ..................................................................................... 51
8. CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................. 58
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................... 59
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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Abb e ia ions
CAD: Compu e -Aided Design
RTM: Resin T ans e Moulding
3D: Th ee-Dimensional
EN: Eu opean No m (No ma Eu opea)
CTE: Spanish Technical Code o Building Regula ions
FEM: Fini e Elemen Me hod
MPa: Megapascal
N·mm: New on pe Millime e
mm: Millime e
g: G ame
s: Second
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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Execu i e Summa y
This deli e able p esen s he esul s o he expe imen al alida ion ca ied
ou on wo p o o ypes manu ac u ed wi h bio-based esins and na u al
ein o cemen s: a scoo e pla o m (ICSO esin and WK+ hemp ib e) and
a window p o ile (ICSO esin and Celabo nanocellulose). The objec i e o
his ask is o assess he s uc u al in eg i y, dimensional s abili y, and
en i onmen al ageing o he de eloped composi es, as pa o he
ESTELLA p ojec .
Th ee main ca ego ies o es ing we e pe o med:
• Dimensional e alua ion, including 3D scanning and local hickness
measu emen s o e i y manu ac u ing consis ency and iden i y
geome ical de ia ions.
• Mechanical es ing, including s a ic, dynamic, and a igue
adap ed o each p o o ype and applica ion.
• En i onmen al ageing o e alua e he in luence on ensile
p ope ies a e chemical abso p ion.
The esul s show ha he scoo e pla o m mee s he mechanical
pe o mance equi emen s, including unde a igue and impac loading.
The window p o ile, while wo king well unde s a ic loads, is mo e sensi i e
o dynamic loads and a igue, especially due o i s agili y unde impac .
The aging s udy con i ms a highe abso p ion sensi i i y in he hemp-
ein o ced composi e, whe eas he nanocellulose- ein o ced ma e ial
exhibi s highe dimensional and mechanical s abili y o e ime due o he
lowe abso p ion.
O e all, he mechanical and en i onmen al beha iou o bo h p o o ypes
con i ms he po en ial o bio-based composi es o ligh weigh
applica ions, al hough u he op imiza ion is equi ed especially o
composi es exposed o dynamic o we condi ions.
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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1. In oduc ion
This deli e able p esen s he cha ac e isa ion o he p o o ypes
manu ac u ed in Task T3.3, wi h he aim o e alua ing hei mechanical
pe o mance, s uc u al in eg i y, and du abili y unde en i onmen al
ageing condi ions.
The p o o ypes (scoo e pla o m and window p o ile) we e de eloped
using he bio-based esin selec ed in Task T3.2 wi h con inuous ib e
ein o cemen (hemp) and sho ib e ein o cemen (nanocellulose). Bo h
p o o ypes ha e been designed wi h po en ial applica ion in he ields o
pe sonal mobili y and he cons uc ion sec o , espec i ely.
The es s ca ied ou in his ask co e h ee main a eas:
• Me ological: o ensu e dimensional s abili y and iden i y de ia ions
ela ed o he manu ac u ing p ocess.
• Mechanical: o e alua e esis ance o s a ic, dynamic and
epe i i e impac loads.
• En i onmen al ageing: o e alua e he e ec o abso p ion on
ma e ial p ope ies ollowing p olonged wa e imme sion.
This deli e able is connec ed di ec ly on he wo k ca ied ou in he
ollowing p e ious asks:
• T3.1: Design o he scoo e pla o m and window p o ile p o o ypes.
• T3.2: Mould design and alida ion o he design h ough simula ion.
• T3.3: Manu ac u ing p o o ypes using RTM (scoo e pla o m) and
open-mould injec ion (window p o ile).
Due o he ype o composi es and manu ac u ing p ocesses i was
de ined a es ing plan o he cha ac e iza ion.
The analysis o he cha ac e iza ion weas es ablished in Deli e able T3.1
(Table 2), including s a ic s eng h, a igue du abili y, weigh educ ion,
and accep able de lec ions unde se ice loads. These s eps we e
de ined p io o p o o ype manu ac u ing and guided he design and
ma e ial selec ion o he p ojec .
The cha ac e isa ion ca ied ou in Task T3.4 p o ides an expe imen al
e alua ion o whe he he manu ac u ed p o o ypes mee hose ini ial
a ge s. The esul s ob ained also allow assessing he sui abili y o he
selec ed bio-based ma e ials o applica ions and con ibu e o a pa ial
alida ion o he s uc u al equi emen s de ined in ea lie p ojec phases.
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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2. P o o ypes manu ac u ed
As desc ibed in he Deli e able T3.3, scoo e pla o m p o o ypes we e
manu ac u ed by RTM p ocess and window p o ile p o o ypes we e
manu ac u ed by open mould injec ion. Once manu ac u ed he scoo e
pla o m, his composi e adop s a ec angula pla e shape, as shown in
he Figu e 1, wi h app oxima e dimensions o 660 × 210 × 4 mm.
On he o he hand, he window p o iles we e ob ained wi h a cons an
c oss-sec ional geome y along hei longi udinal axis and a e shown in
Figu e 1. The dimensions o he manu ac u ed window p o iles we e
78x57x220 mm.
Be o e pe o ming he es cha ac e isa ions, bo h composi es we e
machined o ob ain hei inal es ing geome y as shown in Figu e 2.
The scoo e pla o ms we e machined acco ding o he geome y de ined
in Task T3.1, aiming o eplica e he shape o he Xiaomi scoo e pla o m
used as a e e ence in ha ask. In con as , he window p o iles we e
machined o elimina e i egula i ies a he ends and o ensu e ha all
p o iles had he same inal leng h.
Figu e 1. Manu ac u ed composi es
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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As s a ed in Deli e able T3.3, a o al o 11 scoo e pla o ms and 11 window
p o iles we e selec ed o mechanical es ing.
Figu e 2. Machined p o o ypes a e he manu ac u ing p ocess
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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3. Me ological e alua ion
A me ological e alua ion o he p o o ypes was ca ied ou o e i y he
hickness homogenei y. This is essen ial o ensu e ha he mechanical
p ope ies e alua ed a e no in luenced by signi ican undesi ed
dimensional a ia ions.
To his end, ep esen a i e zones we e de ined on he su ace o each
p o o ype, whe e hickness measu emen s we e aken using a calib a ed
ins umen , KROEPLIN DIGITAL 0–20 mm model. The esul s ob ained will
con i m he dimensional quali y o he pa s selec ed o es ing and
helping o iden i y po en ial i egula i ies om he manu ac u ing p ocess.
Addi ionally, a 3D scan was pe o med on one p o o ype o each ype o
composi e using he Handy Scan Black Ely e de ice and he VX Elemen s
scanning and measu emen so wa e. The aim was o compa e he ac ual
dimensions o he manu ac u ed pa s wi h hose o he CAD models
de eloped du ing Task T3.1.
3.1. P o o ype 1: Scoo e pla o m
A de ailed hickness analysis was ca ied ou o assess he egula i y o he
pla e ob ained ia he RTM p ocess. Fo his pu pose, 9 scoo e pla o m
we e selec ed and di ided in o 8 zones along i s main axis, as shown in
Figu e 3. In each o hese zones, se e al hickness measu emen s we e
aken using he ins umen , and a ep esen a i e alue was calcula ed
pe zone.
Figu e 3. Zones de ined on he scoo e pla o m o me ological e alua ion
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
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Addi ionally, a longi udinal hickness analysis was pe o med by
compa ing alues ob ained in he same zone bu a wo di e en sec ions
o he p o ile: he ini ial sec ion (Sec ion 1) and he inal sec ion (Sec ion
5), as shown in Figu e 9. The aim o his analysis is o de e mine whe he
signi ican hickness a ia ions occu along he longi udinal axis, which
could be due o a iable esin low o he mal e ec s du ing cu ing.
Indi idual g aphs we e gene a ed o each zone, showing hickness
measu emen s om bo h sec ions (Sec ion 1 and Sec ion 5) o each o
he ou p o iles.
Wi h Figu e 9 is possible o compa e he hickness alues o each zone
be ween he wo longi udinal sec ions, p o iding he s abili y o wall
hickness along he p o ile leng h. Gene ally, di e ences be ween
sec ions a e mino o mos zones, sugges ing a ela i ely uni o m hickness
dis ibu ion along he p o ile. None heless, some excep ions we e no ed,
such as in Zones 1 and 4, whe e mo e signi ican de ia ions we e de ec ed
be ween he wo sec ions in ce ain p o o ypes. In pa icula , p o ile 3
exhibi ed a maximum de ia ion o 0.189 mm be ween Zones 1 and 4,
po en ially indica ing a sligh ly asymme ic ma e ial dis ibu ion in hose
walls. This analysis con i ms a longi udinal hickness s abili y, wi h small
a ia ions ha do no damage he dimensional in eg i y o he window
p o ile.
Finally, a s a is ical analysis o he hickness alues o each manu ac u ed
p o ile was ca ied ou (¡E o ! No se encuen a el o igen de la e e encia.)
o assess he manu ac u ing p ocess and he homogenei y be ween
di e en p o iles. The analysis includes mean alue, s anda d de ia ion,
minimum and maximum alues, and he 25 h, 50 h and 75 h pe cen iles.
Figu e 9. Longi udinal hickness analysis o he es ed window p o iles
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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The esul s show ha he p o iles exhibi good dimensional alidi y, wi h
mode a e s anda d de ia ions and alues clus e ed a ound he mean.
No ably, p o ile 1 exhibi ed he lowes dispe sion, while p o ile 3 showed
he highes a iabili y, possibly due o sligh di e ences du ing cu ing o
esin low du ing injec ion. Ne e heless, all p o iles emain wi hin a
easonable ange (be ween 3.645-4.158mm), wi hou signi ican ou lie s,
con i ming he epea abili y o he p ocess.
Mos o he da a used o he me ological assessmen o he window
p o iles we e ob ained om 3D scans o he ou measu ed p o iles.
Addi ionally, his scanning p ocess allows he compa ison be ween he
manu ac u ed geome ies and he e e ence CAD ile used o design he
injec ion mould. Figu e 10 shows selec ed images om he dimensional
epo gene a ed using he Handy Scan Black Ely e de ice and VX
Elemen s scanning and measu emen so wa e.
Figu e 10. 3D scan o he window p o iles
Table 6.S a is ical analysis o he measu ed hickness o he window p o iles
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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4. Mechanical es s
Mechanical es cha ac e isa ion has been ca ied ou on he scoo e
pla o ms and window p o iles in o de o e alua e he s uc u al
beha iou o he p o o ypes unde di e en loading condi ions.
The es s pe o med a e di ided in o h ee main ca ego ies:
• S a ic es s, which allow he de e mina ion o de o ma ion,
maximum load capaci y, and s i ness o he p o o ypes unde
quasi-s a ic condi ions.
• Dynamic es s, aimed o analyse he beha iou unde impac s o
sho -du a ion loads.
• Fa igue es s, used o s udy he esis ance o he p o o ypes unde
epea ed cyclic loads.
A o al o h ee uni s we e manu ac u ed o he s a ic and dynamic es s,
and i e uni s we e p oduced o he a igue es s o each o he wo
p o o ypes.
Each ype o es is desc ibed in de ail in he ollowing sec ions, including
he p ocedu e adop ed and he analysis o he esul s ob ained.
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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4.1. P o o ype 1: Scoo e pla o m
The es s conduc ed on he scoo e pla o ms we e in ended o assess
hei s uc u al pe o mance unde a ious loading condi ions
ep esen a i e o ac ual u ban use. To his end, ele en manu ac u ed
pla o ms a e used.
To alida e he design de eloped in Task T3.1 and o in o m he design o
he es ix u e, a 3D model (.s l o ma ) o a comme cial Xiaomi scoo e
was downloaded and used as a geome ic e e ence o he pla o m
de elopmen in Task T3.1.
Figu e 11 shows a di ec compa ison be ween he CAD model o he
pla o m and he scanned model o he o iginal scoo e , con i ming
dimensional compa ibili y and ensu ing ha he designed componen i s
wi hin he ac ual moun ing and ope a ing condi ions.
Mo eo e , he 3D model o he e e ence scoo e was analysed o
unde s and how he su ounding componen s such as he chassis and
wheels con ibu e s uc u ally du ing ope a ion. Based on his analysis, a
es was designed o eplica e he eal loading and suppo condi ions by
he scoo e when someone will use. The ix u e consis s o a s uc u e made
om ec angula -sec ion aluminium ubes ha simula es he scoo e
chassis and allows he pla o m o be ixed by bol s.
Solid wheels, simila o he o iginal ones and compa ible wi h he
e e ence model, we e also in eg a ed in o he ix u e o be e eplica e
Figu e 11. Scoo e pla o m designed in he T3.1 ask and o e laid wi h he 3D model o
he Xiaomi scoo e aken as a e e ence.
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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he dynamic esponse o he ull sys em du ing es ing. Figu e 12 shows he
cus om ix u e used o secu e he pla o ms du ing all mechanical es s.
The pla o ms we e subjec ed o h ee ypes o es s: s a ic, dynamic and
a igue. Each es ype was used o in es iga e di e en aspec s o he
mechanical beha iou o he p o o ype, such as s eng h, ene gy
abso p ion capaci y, cumula i e de o ma ion and damage ole ance.
The es p ocedu es we e adap ed o he speci ic geome y o he
pla o m and o he ypical loading condi ions encoun e ed in eal use,
ensu ing a ep esen a i e cha ac e isa ion o he p oduc .
4.1.1. S a ic Tes
The aim o he s a ic es on he scoo e pla o m is o assess i s abili y o
wi hs and a maximum e ical load wi hou unde going pe manen
de o ma ions ha could comp omise i s unc ionali y. The es was de ined
aking as e e ence he EN 17128 s anda d, which speci ies s eng h
equi emen s o pe sonal mobili y de ices.
Speci ically, he s anda d s a es ha a load equi alen o he maximum
payload o he ehicle, mul iplied by a sa e y ac o o 2.5, mus be
applied o e a con ac a ea o 100 mm × 100 mm o a speci ied du a ion.
The pla o m is placed in o a igid ix u e simula ing he ac ual ins alla ion
on he scoo e chassis, using he same a achmen poin s de ined du ing
he design phase based on he Xiaomi e e ence model, as shown in
Figu e 12.
In his case, and in acco dance wi h he s anda d's ecommenda ions, a
load o 250 kg was applied o he cen e o he pla o m and main ained
o 10 minu es. The load was applied using a pneuma ic wo king wi h a
maximum o ce o 25 kN and a load cell wi h he same capaci y.
The scoo e pla o ms 1, 2 and 3 we e es ed in he s a ic es .
A e emo ing he load, he esidual de o ma ion was measu ed. To be
conside ed alid, he esidual displacemen mus be less han 3 mm.
Figu e 12. Fixings on he scoo e pla o m o all mechanical es s
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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Assembly.
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This p ocedu e allows e i ica ion o he s a ic s eng h o he
manu ac u ed composi es when wo king wi h he es o he s uc u al
elemen s, and alida es i s pe o mance unde a loading condi ion
ep esen a i e o eal-wo ld use. Figu e 13 shows he se up used o he
s a ic es on he scoo e pla o m.
The esul s o he s a ic es s a e p esen ed in Figu e 14, which shows he
o ce–displacemen cu es ob ained o he h ee es ed pla o ms. All
specimens suppo ed he applied load o 2500 N (equi alen o 250 kg)
wi hou exhibi ing any isible damage o esidual de o ma ion, eaching
he c i e ia de ined by he EN 17128 s anda d.
The maximum displacemen eco ded by he anged om 11 mm o
12 mm, wi h mino a ia ions be ween es s. This displacemen includes he
combined de o ma ion o he pla o m, he aluminium suppo s uc u e,
and any compliance in he sys em. A e unloading, no isible pe manen
de o ma ion was obse ed in he es ed pla o ms, sugges ing ully elas ic
beha iou unde he applied load.
Figu e 13. S a ic es se up o he scoo e pla o m
Figu e 14. Resul s o he s a ic es o he scoo e pla o m
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
Deli e able T3.4
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The o ce–displacemen cu es show a consis en and ep oducible
mechanical esponse ac oss all es s, wi h an ini ially linea end indica ing
good s uc u al s i ness. No signs o damage such as c acking,
delamina ion, o su ace deg ada ion we e de ec ed upon isual
inspec ion. These esul s con i m he s a ic load-bea ing capaci y o he
hemp- ein o ced esin pla o m and i s sui abili y o u ban mobili y
condi ions.
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4.1.2. Dynamic Tes
The pu pose o his es is o simula e he dynamic loads expe ienced by
he pla o m du ing egula scoo e use, such as iding o e bumps,
descending ke bs, o impac s esul ing om ab up manoeu es. I s
de ini ion is based on he EN 17128 s anda d, which es ablishes sa e y
c i e ia o pe sonal mobili y de ices.
The p ocedu e consis s o pe o ming a con olled e ical impac on he
pla o m, which is placed on a es ep oducing he ac ual ins alla ion
condi ions and allowing o a ion abou he ea axle. Fi s , a s a ic mass o
50 kg is secu ed a he cen e o he pla o m o simula e he weigh o an
use . The assembly is hen ixed in such a way ha he ea wheel can pi o
a ound i s cen al axis. Finally, he on wheel is aised o a speci ic heigh
o 200 ± 1 mm and d opped on o a igid s eel ame.
Figu e 15 shows he con igu a ion used o he dynamic es on he scoo e
pla o m.
Following he es , he pla o m is isually inspec ed o signs o damage,
such as c acks, delamina ions, o esidual de o ma ions. The pla o m is
conside ha ing passed he es i no s uc u al damage o pe manen
de o ma ion exceeding he 3 mm limi (as de ined by he s anda d) is
de ec ed. Finally, all pla o ms suppo ed he es wi hou pe manen
de o ma ion, c acks o ac u es.
The scoo e pla o ms 4, 5 and 6 we e es ed in he dynamic es .
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This es p o ides an assessmen o he impac esis ance o he hemp-
ein o ced esin ma e ial used in he pla o m and i s abili y o abso b
ene gy wi hou comp omising s uc u al in eg i y.
The dynamic impac es was pe o med on h ee di e en scoo e
pla o ms, each o which unde wen a single d op es as desc ibed. In all
h ee es , he pla o ms success ully wi hs ood he impac wi hou
exhibi ing isible damage, c acks, delamina ion, o pe manen
de o ma ion. These esul s con i m ha he pla o ms mee he
accep ance c i e ia de ined in he EN 17128 s anda d, whe e esidual
de o ma ion mus emain below 3 mm and no s uc u al ailu e mus occu .
Al hough he e ical de o ma ion was no quan i a i ely eco ded du ing
he es , isual inspec ion con i med ha all specimens e ained hei
geome y and s uc u al unc ionali y a e impac . No signs o damage o
de achmen we e obse ed a he assembly poin s o along he pla o m
su ace.
O e all, his es con i ms he capaci y o he hemp- ein o ced esin
composi e o wi hs and dynamic impac s ep esen a i e o eal-wo ld
scoo e use. The ma e ial demons a ed adequa e ene gy abso p ion and
s uc u al in eg i y, suppo ing i s po en ial applica ion in u ban mobili y
de ices.
4.1.3. Fa igue Tes
The a igue es was designed o e alua e he long- e m mechanical
du abili y o he scoo e pla o m when subjec ed o epea ed loading,
simula ing ypical usage condi ions o e i s se ice li e. The p ocedu e was
Figu e 15. Dynamic es se up on he scoo e pla o m
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de ined based on he EN 17128 s anda d, adap ed o he a ailable
es ing esou ces and ailo ed o he geome y o he ab ica ed
p o o ypes.
The scoo e pla o ms 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 we e es ed in he a igue es
(pla o ms 10 and 11 we e no measu ed).
The es consis ed o applying an oscilla ing e ical load a he cen e o
he pla o m, which was placed on a igid suppo eplica ing eal
condi ions, like shown in Figu e 12. The load applied co esponded o
app oxima ely 80% o he es ima ed maximum use weigh (80 kg) and
was deli e ed using he same pneuma ic and load cell employed in he
s a ic es . The loading equency was se o 0.67 Hz (one cycle e e y 1.5
seconds), comple ing a o al o 15,000 cycles. This co esponds o a high-
usage scena io equi alen o app oxima ely 5 impac s pe day o e an
eigh -yea pe iod.
Fi e un es ed pla o ms we e subjec ed o his a igue es . The
accep ance c i e ion was de ined as he absence o isible damage
(c acks, ac u es, o delamina ion) and no signi ican esidual
de o ma ion upon comple ion o he es .
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To igidly secu e he p o ile du ing he es , he cus om ix u e shown in
Figu e 18 was employed. The ull es se up is illus a ed in Figu e 22.
The impac o was eleased eely om a ious heigh s on o he cen e o
one o he p o ile’s ou e aces, s a ing om he minimum d op heigh
speci ied in he s anda d (100 mm, co esponding o Class 0). I he p o ile
wi hs ood he impac wi hou exhibi ing any signs o pe manen
de o ma ion, c acking, ac u e o o he ailu e indica o s, he d op heigh
was p og essi ely inc eased. O he wise, he p o ile was classi ied
acco ding o he las d op heigh sus ained wi hou isible ailu e.
Figu e 23 shows he classi ica ion able de ined in he UNE-EN 13049
s anda d o so and hea y body impac esis ance.
This es was conduc ed on h ee o he window p o iles manu ac u ed
wi hin he p ojec . In wo o he h ee cases, he p o ile unde wen
comple e ac u e upon elease o he impac o om he ini ial 100 mm
heigh speci ied by he UNE-EN 13049 s anda d. As a esul , no u he es s
o heigh inc emen s we e equi ed. In he hi d case, he p o ile
de eloped a isible c ack bu did no comple ely ac u e.
Figu e 23. Table o impac heigh s ex ac ed om he UNE EN 13049 s anda d.
Figu e 22. Dynamic es on he window p o ile
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Figu e 24 displays he esul s o he h ee impac es s, illus a ing he
ac u es and c acks obse ed on he p o iles a e es ing. In all cases, he
p o iles ailed unde he impac om he lowes s anda d-de ined heigh
(100 mm).
Acco ding o he adap ed classi ica ion c i e ia om UNE-EN 13049, he
es ed p o iles all wi hin Class 0, indica ing e y limi ed esis ance o
localised impac s. This beha iou may be in luenced by he p o ile
geome y, he ype o ein o cemen used, and he inhe en b i leness o
he bio-based ma e ials selec ed o hei manu ac u e.
Howe e , i is impo an o no e ha his classi ica ion is no di ec ly
equi alen o ha de ined in he o iginal s anda d, as he es ing
p ocedu e was ex apola ed and adap ed o sui he speci ic con ex o
he p ojec . In he s anda dised p ocedu e, he impac o s ikes he
glazing panel moun ed wi hin he window, ansmi ing he load indi ec ly
o he ame p o iles. In con as , in his adap ed es , he impac was
applied di ec ly on o he p o ile i sel , esul ing in a much mo e se e e and
localised loading condi ion ha does no ully ep esen he beha iou o
a comple e window assembly.
Mo eo e , he ou come o his es may be u he a ec ed by mul iple
ac o s, such as he simpli ied geome y o he p o ile, he cha ac e is ics
o he ein o cemen ma e ial, and he agili y associa ed wi h he bio-
based composi e used. O e all, he es p o ides an ini ial compa a i e
e e ence ega ding he impac esis ance o such p o iles, al hough i
canno be conside ed a s ic classi ica ion wi hin he o iginal e ms
de ined by UNE-EN 13049.
Figu e 24. Window p o iles a e impac es
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4.2.3. Fa igue Tes ing
The a igue es ca ied ou on he window p o ile aimed o e alua e i s
esis ance o epea ed loads, simula ing he long- e m e ec s o wind-
induced s esses. The me hodology was based on he EN 12211:2017
s anda d, which de ines cyclic wind load es ing o comple e windows,
and he dynamic p essu e was calcula ed in acco dance wi h Eu ocode
1 (EN 1991-1-4).
The window p o iles 7, 8, 9, 10 and 11 we e es ed (none o hem we e
measu ed).
The p o ile was igidly secu ed using he clamping sys em shown in Figu e
18, and he gene al es se up is illus a ed in Figu e 25.
A load o 3000 N was applied o one o he p o ile’s ou e aces using a
s eel pla e connec ed o a pneuma ic ac ua o . The load was applied o
5,000 cycles a a equency o 1 Hz, ollowing a high-demand p o ocol
designed o gene a e signi ican mechanical s esses capable o
p oducing p og essi e damage phenomena wi hou he need o es ing
o e millions o cycles. Figu e 26 shows he loading and unloading
sequence du ing he es .
Figu e 25. Window p o ile a igue es se up
Unload
Load
Figu e 26. Loading and unloading momen o he a igue es o he window p o ile
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In Figu e 27Figu e 27. Fa igue load cycle on window p o iles, he maximum
displacemen o he es ed p o o ypes is plo ed o selec ed cycles,
showing ha all p o iles expe ienced a peak de o ma ion o
app oxima ely 5 mm a he maximum load in each cycle.
O he i e p o iles es ed, P o ile 7 wi hs ood he ull 5,000 loading cycles,
al hough a isible su ace c ack de eloped ac oss a signi ican sec ion o
he componen . In con as , all o he s es e p o iles ailed be o e
comple ing all load cycles and ob aining b i le ac u es. The pos - es
appea ance o he es ed p o iles a e shown in Figu e 28Figu e 28. Resul s
o a igue es ed p o iles.
Figu e 27. Fa igue load cycle on window p o iles
3000 cycles
1500 cycles
5000 cycles
Figu e 28. Resul s o a igue es ed p o iles
2300 cycles
1700 cycles
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5. Non-des uc i e es ing
The objec i e o his expe imen was o de ec de ec s in composi e
ma e ials using he mog aphic non-des uc i e es ing (NDT). The es ed
samples we e scoo e pla o ms pa s ab ica ed wi h i ime -based esin
and hemp na u al ibe ein o cemen .
The mog aphic NDT elies on he de ec ion o in a ed adia ion emi ed
om ex e nal hea sou ce o he su ace o a ma e ial. Va ia ions in su ace
empe a u e can indica e subsu ace de ec s, inconsis encies, o
s uc u al anomalies, allowing o inspec ion wi hou causing any damage
o he sample. All he measu emen s we e pe o med using an in a ed
came a.
To e alua e he p esence and epai o de ec s, he ollowing s eps we e
conduc ed:
1. A baseline he mog aphic image was cap u ed om he on
su ace o a de ec - ee sample.
2. An a i icial su ace c ack was hen in oduced o he sample.
3. The sample was e-imaged o obse e changes in he he mal
p o ile.
4. The damaged a ea was ea ed wi h a ho ai gun and
subsequen ly hea ed in a empe a u e-con olled o en a 70 °C o
ini ia e he i ime ’s sel -healing beha io .
5. A inal he mog aphic measu emen was aken a e he he mal
ea men .
Figu e 29 shows he he mog aphic image o he o iginal, undamaged
sample. No anomalies a e isible in he inspec ed a ea.
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In Figu e 30, a dis inc linea anomaly appea s in he he mog aphic image
a e in oducing he c ack, con i ming he p esence o he de ec .
Figu e 30. The mog aphic image a e inducing a su ace c ack. A clea linea
anomaly is isible in he ma ked a ea, indica ing he p esence o he de ec .
Figu e 29. The mog aphic image o he composi e sample in i s ini ial, de ec - ee
s a e. No anomalies a e isible in he ma ked egion
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Finally, Figu e 31 e eals a signi ican change in he he mal image a e
healing: he whi e line ha p e iously indica ed he c ack has g ea ly
diminished o disappea ed.
While he comple e i ime -based sel -healing beha iou was no
conclusi ely obse ed, he expe imen demons a ed ha he mog aphic
imaging is an e ec i e me hod o iden i ying and moni o ing de ec s in
na u al ibe - ein o ced i ime composi es.
As a conclusion, he mog aphic non-des uc i e es ing p o ed o be a
eliable echnique o de ec ing and acking de ec s in i ime -based
composi e ma e ials. Al hough ull sel -healing beha io was no clea ly
con i med h ough he mal imaging, he esul s indica e he po en ial o
his me hod o moni o ing damage and epai in u u e i ime sys ems.
Figu e 31. The mog aphic image ollowing he mal ea men a 70
°C. The p e iously
isible whi e line is signi ican ly educed, sugges ing pa ial healing o he c ack.
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6. Pos -p ocessed mic os uc u al cha ac e isa ion
Bo h p o o ypes we e cha ac e ized s udying he mic os uc u e pos -
p ocessing. Fo his aim, he cha ac e iza ion esul s we e compa ed wi h
he ini ial composi es.
The cha ac e iza ion used was mic og aphy and ac og aphy. Fo he
mic og aphy, i was s udied he composi es supe icially using an op ical
mic oscope and an elec onic mic oscope. In he case o he
ac og aphy, bo h composi es we e s udied wi h he same echniques
bu analyzed a e he ac u e du ing he mechanical es .
Fi s ly, scoo e pla o m ma e ial was compa ed wi h op ical mic oscope
p e ious and a e mechanical es (Figu e 32 and Figu e 33Figu e 34.
T ans e sal sec ion o he scoo e pla o m ma e ial a e mechanical es
wi h op ical mic oscope). I is obse ed ha in bo h cases, he e is a small
lack o esin. In he case o he specimen a e he ensile es , a
symme ical ac u e ac oss he sec ion i is obse ed. In he case o he
image o he ans e sal sec ion (Figu e 34Figu e 34. T ans e sal sec ion o
he scoo e pla o m ma e ial a e mechanical es wi h op ical
mic oscope), i can be obse ed he i e laye s o he ib es. Mo eo e , a
good adhesion o he ib es and esin is seen in he sec ion.
Figu e 32. Ini ial scoo e pla o m ma e ial wi h op ical mic oscope
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Figu e 33. Scoo e pla o m ma e ial a e mechanical es wi h op ical mic oscope
Figu e 34. T ans e sal sec ion o he scoo e pla o m ma e ial a e
mechanical es wi h op ical mic oscope
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In addi ion, wi h he elec onic mic oscopy, Figu e 35 shows ha he ib es
we e o n du ing he ac u e in he ensile es .
Fu he mo e, window p o ile ma e ial was compa ed also wi h op ical
mic oscope p e ious and a e ensile es (Figu e 36 and Figu e 37). I is
obse ed ha in bo h cases, he e is good dispe sion o he nanocellulose
in he esin. In he case o he specimen a e he ensile es , a symme ical
ac u e ac oss he sec ion i is also obse ed.
Figu e 35. Specimen o he scoo e pla o m ma e ial a e mechanical es wi h elec onic
mic oscope.
Figu e 36. Ini ial window p o ile ma e ial wi h op ical mic oscope
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When compa ing he s ess–s ain cu es (Figu e 41. T ue s ess–s ain cu e
o he e e ence hemp– esin specimens o Figu e 44. Compa ison
be ween e e ence specimens (da k g ey), 1 day (ligh blue), 7 days (da k
blue), and 14 days (black) imme sed specimens), a clea end can be
obse ed in he p og essi e deg ada ion o mechanical p ope ies as he
imme sion ime inc eases. The e e ence (d y) specimens exhibi he
Figu e 43. Compa ison be ween e e ence specimens (da k g ey), 1 day imme sed
specimens (ligh blue), and 7 days imme sed specimens (da k blue) / Elas ic modulus
in 7 day specimens.
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highes maximum s ess alues, as well as a s eepe ini ial slope, indica ing
g ea e s i ness.
A e 1 day o imme sion, a no iceable educ ion in bo h maximum
s eng h and elas ic modulus is al eady appa en . This end con inues in
he 7 days specimens, whe e he loss o s i ness and s eng h becomes
mo e p onounced. Addi ionally, inc eased s ain a ailu e is obse ed in
he aged specimens, sugges ing a educ ion in s uc u al in eg i y and
po en ial plas icisa ion o he ma e ial due o he p esence o mois u e.
The specimens imme sed o 14 days also show a dec ease in mechanical
p ope ies compa ed o he ini ial condi ion. Howe e , he de e io a ion is
no as se e e o sys ema ic as migh be expec ed. Some cu es e en
su pass hose o he 7 days o 1 day g oups in e ms o maximum s ess,
sugges ing ha he ma e ial may each a deg ee o s abilisa ion o
sa u a ion in i s mechanical beha iou once a ce ain le el o wa e
up ake is eached.
The ensile es esul s o specimens imme sed in wa e o 7 days and 14
days show e y simila beha iou , wi h minimal di e ences in s i ness and
s eng h. This sugges s ha he ma e ial may ha e eached a sa u a ion
poin a ound one week o exposu e, beyond which he mechanical
deg ada ion does no signi ican ly p og ess.
The loss in mechanical pe o mance co ela es di ec ly wi h he inc ease
in mois u e con en o e he di e en imme sion pe iods. The obse ed
decline in bo h s i ness and s eng h ollows a clea end wi h p olonged
wa e exposu e, con i ming he nega i e impac o wa e abso p ion on
he s uc u al in eg i y o he ma e ial.
The ela ionship be ween mois u e up ake and mechanical deg ada ion
clea ly highligh s he high suscep ibili y o he hemp- ein o ced ma e ial o
humid en i onmen s. This beha iou unde lines he need o conside
p o ec i e ea men s, coa ings, o physical ba ie s i his ma e ial is o be
used in ou doo o mois u e-exposed applica ions.
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Figu e 45 shows he compa ison o he a e age elas ic modulus o
specimens manu ac u ed wi h hemp ib e and esin, a e being
subjec ed o wa e imme sion o di e en pe iods o ime. I is obse ed
ha he ini ial alue o he elas ic modulus is 1,761.52 MPa, which
ep esen s he o iginal condi ion o he specimens be o e any exposu e o
wa e . A e one day o imme sion, he elas ic modulus dec eases
signi ican ly o 1,049.10 MPa, indica ing a conside able loss o s i ness
Figu e 44. Compa ison be ween e e ence specimens (da k g ey), 1 day (ligh blue), 7
days (da k blue), and 14 days (black) imme sed specimens / Elas ic modulus in 14 day
specimens.
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wi hin he i s 24 hou s. A e se en days, his dec ease con inues mo e
sha ply, eaching a alue o 587.74 MPa, which co esponds o
app oxima ely one hi d o he ini ial alue. Howe e , a e ou een days
o imme sion, a sligh eco e y in he elas ic modulus is obse ed,
inc easing o 624.00 MPa, al hough i emains no iceably lowe han he
ini ial alue.
This beha iou sugges s ha p olonged exposu e o wa e causes a
p og essi e deg ada ion o he mechanical p ope ies o he ma e ial,
possibly due o mois u e abso p ion by he hemp ib es and pa ial
de e io a ion o he esin ma ix. The sligh eco e y a ou een days could
be ela ed o a swelling p ocess o in e nal ea angemen o he ib es,
al hough he ma e ial does no manage o egain i s o iginal p ope ies. In
summa y, hemp ib e and esin specimens show a ma ked loss o elas ic
modulus when imme sed in wa e , pa icula ly du ing he i s ew days,
which is an impo an ac o o conside in applica ions whe e his ype o
ma e ial is exposed o humid en i onmen s.
1761,52
1049,10
587,74
624,00
INITIAL 1 DAY 7 DAYS 14 DAYS
ELASTIC MODULUS [MPA]
ID
COMPARASION BETWEEN SAMPLES (AVG)
Figu e 45. Compa ison be ween e e ence specimens, 1 day, 7 days, and 14 days
imme sed specimens
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
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This e lec s only he au ho ’s iews. The Communi y is no liable o any use ha may be made o he in o ma ion con ained he ein.
7.2. P o o ype 2: Window p o ile
This sec ion p esen s he esul s ob ained om he ensile es s pe o med
on specimens ex ac ed om la pla es manu ac u ed using he same
ma e ial as he window p o iles ( esin ein o ced wi h nanocellulose, Figu e
39b). These specimens we e subjec ed o di e en wa e imme sion
pe iods p io o es ing, wi h he aim o s udying he e olu ion o hei
mechanical p ope ies unde p olonged mois u e exposu e.
Table 11 o Table 13 show he ini ial and inal weigh s o he specimens
a e 1 day, 7 days, and 14 days o wa e imme sion. As can be seen, he
inc ease in mass is signi ican ly lowe compa ed o he o he ma e ial
analysed, wi h abso p ion alues a ound 0.4% a e 1 day, 0.8% a e one
week, and 1.1% a e wo weeks. This con i ms ha he nanocellulose-
ein o ced ma e ial exhibi s low suscep ibili y o mois u e up ake unde
hese exposu e condi ions.
All specimens a e in e nally aceable o he pla e om which hey we e
aken, i espec i e o he du a ion o imme sion. Fo example, se e al
samples om pla e 1 we e es ed ini ially, a e 1 day, 7 days, 14 days o
imme sion.
Table 11. Resin + Nanocellulose. Wa e abso p ion a e 1 day o imme sion
Weigh (g)
Wa e
abso bed (g)
Wa e
abso bed (%)
Ini ial
1 day-Wa e
SPECIMEN-1
10.3691
10.4034
0.0343
0.3
SPECIMEN-2
10.0479
10.0854
0.0375
0.4
SPECIMEN-3
10.2024
10.2402
0.0378
0.4
Table 12. Resin + Nanocellulose. Wa e abso p ion a e 7 days o imme sion
Weigh (g)
Wa e
abso bed (g)
Wa e
abso bed (%)
Ini ial
7 days-Wa e
SPECIMEN-4
10.1929
10.274
0.0811
0.8
SPECIMEN-5
9.9758
10.0536
0.0778
0.8
SPECIMEN-6
10.1081
10.2001
0.0920
0.9
Table 13. Resin + Nanocellulose. Wa e abso p ion a e 14 days o imme sion
Weigh (g)
Wa e
abso bed (g)
Wa e
abso bed (%)
Ini ial
14 days-Wa e
SPECIMEN-7
10.0525
10.1638
0.1113
1.1
SPECIMEN-8
10.2597
10.3801
0.1204
1.2
SPECIMEN-9
10.1239
10.2479
0.1240
1.2
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Figu e 46 shows some o he specimens a e he ensile es .
Figu e 47 o Figu e 50 p esen he ue s ess–s ain cu es ob ained om
he ensile es s conduc ed on he nanocellulose- ein o ced specimens. In
addi ion, he co esponding elas ic modulus alues o each specimen a e
also p o ided.
Figu e 46.Tensile es specimens made o esin and nanocellulose a e es ing
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Figu e 47. T ue s ess–s ain cu e o he e e ence specimens made o esin +
nanocellulose / Elas ic modulus in ini ial specimens
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This e lec s only he au ho ’s iews. The Communi y is no liable o any use ha may be made o he in o ma ion con ained he ein.
Figu e 48. Compa ison o he ue s ess–s ain cu es o he e e ence specimens (da k g ey)
and he specimens imme sed in wa e o 1 day (ligh blue) / Elas ic modulus in 1 day
specimens
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
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This e lec s only he au ho ’s iews. The Communi y is no liable o any use ha may be made o he in o ma ion con ained he ein.
Figu e 49. Compa ison o he ue s ess–s ain cu es o he e e ence specimens (da k
g ey) and he specimens imme sed in wa e o 1 day (ligh blue) and 7 days (da k blue) /
Elas ic modulus in 7 days specimens
G an Ag eemen 101058371 – P ojec ESTELLA
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Figu e 50. Compa ison o he ue s ess–s ain cu es o he e e ence specimens and
he specimens imme sed in wa e o 1 day, 7 days, and 14 days / Elas ic modulus in 14
days specimens
