Nguyen T an Lam; guyen Vie Cuong
Wo king Pape
In agene a ional and in e gene a ional mobili y in Vie
Nam
ADBI Wo king Pape , No. 722
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Asian De elopmen Bank Ins i u e (ADBI), Tokyo
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Nguyen T an Lam; guyen Vie Cuong (2017) : In agene a ional and
in e gene a ional mobili y in Vie Nam, ADBI Wo king Pape , No. 722, Asian De elopmen Bank
Ins i u e (ADBI), Tokyo
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ADBI Wo king Pape Se ies
INTRAGENERATIONAL
AND INTERGENERATIONAL
MOBILITY IN VIET NAM
Nguyen T an Lam and Nguyen Vie Cuong
No. 722
Ap il 2017
Asian De elopmen Bank Ins i u e
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Sugges ed ci a ion:
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Vie Nam. ADBI Wo king Pape 722. Tokyo: Asian De elopmen Bank Ins i u e. A ailable:
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Please con ac he au ho s o in o ma ion abou his pape .
Email: Lam.NguyenT an@ox amno ib.nl
Nguyen T an Lam is policy esea ch specialis a Ox am in Vie Nam. Nguyen Vie Cuong
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ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Abs ac
This s udy examines in agene a ional and in e gene a ional mobili y o employmen and
income in Vie Nam du ing 2004–2008 and 2010–2014. I inds a he high mobili y ac oss
income quin iles. The e was high mobili y o indi iduals by occupa ional skills bu less
mobili y by employmen s a us and sec o s. The upwa d mobili y o occupa ion inc eased
o e ime because o he inc ease in skilled occupa ion. The in e gene a ional elas ici y o
ea nings o pa en s and child en is es ima ed a a ound 0.36. The in e gene a ional
elas ici y is e y simila o 2004 and 2014. Educa ion plays an impo an ole in imp o ing
in e gene a ional mobili y. The in e gene a ional elas ici y o child en wi hou educa ion
deg ees and hose wi h pos -seconda y deg ees is 0.51 and 0.17, espec i ely. Wi h a
pos seconda y deg ee, 80% o people whose pa en s a e unskilled ha e skilled o
nonmanual occupa ion.
Keywo ds: social mobili y, in agene a ional mobili y, in e gene a ional mobili y,
occupa ional mobili y, income mobili y, Vie Nam
JEL Classi ica ion: J62
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Con en s
1. INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 1
2. DATA SETS ............................................................................................................... 2
3. HOUSEHOLD INCOME MOBILITY ........................................................................... 3
3.1 Income Inequali y ........................................................................................... 3
3.2 Income Mobili y .............................................................................................. 4
4. INTRAGENERATIONAL EMPLOYMENT MOBILITY ............................................... 10
4.1 Employmen S uc u e ................................................................................. 10
4.2 Mobili y o Employmen ................................................................................ 11
4.3 Reg ession o Employmen Mobili y ............................................................. 13
5. INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY ........................................................................ 16
5.1 In e gene a ional Employmen Mobili y ........................................................ 16
5.2 In e gene a ional Co ela ions o Ea nings ................................................... 18
5.3 Reg ession o In e gene a ional Mobili y o Employmen .............................. 20
6. CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................... 24
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................... 26
APPENDIX .......................................................................................................................... 28

ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
1. INTRODUCTION
The e a e di e en de ini ions o social mobili y (e.g., Beh man 2000; To che
2015). Social mobili y can e e o mo emen o indi iduals and households ac oss
di e en social posi ions. Social mobili y includes in e gene a ional mobili y and
in agene a ional mobili y. In e gene a ional mobili y is he change in posi ion o a
pe son o a household as compa ed wi h p e ious gene a ions, while in agene a ional
mobili y is he change in posi ion o a pe son o a household o e ime. Social mobili y
can be measu ed in e ms o educa ion, employmen , and income. The mo emen can
be downwa d o upwa d.
The e is an associa ion be ween social mobili y and inequali y. In a socie y wi h high-
income inequali y, he e a e e y ich as well as e y poo households, and amily
backg ound can be an impo an ac o in de e mining income o child en (Co ak
2013a). Fo example, being bo n in a ich amily can esul in be e heal h and
educa ion o child en. Family esou ces and ne wo ks also a ec child en’s ne wo ks
and employmen (Co ak 2013a). Child en bo n in ich amilies a e mo e likely o ha e
good jobs and high ea nings. As a esul , high inequali y can esul in low social
mobili y including bo h in agene a ional and in e gene a ional mobili y. The in e
associa ion be ween in e gene a ional mobili y and inequali y is desc ibed by he G ea
Ga sby cu e (Co ak 2013b). Coun ies wi h high-income inequali y end o ha e highe
in e gene a ional elas ici y o low-income mobili y ac oss he gene a ions.
Vie Nam has achie ed high economic g ow h du ing he ecen decades. Po e y has
signi ican ly dec eased o e ime. The p opo ion o people below he expendi u e
po e y line dec eased om 58.1% in 1993 o 14.5% in 2008 and 10% in 2012. Po e y
a e has declined in all popula ion g oups and in all geog aphic egions (Wo ld Bank
2013).1 Howe e , po e y a e emains e y high in emo e and moun ainous a eas
whe e he e is a high p opo ion o e hnic mino i ies. In some emo e a eas, mo e han
80% o people s ill li e below he po e y line (Nguyen 2011; Lanjouw e al. 2013).
The e is a la ge gap in he li ing s anda ds o e hnic mino i ies and he Kinh people.
The absolu e income gap be ween he op income quin ile and he bo om income
quin ile also ends o inc ease o e ime.
The e is an in luen ial iew ha equali y in oppo uni y can imp o e income equali y.
Poo as well as ich child en should ha e he same oppo uni ies o educa ion and
be e employmen (Black and De e eux 2010). Unde s anding social mobili y is e y
impo an o imp o e equali y in oppo uni ies and wel a e in Vie Nam. Thus, his s udy
p o ides a desc ip i e analysis o he si ua ion and end o social mobili y in Vie Nam,
and subsequen ly examines ac o s associa ed wi h social mobili y. Mo e speci ically,
his s udy has h ee objec i es. The i s is o p esen he desc ip i e analysis o
in agene a ional mobili y o income and employmen mobili y in Vie Nam. The second
is o analyze he in e gene a ional mobili y o employmen and ea nings. The hi d
is o analyze he associa ion o di e en ac o s, especially educa ion, wi h he
in agene a ional and in e gene a ional mobili y. Da a used o his analysis a e
om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys (VHLSS) in 2004, 2008, 2010,
and 2014.
The e is a la ge numbe o s udies on in e gene a ional mobili y ( o e iew e.g., see
Black and De e eux 2010; Solon 2013; and To che 2015). Mos s udies ocus on he
analysis in he Uni ed S a es (US) and o he de eloped coun ies. The e a e ewe
empi ical e idences on in e gene a ional mobili y in de eloping coun ies, possibly
1 Fo po e y measu emen in Vie Nam, see o example Nguyen (2011) and Nguyen and T an (2014).
1
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
because o less a ailable da a se s in hese coun ies. In Vie Nam, wo s udies
es ima e he in e gene a ional elas ici y. Using he VHLSS 1998, He z e al. (2008)
es ima e he elas ici y o educa ion be ween pa en s and child en a 0.58. Em an
and Shilpi (2011) ind a high co ela ion o in e gene a ional occupa ion in Vie Nam
using he VHLSS 1993. Mos ecen ly, B and-Weine e al. (2015) examine he
in agene a ional mobili y o income and occupa ion using VHLSS in 2004 and 2008,
showing a he high-income mobili y in Vie Nam. Howe e , he mobili y o employmen
ac oss sec o s (ag icul u e, se ice, and indus y) is small. Se e al s udies look a
po e y ansi ion o households o e ime (e.g., Nguyen 2012; Baulch and Vu 2010;
Nguyen e al. 2015). O e all, hese s udies ind ha e hnic mino i y and low educa ion
households end o be mo e ch onically poo han he Kinh majo i y and high educa ion
households.
Compa ed wi h p e ious s udies on social mobili y in Vie Nam, his s udy has se e al
di e ences. Fi s , his s udy examines no only in agene a ional mobili y bu also
in e gene a ional mobili y in bo h occupa ional and ea ning ou comes. P e ious s udies
look a ei he in agene a ional mobili y o in e gene a ional mobili y. Second, we use
mos o he ecen VHLSS ( om 2004 o 2014) o examine he change in social mobili y
o e ime. Finally, using eg essions, we a e able o in es iga e he associa ion
be ween se e al socioeconomic ac o s and social mobili y.
This pape is s uc u ed in o i e sec ions. A e he In oduc ion, he second
sec ion in oduces he VHLSS da a se . The hi d sec ion p esen s income inequali y
and in agene a ional income mobili y o households in Vie Nam. The hi d
sec ion analyzes he in agene a ional occupa ional mobili y o indi iduals o e ime.
The ou h sec ion p esen s he analysis o in e gene a ional mobili y. Finally, he i h
sec ion concludes.
2. DATA SETS
This s udy uses se s o VHLSS in 2004, 2008, 2010, and 2014. These su eys we e
conduc ed by he Gene al S a is ics O ice (GSO) o Vie Nam wi h echnical assis ance
om he Wo ld Bank. VHLSSs a e conduc ed e e y 2 yea s. The la es su ey was
eleased in 2014. In his s udy, we use he ou VHLSSs mainly o analyze he changes
in 2004–2008 and in 2010–2014. The su eys con ain household-le el and indi idual-
le el da a. Da a include basic demog aphy, employmen and labo o ce pa icipa ion,
educa ion, heal h, income, expendi u e, housing, ixed asse s and du able goods, and
pa icipa ion o households in po e y alle ia ion p og ams.
The numbe o households sampled in VHLSS 2004, 2008, 2010, and 2014 is
9,188, 9,189, 9,399, and 9,398, espec i ely. The e we e 40,437 indi iduals om he
sampled households o VHLSS 2004, 38,253 o VHLSS 2008, 36,999 o VHLSS
2010, and 35,520 o 2014. The VHLSSs a e ep esen a i e a he u ban/ u al and
egional le els. The e we e 1,817 panel households du ing he VHLSS 2004 and he
VHLSS 2008, 1,817 households o VHLSS 2010, and 1,813 households o VHLSS
2014. Howe e , he e a e no panel da a be ween he VHLSS 2008 and he VHLSS
2010. The VHLSSs o 2010 and 2012 used he new sample ame ( om he 2009
Popula ion and Housing Census). As a esul , he e is no link be ween he VHLSS
2010 and he ea lie VHLSSs.
2
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
3. HOUSEHOLD INCOME MOBILITY
3.1 Income Inequali y
Inequali y in Vie Nam, which is measu ed by he Gini index, has been qui e s able o e
ime. Inequali y inc eased ligh ly in 2008 and 2010 and dec eased in 2012 and 2014.
Figu e 1 p esen s he income and expendi u e Gini indexes du ing 2004–2014. Income
inequali y is highe han expendi u e inequali y, bu he di e ence is small. In 2014, he
income and expendi u e Gini indexes we e 0.39 and 0.35, espec i ely. I should be
no ed ha household su eys can unde es ima e income inequali y since hey do no
cap u e he iches people o he coun y.
Figu e 1: Income and Expendi u e Inequali y o e Time
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys.
Al hough he Gini coe icien did no inc ease o e ime, he gap in income be ween
g oups inc eased o e ime. The absolu e pe capi a income gap be ween u ban and
u al households inc eased om D4,754 ($213) in 2004 o D6,344 ($288) in 2014
(Figu e 2). The gap be ween he Kinh/Hoa and e hnic mino i ies is la ge . No only he
absolu e income gap bu also he ela i e income gap inc eased o e ime. The a io o
pe capi a income o he Kinh/Hoa o ha o e hnic mino i ies inc eased om 2.1 in
2004 o 2.3 in 2014.2
The le panel o Figu e 3 p esen s he pe capi a income o all households and he
40% lowes income households. The Sus ainable De elopmen Goals on inequali y is
o “by 2030, p og essi ely achie e and sus ain income g ow h o he bo om 40 pe
cen o he popula ion a a a e highe han he na ional a e age.” Du ing he pas 10
yea s om 2004 o 2014, he a e age annual g ow h a e o eal pe capi a income o
he bo om 40% o he popula ion is 5.4% pe yea , while he co esponding a e o he
na ional a e age is 5.5% pe yea . To achie e his a ge , households in lowe income
quin iles should ha e a highe g ow h a e o income.
2 The e a e 54 e hnic g oups in Vie Nam, in which he Kinh majo i y accoun s o 85% o he popula ion.
The Kinh ends o li e in del a a eas and has highe li ing s anda ds han o he e hnic mino i ies. The
Hoa (Chinese) is a ich g oup and also li es in del a a eas. Thus, he Hoa is o en g ouped wi h he Kinh
in s udies on household wel a e in Vie Nam.
3
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Figu e 2: Pe Capi a Income by U ban/Ru al and E hnici y
No e: Pe capi a income is measu ed in Janua y 2004 p ices.
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys.
Figu e 3: Pe Capi a Income by Income Quin iles
No e: Pe capi a income is measu ed in Janua y 2004 p ices.
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys.
The igh panel o Figu e 3 shows an impo an poin o income inequali y in Vie Nam.
The e a e no la ge gaps in pe capi a income among hose in he bo om quin ile o he
nea es iches quin ile. Howe e , he e is a la ge jump in pe capi a income om he
nea iches o he iches quin ile. I implies ha he e a e e y ich households in
he iches quin ile, and i would be e y di icul o mo e o he iches quin ile om a
lowe quin ile.
3.2 Income Mobili y
To examine income mobili y, we use panel household da a om VHLSS 2004 and
VHLSS 2008, and om VHLSS 2010 and VHLSS 2014. Households a e g ouped in o
income quin iles. Figu e 4 p esen s he pe cen age o households who imp o ed hei
income le el om he bo om income quin ile ( he 20% lowes income) o a highe
income quin ile o e ime by cha ac e is ics o household heads. I shows ha 45% o
households in he bo om quin ile in 2004 mo ed o a highe income quin ile in 2008.
This igu e is 37% du ing 2010–2014. I implies ha he mobili y o he lowes quin ile
households ended o dec ease o e ime.
4
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table 4 p esen s he employmen s uc u e o wo ke s by di e en cha ac e is ics in
2014. Men a e mo e likely o ha e skilled, wage, and non a m jobs han women. The e
is no di e ence in occupa ion by skills be ween young and olde people. Young people
a e mo e likely o ha e wage jobs in he indus ial sec ion han olde people. The e is a
s ong co ela ion be ween educa ion and employmen . People wi h high educa ion,
especially pos -seconda y school ha e a subs an ially highe p opo ion o skilled and
nonmanual occupa ion, wage, and non a m jobs han hose wi h low educa ion.
The e is also a la ge gap in skilled occupa ion be ween u ban and u al people, and
be ween he Kinh/Hoa and e hnic mino i y people. The sha e o sel -employed and
a m wo ke s is also highe in u al and e hnic mino i y people.
Table 4: Employmen o Indi iduals Aged 15–60 in 2014
G oup
Occupa ion
Employmen
Sec o
Unskilled
Manual
Skilled
Manual
Nonmanual
Sel -
employed
Wage
Ea ne
Ag icul u e
Indus y
Se ice
Sex
Male
43.3
35.8
20.9
51.6
48.4
42.4
28.8
28.8
Female
48.6
21.4
29.9
64.1
35.9
46.5
19.7
33.7
Age
Age 15–30
46.9
28.8
24.3
46.9
53.1
41.5
29.6
29.0
Age 31–60
45.5
28.7
25.8
62.6
37.4
45.8
22.0
32.2
Educa ion
Less p ima y
69.4
21.8
8.8
70.7
29.3
69.5
14.4
16.2
P ima y
56.4
30.1
13.4
66.7
33.3
55.3
24.5
20.2
Lowe -seconda y
53.4
31.5
15.1
68.4
31.6
50.1
27.7
22.2
Uppe -seconda y
37.3
32.2
30.5
56.8
43.2
33.1
29.5
37.4
Pos -seconda y
10.2
26.2
63.5
22.7
77.3
11.3
23.7
65.0
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
54.8
29.2
16.1
63.8
36.2
55.3
23.4
21.3
U ban
22.9
27.6
49.4
42.1
57.9
16.3
26.7
57.0
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
38.7
32.3
28.9
53.3
46.7
36.8
27.6
35.6
E hnic mino i ies
82.1
10.8
7.2
80.3
19.7
82.6
8.0
9.3
To al
45.9
28.7
25.3
57.8
42.2
44.5
24.3
31.2
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su ey 2014.
4.2 Mobili y o Employmen
Figu e 5 p esen s he occupa ion mobili y om unskilled o skilled and manual
occupa ion o e ime using panel da a om he VHLSSs. Among he unskilled wo ke s
in 2004, 17% became skilled o nonmanual wo ke s in 2008. The upwa d mobili y o
occupa ion inc eased du ing 2010–2014. O unskilled wo ke s in 2010, 24% had a
skilled manual o nonmanual job in 2014. The occupa ion mobili y inc eased o all
g oups o wo ke s including e hnic mino i ies and he Kinh/Hoa, u ban and u al people,
male and emale, young and olde , and people wi h di e en educa ion le els.
Howe e , he e is a la ge gap in occupa ion mobili y be ween u ban and u al people,
be ween he Kinh/Hoa and e hnic mino i y people, and be ween people wi h di e en
educa ion le els. Ha ing a high educa ion plays an impo an ole o change om
unskilled o skilled jobs.
11

ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Figu e 5: Pe cen age o People Mo ing om Unskilled o Skilled Occupa ion
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys.
In Table 5, we analyze employmen mobili y du ing 2010–2014 in mo e de ail. The
analysis o employmen mobili y du ing 2004–2008 is p esen ed in Table A.3 in he
Appendix. I shows ha 23.6% o unskilled wo ke s in 2010 ound skilled o nonmanual
jobs in 2014. Howe e , he e was also downwa d mobili y: 19.7% o skilled and
nonmanual wo ke s in 2010 had unskilled jobs in 2014. The mo emen be ween
sel -employed wo ke s and wage wo ke s and mo emen be ween a m and non a m
sec o s we e qui e low.
Table 5: Employmen Mobili y o Indi iduals du ing 2010–2014
Mo ing Up om Unskilled
o Skilled and Nonmanual
Mo ing Down om Skilled
and Nonmanual o Unskilled
Mo ing om Sel -
employed o Wage Jobs
Sex
Male
25.20
17.01
21.06
Female
22.11
22.97
12.71
Age
Age 15–30
23.18
15.08
30.64
Age 31–60
23.72
21.15
12.97
Educa ion
Less p ima y
17.08
34.24
14.28
P ima y
23.04
29.90
17.11
Lowe seconda y
25.03
24.28
17.84
Uppe seconda y
35.22
16.33
14.99
Pos seconda y
41.18
5.45
12.82
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
21.34
25.95
17.63
U ban
40.82
9.74
10.51
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
29.38
18.75
15.20
E hnic mino i ies
10.84
37.12
19.92
To al
23.58
19.69
16.23
con inued on nex page
12
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table 5 con inued
Mo ing om Wage
Jobs o Sel -employed
Mo ing om Ag icul u al
o Nonag icul u al
Mo ing om Nonag icul u al
o Ag icul u al
Sex
Male
19.30
14.65
15.73
Female
22.32
14.35
17.53
Age
Age 15–30
13.54
16.85
13.28
Age 31–60
23.86
13.82
17.80
Educa ion
Less p ima y
24.43
9.03
32.52
P ima y
28.89
12.38
20.71
Lowe seconda y
24.41
19.83
22.97
Uppe seconda y
18.58
22.44
8.51
Pos seconda y
9.75
16.26
4.61
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
23.94
13.89
24.55
U ban
12.94
21.72
4.76
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
18.77
17.25
13.21
E hnic mino i ies
31.10
8.09
57.29
To al
20.43
14.49
16.55
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2010 and 2014.
The e a e only small di e ences in employmen mobili y be ween men and women.
Rega ding age, young people had highe mo emen om sel -employed o employed
employmen , and lowe mo emen om employed o sel -employed employmen han
olde people. Ha ing a high educa ion helps people ind a skilled o nonmanual job and
educe he downwa d change om a skilled o an unskilled job. Ru al people and
e hnic mino i y people a e less likely o mo e up bu mo e likely o mo e down in
employmen han u ban and Kinh/Hoa people.
4.3 Reg ession o Employmen Mobili y
Table 6 p esen s he eg essions o mobili y o occupa ion du ing 2010–2014. The
dependen a iables include he change in occupa ion, employmen s a us, and
wo king sec o s. The analysis o 2004–2008 is p esen ed in Table A.4 in he Appendix.
I shows ha men a e less likely o mo e down om skilled and nonmanual occupa ion
o unskilled occupa ion han women. They a e mo e likely o mo e om sel -employed
o employed (wage) wo k han women.
Age is no co ela ed wi h he occupa ion mo emen . Howe e , he e is a nega i e
ela ionship be ween age and he p obabili y o mo ing om sel -employed o wage
jobs. As age inc eases, he p obabili y o mo e om sel -employed o wage jobs
dec eases a a dec easing a e.
Educa ion plays an impo an ole in labo mobili y om unskilled o skilled
employmen . Compa ed wi h people wi h no educa ion, ha ing a pos -seconda y
deg ee inc eases he p obabili y o mo ing up om unskilled o skilled o nonmanual
occupa ion by 0.19. I also educes he p obabili y o mo ing down om skilled and
manual occupa ion o unskilled occupa ion by 0.23.
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ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table 6: Reg ession o Employmen Mobili y o Indi iduals du ing 2010–2014
Explana o y Va iables
Dependen Va iables
Mo ing Up om Unskilled
o Skilled and Nonmanual
Mo ing Down om Skilled
and Nonmanual o Unskilled
Mo ing om Sel -
employed o Wage Jobs
Male = 1, emale = 0
0.0214
–0.0625***
0.0842***
(0.0227)
(0.0192)
(0.0198)
Age
–0.0021
–0.0086
–0.0183***
(0.0066)
(0.0086)
(0.0064)
Age squa ed
0.0000
0.0001
0.0001*
(0.0001)
(0.0001)
(0.0001)
E hnic mino i ies
(yes = 1;
Kinh, Hoa = 0)
–0.0624
0.1356**
0.0386
(0.0457)
(0.0602)
(0.0412)
Ha ing no educa ional
deg ee
Re e ence
Ha ing p ima y
educa ion
0.0207
–0.0072
0.0002
(0.0272)
(0.0534)
(0.0275)
Ha ing lowe -
seconda y deg ee
0.0553*
–0.0896*
0.0066
(0.0324)
(0.0536)
(0.0296)
Ha ing uppe -
seconda y deg ee
0.1331**
–0.1322**
–0.0558
(0.0558)
(0.0605)
(0.0366)
Ha ing college,
uni e si y
0.1919***
–0.2303***
–0.0340
(0.0672)
(0.0512)
(0.0368)
Household size
–0.0076
0.0003
–0.0196***
(0.0084)
(0.0105)
(0.0069)
P opo ion o child en
below 15
0.0622
0.0441
–0.0685
(0.0661)
(0.0687)
(0.0562)
P opo ion o membe s
abo e 60
–0.0170
0.0027
–0.1122
(0.1017)
(0.0978)
(0.0770)
Log o annual c op land
–0.0056
0.0170***
0.0017
(0.0057)
(0.0046)
(0.0038)
Log o pe ennial c op
land
0.0014
0.0147**
–0.0037
(0.0042)
(0.0062)
(0.0034)
U ban (u ban = 1,
u al = 0)
0.1252*
–0.0023
–0.0564*
(0.0661)
(0.0318)
(0.0339)
Red Ri e Del a
Re e ence
No heas
–0.0801
–0.0370
–0.0746*
(0.0489)
(0.0365)
(0.0415)
No hwes
–0.0840
–0.1252***
–0.1495**
(0.0560)
(0.0464)
(0.0592)
No h Cen al Coas
0.0934*
–0.0223
–0.0186
(0.0512)
(0.0512)
(0.0423)
Sou h Cen al Coas
0.1258*
–0.0746**
0.0256
(0.0654)
(0.0376)
(0.0451)
Cen al Highlands
–0.0654
0.0264
–0.0123
(0.0623)
(0.0637)
(0.0521)
Sou heas
0.1997***
–0.0638
0.0079
(0.0722)
(0.0388)
(0.0450)
Mekong Ri e Del a
0.0488
–0.0505
–0.0353
(0.0562)
(0.0424)
(0.0369)
Cons an
0.2806**
0.4035**
0.7811***
(0.1401)
(0.1628)
(0.1448)
Obse a ions
1,618
1,434
1,721
R-squa ed
0.105
0.134
0.086
con inued on nex page
14
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table 6 con inued
Explana o y Va iables
Dependen Va iables
Mo ing om Wage
Jobs o Sel -employed
Mo ing om Ag icul u al
o Nonag icul u al
Mo ing om Nonag icul u al
o Ag icul u al
Male = 1, emale = 0
–0.0554**
0.0111
–0.0247
(0.0239)
(0.0190)
(0.0165)
Age
–0.0124
0.0050
–0.0159**
(0.0094)
(0.0057)
(0.0076)
Age squa ed
0.0003**
–0.0001*
0.0003**
(0.0001)
(0.0001)
(0.0001)
E hnic mino i ies
(yes = 1;
Kinh, Hoa = 0)
0.0223
–0.0249
0.2369***
(0.0415)
(0.0324)
(0.0582)
Ha ing no educa ional
deg ee
Ha ing p ima y
educa ion
0.0640
0.0009
–0.0655*
(0.0429)
(0.0218)
(0.0379)
Ha ing lowe -
seconda y deg ee
0.0012
0.0427
–0.0646
(0.0419)
(0.0270)
(0.0410)
Ha ing uppe -
seconda y deg ee
–0.0217
0.0523
–0.1508***
(0.0531)
(0.0429)
(0.0433)
Ha ing college,
uni e si y
–0.1145***
0.0212
–0.1960***
(0.0410)
(0.0508)
(0.0410)
Household size
0.0063
–0.0030
–0.0161**
(0.0087)
(0.0062)
(0.0076)
P opo ion o child en
below 15
–0.0070
–0.0790
0.0582
(0.0663)
(0.0527)
(0.0575)
P opo ion o membe s
abo e 60
0.1649
0.0005
0.1431
(0.1034)
(0.0954)
(0.0882)
Log o annual c op land
0.0092**
–0.0115***
0.0196***
(0.0045)
(0.0036)
(0.0039)
Log o pe ennial c op
land
0.0129***
0.0008
0.0165**
(0.0049)
(0.0030)
(0.0064)
U ban (u ban = 1,
u al = 0)
–0.0033
0.0047
–0.0232
(0.0335)
(0.0550)
(0.0245)
Red Ri e Del a
No heas
0.0612
–0.1994***
0.0112
(0.0471)
(0.0469)
(0.0343)
No hwes
0.0316
–0.2548***
0.2584***
(0.0562)
(0.0476)
(0.0755)
No h Cen al Coas
0.0455
–0.1237**
–0.0286
(0.0424)
(0.0478)
(0.0377)
Sou h Cen al Coas
–0.0545
–0.1248**
–0.0625**
(0.0371)
(0.0547)
(0.0265)
Cen al Highlands
0.1496**
–0.2627***
0.0687
(0.0593)
(0.0504)
(0.0454)
Sou heas
–0.0109
–0.1802***
–0.0322
(0.0397)
(0.0551)
(0.0281)
Mekong Ri e Del a
–0.0567
–0.1844***
–0.0334
(0.0431)
(0.0435)
(0.0365)
Cons an
0.2440
0.4182***
0.4624***
(0.1809)
(0.1315)
(0.1446)
Obse a ions
1,331
1,512
1,540
R-squa ed
0.123
0.083
0.246
No es: Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2010–2014.
15
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Educa ion is less co ela ed wi h he employmen and sec o mo emen . The
eg ession esul s show ha educa ion is no co ela ed wi h he mo emen om
sel -employed o employed wo k as well as he mo emen om ag icul u al o
nonag icul u al wo k. Howe e , highe educa ion educes he mo emen om
employed o sel -employed wo k and om nonag icul u al o ag icul u al wo k.
O e all, household composi ion such as household size and age s uc u e is no
co ela ed wi h employmen mobili y o household membe s. Howe e , ha ing mo e
ag icul u al land inc eases he mo emen om employed o sel -employed wo k and
he mo emen om nonag icul u al o ag icul u al wo k. U ban and egional a iables
also ma e o mobili y o employmen , especially he mobili y be ween ag icul u e and
nonag icul u e sec o s. U ban people end o mo e up om unskilled o skilled and
nonmanual occupa ion han u al people. Compa ed wi h wo ke s in he Red Ri e
Del a ( he e e ence g oup), wo ke s in he No h Cen al Coas , Sou h Cen al Coas ,
and Sou heas a e mo e likely o mo e up om unskilled o skilled and nonmanual.
Wo ke s in he no he n moun ains including he No heas and No hwes a e less
likely o mo e om sel -employed o wage jobs as well as mo e om ag icul u al o
nonag icul u al employmen . Wo ke s in he Cen al Highlands a e mo e likely o ansi
om wage jobs o sel -employmen , bu less likely o mo e om ag icul u al o
nonag icul u al employmen .
5. INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY
5.1 In e gene a ional Employmen Mobili y
In his sec ion, we analyze he in e gene a ional mobili y o employmen — ha is, a
co ela ion be ween pa en s’ employmen and child en’s employmen . We use he
sample o child en and pa en s who a e s ill wo king, and child en aged om 15 o 60.
We de ine pa en as he one wi h highe wages— ha is, i he mo he has highe
wages han he a he , he mo he is de ined as he pa en and ice e sa.
Figu e 6 shows ha , in 2004, among child en who had a pa en wi h unskilled
occupa ion, 19% we e able o ind skilled o nonmanual jobs. In o he wo ds, 81% o
child en had unskilled occupa ions like hei pa en s. Occupa ion mobili y g ea ly
imp o ed in 2014: 38% o child en wi h unskilled pa en s ound skilled o nonmanual
occupa ion. One eason o his upwa d mobili y is he inc ease in skilled and
nonmanual employmen du ing 2004–2014.
The imp o emen in occupa ion mobili y is highe o emales and olde people han
males and young people. Educa ion plays an impo an ole o imp o emen in
in e gene a ional mobili y o occupa ional skills. Wi h pos -seconda y deg ee holde s,
80% o people whose pa en s a e unskilled ha e skilled o nonmanual occupa ion.
U ban and Kinh/Hoa people a e mo e likely o ha e skilled and nonmanual occupa ion
han u al and e hnic mino i ies.
Table 7 p esen s he in e gene a ional mobili y o employmen in 2014 by di e en
ypes o employmen and di e en cha ac e is ics o indi iduals. This able p esen s no
only upwa d bu also downwa d in e gene a ional mobili y o employmen . The analysis
o in e gene a ional employmen mobili y in 2004 is p esen ed in Table A.5 in he
Appendix.
16

ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Figu e 6: In e gene a ional Mobili y om Unskilled Pa en s o Skilled Child en
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2004 and 2014.
I shows ha o child en whose pa en s ha e skilled o nonmanual occupa ion, 27.7%
had unskilled occupa ion. This is ega ded as he downwa d in e gene a ional mobili y.
This downwa d a e is e y high o e hnic mino i ies—67% o e hnic mino i y child en
had unskilled occupa ions e en hough hei pa en s had skilled o nonmanual
occupa ions. The Kinh/Hoa and u ban people, especially hose wi h high educa ion,
ha e a ema kably lowe downwa d a e o in e gene a ional skills.
Table 7: In e gene a ional Mobili y o Employmen in 2014
Cha ac e is ics
o Child en
Skill Upwa d: Skilled
Child en and Unskilled
Pa en s
Skill Downwa d: Unskilled
Child en and Skilled
Pa en s
Employmen Upwa d:
Wage Child en and
Sel -employed Pa en s
Sex
Male
35.02
30.14
44.12
Female
42.02
23.97
46.13
Age
Age 15–30
35.92
28.84
43.66
Age 31–60
52.81
17.69
55.11
Educa ion
Less p ima y
14.43
41.38
30.38
P ima y
22.51
44.71
37.08
Lowe seconda y
29.22
43.71
30.74
Uppe seconda y
41.71
29.06
43.64
Pos seconda y
78.58
8.42
73.57
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
34.94
36.17
41.03
U ban
51.99
12.22
59.63
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
49.91
23.47
54.52
E hnic mino i ies
10.86
67.47
17.77
To al
37.62
27.68
44.89
con inued on nex page
17
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table 7 con inued
Cha ac e is ics
o Child en
Employmen Downwa d:
Sel -employed Child en
and Wage Pa en s
Sec o Upwa d:
Nonag icul u al Child en
and Ag icul u al Pa en s
Sec o Downwa d:
Ag icul u al Child en and
Nonag icul u al Pa en s
Sex
Male
20.27
40.05
13.84
Female
24.84
45.44
13.76
Age
Age 15–30
22.60
40.39
14.32
Age 31–60
16.13
57.81
9.82
Educa ion
Less p ima y
21.18
19.76
17.88
P ima y
17.04
29.25
14.80
Lowe seconda y
39.71
31.56
25.86
Uppe seconda y
25.20
50.51
16.78
Pos seconda y
10.16
76.91
4.82
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
26.20
40.52
21.52
U ban
14.17
53.24
3.87
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
19.54
54.87
11.95
E hnic mino i ies
45.43
14.82
45.33
To al
22.02
42.02
13.80
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2014.
O e ime, he e has been an expansion in he o mal sec o as well as he non a m
sec o . The p opo ion o wage wo ke s and nonag icul u al wo ke s end o inc ease
o e ime. As a esul , 44.9% o child en wi h sel -employed pa en s ound wage jobs.
On he o he hand, a ound 22% o child en wi h wage pa en s had sel -employed wo k.
The in e gene a ional mo emen om ag icul u e o nonag icul u e sec o s is highe
han he in e gene a ional mo emen om nonag icul u e o ag icul u e sec o s.
5.2 In e gene a ional Co ela ions o Ea nings
An impo an issue in in e gene a ional mobili y is he es ima e o in e gene a ional
co ela ions o ea nings o he in e gene a ional elas ici y. In his s udy, we use OLS
eg ession o es ima e in e gene a ional elas ici y. Mo e speci ically, we eg ess log o
annual wages o child en on log o annual wages o pa en s as ollows:
𝐿𝑜𝑔(𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛)=𝛼+𝛽𝐿𝑜𝑔�𝑤𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡�+𝐴𝑔𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛 +𝐴𝑔𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑑𝑟𝑒𝑛
2+𝜀.
The coe icien o log o annual wages o pa en s is he es ima e o he
in e gene a ional elas ici y. The abo e model is widely used o es ima e he
in e gene a ional elas ici y o ea ning in empi ical s udies (Black and De e eux 2010).
Since we do no ha e da a on pe manen income in he VHLSSs, we ha e o use
income in he yea o su eys. To co ec o his li e-cycle p oblem, in which income
a ies ac oss age, we con ol age o child en in eg ession. We es ima e he
in e gene a ional elas ici y using pooled samples o VHLSSs 2004, 2008, 2010, and
2014. Tables A6 o A8 in he Appendix p esen he eg ession esul s. Figu es 7 o 9
p esen he es ima es o he in e gene a ional elas ici y o he in e gene a ional
coe icien o di e en g oups o people.
18
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Figu e 7 p esen s he in e gene a ional elas ici y be ween a he s and sons/daugh e s
and he in e gene a ional elas ici y be ween mo he s and sons/daugh e s. I shows ha
he in e gene a ional elas ici y is qui e simila be ween di e en pai s o pa en s and
child en. Howe e , he in e gene a ional elas ici y is highe be ween pa en s and sons
han be ween pa en s and daugh e s. I means ha gi ls end o ha e highe income
mobili y han boys.
In Figu e 8, we es ima e he in e gene a ional elas ici y o child en’s wages wi h espec
o he pa en wi h highe wages. The in e gene a ional elas ici y is 0.36, which implies
ha i he pa en s’ wage inc eases by 1%, hei child en’s wage inc eases by 0.36%.
The highe alue o he in e gene a ional elas ici y means low in e gene a ional
mobili y. This alue is simila o se e al coun ies, such as Ge many and Japan, bu
lowe han F ance, he Uni ed Kingdom, and he US, and highe han Canada,
Aus alia, and he No dic coun ies (acco ding o he es ima es in Co ak 2013a).
Vie Nam also has a lowe in e gene a ional elas ici y han se e al coun ies such as
he People’s Republic o China (0.62 acco ding o Gong e al. 2012), B azil (0.58
acco ding o Fe ei a and Veloso 2006), and Malaysia (0.54 acco ding o G awe 2004).
Figu e 7: In e gene a ional Elas ici y be ween Fa he , Mo he and Son,
and Daugh e
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2004, 2008,
2010, and 2014.
Figu e 8 shows ha he in e gene a ional mobili y was sligh ly highe in 2014 han in
2004. The in e gene a ional mobili y is highe o u ban and Kinh/Hoa people han o
u al and e hnic mino i y people.
Figu e 9 shows a highe in e gene a ional mobili y o women han men. The
in e gene a ional elas ici y is e y simila be ween young and olde people. Figu e 9
shows he impo an ole o educa ion in imp o ing he in e gene a ional mobili y. The
in e gene a ional elas ici y o child en wi hou educa ion deg ees and hose wi h
pos -seconda y deg ees is 0.51 and 0.17, espec i ely.
19
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Figu e 8: In e gene a ional Elas ici y by Ru al/U ban and E hnici y
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2004, 2008,
2010, and 2014.
Figu e 9: In e gene a ional Elas ici y by Sex, Age, and Educa ion
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2004, 2008,
2010, and 2014.
5.3 Reg ession o In e gene a ional Mobili y o Employmen
Finally, Table 8 p esen s he OLS eg ession o in e gene a ional employmen mobili y
using pooled samples o VHLSSs 2004, 2008, 2010, and 2014. I shows ha men a e
less likely o ha e upwa d in e gene a ional mobili y and mo e likely o ha e downwa d
in e gene a ional mobili y han women. The e is an in e ed-U shape be ween upwa d
in e gene a ional mobili y and age. As age inc eases, he p obabili y o ha ing a be e
job han hei pa en s inc eases. Howe e , a e achie ing a peak, he p obabili y o
ha ing a be e job han hei pa en s dec eases wi h age.
20
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Schul z, T. P. 1997. Assessing he p oduc i e benefi s o nu i ion and heal h: an
in eg a ed human capi al app oach. Jou nal o Econome ics 77 (11): 141–148.
______. 2002. Why go e nmen s should in es mo e o educa e gi ls. Wo ld
De elopmen 30 (2): 207–225.
Solon, G. 2013. C oss-Coun y Di e ences in In e gene a ional Ea nings Mobili y.
Jou nal o Economic Pe spec i es 16 (3): 59–66.
To che, F. 2015. Analyses o In e gene a ional Mobili y: An In e disciplina y Re iew.
ANNALS, AAPSS 657.
Wo ld Bank. 2013. Well Begun, No Ye Done: Vie nam's Rema kable P og ess
on Po e y Reduc ion and he Eme ging Challenges. Washing on DC:
The Wo k Bank.
27

ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
APPENDIX
Table A.1. Income Mobili y o Households du ing 2004–2008
% Mo ing Up om he
20% Bo om in 2004 o a
Highe Quin ile in 2008
% Mo ing up om he
40% Bo om in 2004 o a
Highe Quin ile in 2008
% Mo ing Down om
he 40% Top in 2004 o a
Lowe Quin ile in 2008
Sex o household head
Male
52.2
14.4
15.3
Female
42.6
14.0
13.9
Age o household head
Age 15–30
33.0
8.2
20.0
Age 31–60
45.7
14.4
13.9
Educa ion o household head
< P ima y
37.5
9.1
20.1
P ima y
42.9
13.3
13.7
Lowe -seconda y
52.5
14.6
15.5
Uppe -seconda y
74.7
19.6
7.1
Pos seconda y
82.4
22.5
3.2
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
43.8
13.2
16.2
U ban
55.6
17.6
6.9
E hnici y o household head
Kinh and Hoa
56.8
14.4
13.3
E hnic mino i ies
17.3
10.2
25.7
To al
44.7
14.1
14.3
% Mo ing Down om
he 20% Top in 2004 o a
Lowe Quin ile in 2008
Absolu e Change in
pe Capi a Income
2004–2008
(Fields and Ok Index)
Rela i e Change in
pe Capi a Income
2004–2008
Sex o household head
Male
41.0
3,763.0
55.5
Female
46.3
3,693.6
63.3
Age o household head
Age 15–30
60.0
3,310.4
63.4
Age 31–60
44.0
3,735.2
60.9
Educa ion o household head
< P ima y
57.6
2,819.9
58.2
P ima y
54.7
3,357.7
63.7
Lowe -seconda y
52.5
4,004.0
69.4
Uppe -seconda y
29.2
4,140.1
52.5
Pos seconda y
32.5
5,342.0
55.8
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
53.6
3,346.4
64.3
U ban
32.5
4,966.0
54.7
E hnici y o household head
Kinh and Hoa
44.3
3,944.0
60.9
E hnic mino i ies
63.5
1,898.0
64.0
To al
44.6
3,711.6
61.1
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2004 and 2008.
28
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table A.2: Reg ession o Income Mobili y o Households du ing 2004–2008
Explana o y Va iables
Mo ing Up om he
20% Bo om in 2010 o a
Highe Quin ile in 2014
Mo ing Up om he
40% Bo om in 2010 o a
Highe Quin ile in 2014
Mo ing Down om he
40% Top in 2010 o a
Lowe Quin ile in 2014
Gende o household head
(male = 1, emale = 0)
–0.0449
–0.0378
0.0211
(0.0678)
(0.0311)
(0.0276)
Age o household head
–0.0024
–0.0005
0.0022*
(0.0027)
(0.0013)
(0.0013)
E hnici y o head
(Kinh, Hoa = 0;
e hnic mino i ies = 1)
–0.3669***
–0.0088
0.1358***
(0.0672)
(0.0462)
(0.0515)
Household head wi h
educa ional deg ee
Re e ence
Household head wi h p ima y
educa ion
0.0370
0.0454
–0.0424
(0.0665)
(0.0317)
(0.0335)
Household head wi h
lowe -seconda y deg ee
0.1104
0.0744**
–0.0532
(0.0775)
(0.0332)
(0.0344)
Household head wi h
uppe -seconda y deg ee
0.3073**
0.1382**
–0.1319***
(0.1425)
(0.0538)
(0.0408)
Household head wi h college,
uni e si y
0.3583***
0.1466***
–0.1675***
(0.1104)
(0.0467)
(0.0353)
Household size
0.0300*
0.0101
–0.0187**
(0.0155)
(0.0088)
(0.0079)
P opo ion o child en below 15
–0.6010***
–0.2120***
0.1321**
(0.1418)
(0.0649)
(0.0600)
P opo ion o membe s
abo e 60
–0.2995*
–0.1001*
0.0610
(0.1632)
(0.0556)
(0.0672)
Log o annual c op land
0.0003
0.0005
–0.0060
(0.0102)
(0.0041)
(0.0038)
Log o pe ennial c op land
–0.0040
0.0103**
–0.0047
(0.0101)
(0.0045)
(0.0037)
U ban (u ban = 1, u al = 0)
0.0333
0.0280
–0.0904***
(0.1191)
(0.0403)
(0.0333)
Red Ri e Del a
Re e ence
No heas
–0.0598
–0.0413
–0.0648*
(0.0964)
(0.0447)
(0.0389)
No hwes
–0.0526
–0.1849***
0.1826*
(0.1085)
(0.0417)
(0.1007)
No h Cen al Coas
–0.1233
–0.0762**
0.0784
(0.0813)
(0.0331)
(0.0500)
Sou h Cen al Coas
0.0979
–0.0300
–0.1004***
(0.0947)
(0.0388)
(0.0364)
Cen al Highlands
–0.0787
0.0542
–0.0099
(0.1230)
(0.0733)
(0.0578)
Sou heas
0.0352
0.0792
–0.0911**
(0.1148)
(0.0499)
(0.0422)
Mekong Ri e Del a
0.1021
0.0186
–0.0970***
(0.1042)
(0.0387)
(0.0326)
Cons an
0.7651***
0.1381*
0.1926**
(0.1917)
(0.0838)
(0.0801)
Obse a ions
397
1,092
1,092
R-squa ed
0.238
0.062
0.090
con inued on nex page
29
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table A.2 con inued
Explana o y Va iables
Mo ing Down om he
20% Top in 2010 o a
Lowe Quin ile in 2014
Absolu e Change in pe
Capi a Income 2010–2014
(Fields and Ok Index)
Rela i e Change in
pe Capi a Income
2010–2014
Gende o household head
(male = 1, emale = 0)
0.0727
7.88
0.0139
(0.0647)
(378.68)
(0.0570)
Age o household head
0.0009
–18.98
–0.0025
(0.0034)
(15.38)
(0.0023)
E hnici y o head
(Kinh, Hoa = 0;
e hnic mino i ies = 1)
0.2378
–960.57*
–0.1546*
(0.1593)
(500.02)
(0.0843)
Household head wi h
educa ional deg ee
Household head wi h p ima y
educa ion
–0.0093
591.31
–0.0781
(0.1019)
(419.33)
(0.0652)
Household head wi h
lowe -seconda y deg ee
–0.0926
1,340.62*
–0.0447
(0.1037)
(745.91)
(0.1008)
Household head wi h
uppe -seconda y deg ee
–0.3114***
1,399.68*
–0.1377
(0.1140)
(766.52)
(0.0946)
Household head wi h college,
uni e si y
–0.2855***
2,299.0***
–0.1156
(0.0993)
(657.70)
(0.0940)
Household size
–0.0515**
–198.00
0.0285
(0.0236)
(134.35)
(0.0221)
P opo ion o child en below 15
0.3392*
–2,782.8***
–0.3227**
(0.1823)
(990.49)
(0.1384)
P opo ion o membe s
abo e 60
0.2406
–2,044.7***
–0.3078***
(0.1464)
(679.32)
(0.0977)
Log o annual c op land
0.0107
56.13
0.0054
(0.0089)
(115.07)
(0.0133)
Log o pe ennial c op land
–0.0080
113.50*
0.0088
(0.0112)
(66.44)
(0.0103)
U ban (u ban = 1, u al = 0)
–0.0636
1,454.04**
–0.0423
(0.0747)
(703.23)
(0.0863)
Red Ri e Del a
No heas
–0.0415
–293.16
0.0018
(0.0887)
(545.66)
(0.0820)
No hwes
–0.4281***
–1,075.02*
–0.0587
(0.1070)
(558.51)
(0.1209)
No h Cen al Coas
0.0240
–1,335.1***
–0.0382
(0.1504)
(441.48)
(0.0755)
Sou h Cen al Coas
–0.0548
–602.60
–0.0460
(0.1074)
(534.14)
(0.0776)
Cen al Highlands
–0.1219
53.86
0.0625
(0.1874)
(772.70)
(0.1084)
Sou heas
–0.0461
1,172.40
–0.0661
(0.0844)
(842.05)
(0.1049)
Mekong Ri e Del a
–0.1104
2,126.85
0.1912
(0.0840)
(1,305.45)
(0.1428)
Cons an
0.6591***
4,689.8***
0.8377***
(0.2207)
(1,083.05)
(0.1632)
Obse a ions
328
1,817
1,816
R-squa ed
0.142
0.060
0.024
No es: Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2004 and 2008.
30
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table A.3: Employmen Mobili y o Indi iduals du ing 2004–2008
Mo ing Up om Unskilled
o Skilled and Nonmanual
Mo ing down om Skilled
and Nonmanual o
Unskilled
Mo ing om Sel -employed
o Wage Jobs
Sex
Male
23.04
24.61
23.22
Female
11.99
26.43
13.60
Age
Age 15–30
22.56
24.99
34.25
Age 31–60
15.38
25.43
12.77
Educa ion
Less p ima y
10.70
55.72
16.11
P ima y
15.72
32.05
18.49
Lowe seconda y
19.60
31.71
17.19
Uppe seconda y
25.50
21.99
22.73
Pos seconda y
27.78
12.10
13.99
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
16.82
29.00
17.88
U ban
20.16
18.61
16.66
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
20.13
25.14
17.60
E hnic mino i ies
3.28
28.92
18.18
To al
17.24
25.31
17.69
Mo ing om Wage Jobs
o Employed
Mo ing om Ag icul u al
o Nonag icul u al
Mo ing om
Nonag icul u al o
Ag icul u al
Sex
Male
24.06
19.52
14.31
Female
24.59
15.46
14.43
Age
Age 15–30
19.70
23.76
11.47
Age 31–60
26.33
15.33
15.49
Educa ion
Less p ima y
32.37
9.87
19.79
P ima y
25.69
16.45
17.15
Lowe seconda y
30.91
20.47
17.58
Uppe seconda y
18.64
27.18
11.10
Pos seconda y
12.12
30.21
7.22
Ru al/u ban
Ru al
27.25
17.27
19.96
U ban
15.08
19.80
4.13
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
21.98
20.78
13.65
E hnic mino i ies
44.90
5.41
34.77
To al
24.24
17.42
14.36
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2004 and 2008.
31
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table A.4: Reg ession o Employmen Mobili y o Indi iduals du ing 2004–2008
Explana o y Va iables
Dependen Va iables
Mo ing Up om
Unskilled o Skilled
and Nonmanual
Mo ing Down om
Skilled and Nonmanual
o Unskilled
Mo ing om
Sel -employed o
Wage Jobs
Male = 1, emale = 0
0.0890***
–0.0351
0.0878***
(0.0165)
(0.0328)
(0.0171)
Age
–0.0085*
–0.0242*
–0.0289***
(0.0049)
(0.0128)
(0.0057)
Age squa ed
0.0001
0.0004**
0.0003***
(0.0001)
(0.0002)
(0.0001)
E hnic mino i ies
(yes = 1; Kinh, Hoa = 0)
–0.1264***
–0.0194
–0.0080
(0.0246)
(0.0907)
(0.0421)
Ha ing no educa ional
deg ee
Re e ence
Ha ing p ima y educa ion
0.0241
–0.2184***
–0.0201
(0.0225)
(0.0738)
(0.0263)
Ha ing lowe -seconda y
deg ee
0.0895***
–0.2403***
–0.0454
(0.0255)
(0.0811)
(0.0280)
Ha ing uppe -seconda y
deg ee
0.1303***
–0.3370***
–0.0167
(0.0382)
(0.0885)
(0.0421)
Ha ing college, uni e si y
0.1844***
–0.4214***
–0.0400
(0.0528)
(0.0758)
(0.0436)
Household size
0.0063
–0.0040
–0.0162**
(0.0058)
(0.0138)
(0.0066)
P opo ion o child en
below 15
0.0403
0.0557
0.0228
(0.0562)
(0.0992)
(0.0566)
P opo ion o membe s
abo e 60
0.1006
–0.1303
–0.0034
(0.0873)
(0.1158)
(0.0906)
Log o annual c op land
–0.0089**
0.0092
–0.0006
(0.0044)
(0.0063)
(0.0034)
Log o pe ennial c op land
0.0014
0.0033
–0.0042
(0.0044)
(0.0089)
(0.0036)
U ban (u ban = 1, u al = 0)
–0.0710
–0.0207
–0.0122
(0.0438)
(0.0515)
(0.0358)
Red Ri e Del a
Re e ence
No heas
–0.0326
0.1206*
–0.0699*
(0.0336)
(0.0687)
(0.0381)
No hwes
–0.0062
–0.0686
–0.0830
(0.0361)
(0.1289)
(0.0709)
No h Cen al Coas
–0.0519
0.0834
–0.0109
(0.0324)
(0.0722)
(0.0394)
Sou h Cen al Coas
0.0517
–0.0087
–0.0241
(0.0451)
(0.0509)
(0.0395)
Cen al Highlands
–0.0074
0.0191
0.0151
(0.0497)
(0.1018)
(0.0507)
Sou heas
0.1083*
0.0132
0.0202
(0.0598)
(0.0591)
(0.0428)
Mekong Ri e Del a
0.0390
–0.0374
–0.0670**
(0.0380)
(0.0598)
(0.0310)
Cons an
0.3240***
0.9156***
0.9777***
(0.1017)
(0.2483)
(0.1189)
Obse a ions
2,264
809
1,898
R-squa ed
0.100
0.109
0.106
con inued on nex page
32

ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table A.4 con inued
Explana o y Va iables
Dependen Va iables
Mo ing om Wage
Jobs o Employed
Mo ing om Ag icul u al
o Nonag icul u al
Mo ing om Nonag icul u al
o Ag icul u al
Male = 1, emale = 0
–0.0391
0.0319*
–0.0148
(0.0255)
(0.0184)
(0.0173)
Age
–0.0102
–0.0112**
–0.0065
(0.0090)
(0.0051)
(0.0077)
Age squa ed
0.0002*
0.0001
0.0001
(0.0001)
(0.0001)
(0.0001)
E hnic mino i ies
(yes = 1; Kinh, Hoa = 0)
0.1705***
–0.1428***
0.1540*
(0.0550)
(0.0263)
(0.0793)
Ha ing no educa ional
deg ee
Ha ing p ima y
educa ion
–0.0342
0.0249
–0.0067
(0.0463)
(0.0258)
(0.0384)
Ha ing lowe -seconda y
deg ee
–0.0126
0.0465
–0.0093
(0.0494)
(0.0285)
(0.0405)
Ha ing uppe -seconda y
deg ee
–0.1246**
0.1031**
–0.0679
(0.0568)
(0.0445)
(0.0416)
Ha ing college,
uni e si y
–0.2088***
0.1945***
–0.1021***
(0.0475)
(0.0620)
(0.0380)
Household size
0.0062
0.0212***
–0.0014
(0.0096)
(0.0073)
(0.0074)
P opo ion o child en
below 15
–0.1420*
–0.0039
–0.0110
(0.0771)
(0.0566)
(0.0611)
P opo ion o membe s
abo e 60
0.0343
–0.0508
0.0097
(0.1124)
(0.1012)
(0.0774)
Log o annual c op land
0.0036
–0.0085**
0.0106**
(0.0048)
(0.0042)
(0.0048)
Log o pe ennial c op
land
0.0266***
–0.0101***
0.0097
(0.0059)
(0.0032)
(0.0063)
U ban (u ban = 1,
u al = 0)
–0.0195
–0.0887
–0.0886***
(0.0411)
(0.0576)
(0.0321)
Red Ri e Del a
No heas
0.0898**
–0.1170***
0.1441***
(0.0443)
(0.0370)
(0.0525)
No hwes
0.0518
–0.1553***
–0.0668
(0.0990)
(0.0414)
(0.0904)
No h Cen al Coas
0.1304**
–0.1820***
0.1309***
(0.0551)
(0.0394)
(0.0485)
Sou h Cen al Coas
–0.0141
–0.1072**
0.0075
(0.0461)
(0.0515)
(0.0315)
Cen al Highlands
0.0651
–0.1467***
0.1325**
(0.0616)
(0.0464)
(0.0635)
Sou heas
0.0328
–0.0965
–0.0085
(0.0485)
(0.0592)
(0.0275)
Mekong Ri e Del a
–0.0120
–0.1447***
0.0664*
(0.0442)
(0.0388)
(0.0376)
Cons an
0.3120*
0.5364***
0.1678
(0.1622)
(0.1076)
(0.1363)
Obse a ions
1,175
1,778
1,295
R-squa ed
0.129
0.104
0.120
No es: Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys 2004–2008.
33
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table A.5: In e gene a ional Mobili y o Employmen in 2004
Cha ac e is ics
o Child en
Skill Upwa d:
Skilled Child en and
Unskilled Pa en s
Skill Downwa d:
Unskilled Child en and
Skilled Pa en s
Employmen Upwa d:
Wage Child en and
Sel -employed Pa en s
Sex
Male
18.88
43.16
37.18
Female
18.39
45.12
28.85
Age
Age 15–30
18.34
44.60
33.59
Age 31–60
28.14
31.23
37.06
Educa ion
Less p ima y
6.17
68.21
24.96
P ima y
13.27
57.67
29.61
Lowe seconda y
13.59
63.28
26.11
Uppe seconda y
22.35
42.56
39.58
Pos seconda y
77.88
7.98
77.73
Ru al/U ban
Ru al
15.66
53.66
30.43
U ban
36.43
27.48
54.44
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
21.96
41.97
39.22
E hnic mino i ies
4.39
72.65
9.35
To al
18.67
43.98
33.73
Cha ac e is ics
o Child en
Employmen Downwa d:
Sel -employed Child en
and Wage Pa en s
Sec o Upwa d:
Nonag icul u al Child en
and Ag icul u al Pa en s
Sec o Downwa d:
Ag icul u al Child en and
Nonag icul u al Pa en s
Sex
Male
24.94
32.96
20.41
Female
36.67
31.17
23.47
Age
Age 15–30
30.36
31.78
22.39
Age 31–60
15.15
47.76
9.46
Educa ion
Less p ima y
17.14
18.71
28.12
P ima y
29.05
29.21
22.17
Lowe seconda y
48.86
28.44
35.06
Uppe seconda y
37.88
37.45
19.94
Pos seconda y
11.75
84.91
2.85
Ru al/U ban
Ru al
36.08
30.41
33.18
U ban
19.19
55.34
5.98
E hnici y
Kinh and Hoa
28.39
38.69
19.80
E hnic mino i ies
45.74
9.49
61.42
To al
29.94
32.22
21.71
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su ey 2004.
34
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table A.6. Reg ession o Log o Child en’s Wages
on Fa he ’s and Mo he ’s Wages
Explana o y Va iables
Dependen Va iable is Log o Wages o Child en
All Samples
Male
Female
All Samples
Male
Female
Log o a he 's wage
0.3835***
0.4168***
0.3347***
(0.0216)
(0.0253)
(0.0297)
Log o mo he 's wage
0.3753***
0.3870***
0.3698***
(0.0260)
(0.0310)
(0.0352)
Age
0.2606***
0.2560***
0.2670***
0.2114***
0.1997***
0.2322***
(0.0256)
(0.0309)
(0.0442)
(0.0305)
(0.0348)
(0.0513)
Age squa ed
–0.0039***
–0.0039***
–0.0039***
–0.0029***
–0.0027***
–0.0035***
(0.0005)
(0.0006)
(0.0009)
(0.0006)
(0.0007)
(0.0011)
Dummy yea 2004
Dummy yea 2008
0.1652***
0.1707***
0.1417*
0.1851***
0.2151***
0.0950
(0.0476)
(0.0561)
(0.0742)
(0.0579)
(0.0714)
(0.0879)
Dummy yea 2010
0.2448***
0.2282***
0.2766***
0.2297***
0.2195***
0.2259**
(0.0473)
(0.0568)
(0.0731)
(0.0614)
(0.0762)
(0.0876)
Dummy yea 2014
0.2808***
0.2572***
0.3211***
0.3215***
0.2688***
0.3787***
(0.0492)
(0.0580)
(0.0754)
(0.0659)
(0.0792)
(0.0947)
Cons an
1.4111***
1.2973***
1.5832***
2.1512***
2.2668***
1.9066***
(0.3250)
(0.3972)
(0.5171)
(0.3716)
(0.4490)
(0.5820)
Obse a ions
3,774
2,407
1,367
2,577
1,568
1,009
R–squa ed
0.400
0.420
0.380
0.391
0.390
0.401
No es: Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys.
Table A.7. Reg ession o Log o Child en’s Wages on Pa en ’s Wages
o Di e en G oups
Explana o y
Va iables
Dependen Va iable is Log o Wages o Child en
All
Samples
Yea 2004
Yea 2014
Male
Female
Age
15–30
Age
31–60
Log o pa en al
wages
0.3648***
0.3537***
0.3087***
0.3838***
0.3435***
0.3640***
0.3674***
(0.0183)
(0.0348)
(0.0445)
(0.0215)
(0.0258)
(0.0187)
(0.0744)
Age
0.2516***
0.2562***
0.2643***
0.2436***
0.2640***
0.2319***
0.5901*
(0.0217)
(0.0416)
(0.0413)
(0.0253)
(0.0380)
(0.0336)
(0.3117)
Age squa ed
–0.0037***
–0.0038***
–0.0039***
–0.0036***
–0.0039***
–0.0032***
–0.0082*
(0.0005)
(0.0009)
(0.0008)
(0.0005)
(0.0008)
(0.0007)
(0.0044)
Dummy yea 2004
Re e ence
Dummy yea 2008
0.1263***
0.1507***
0.0640
0.1334***
–0.1129
(0.0418)
(0.0495)
(0.0654)
(0.0420)
(0.2091)
Dummy yea 2010
0.2242***
0.2207***
0.2261***
0.2297***
0.0812
(0.0424)
(0.0502)
(0.0648)
(0.0428)
(0.1674)
Dummy yea 2014
0.2760***
0.2554***
0.2969***
0.2756***
0.2147
(0.0436)
(0.0508)
(0.0680)
(0.0443)
(0.1764)
Cons an
1.6981***
1.7471***
2.3187***
1.7080***
1.6410***
1.8999***
–4.4625
(0.2720)
(0.5132)
(0.6553)
(0.3266)
(0.4439)
(0.3915)
(5.4997)
Obse a ions
4,959
1,217
1,235
3,129
1,830
4,724
235
R-squa ed
0.390
0.342
0.317
0.402
0.378
0.382
0.264
No es: Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys.
35
ADBI Wo king Pape 722 Lam and Cuong
Table A.8: Reg ession o Log o Child en’s Wages on Pa en ’s Wages
o Di e en G oups
Explana o y Va iables
Dependen Va iable is Log o Wages o Child en
Less han
P ima y
P ima y
Lowe
Seconda y
Uppe
Seconda y
Pos
Seconda y
Log o pa en al wages
0.5107***
0.4354***
0.3526***
0.3198***
0.1729***
(0.0545)
(0.0381)
(0.0349)
(0.0428)
(0.0286)
Age
0.1325***
0.2164***
0.3684***
0.5528***
0.3320***
(0.0357)
(0.0347)
(0.0564)
(0.1030)
(0.0629)
Age squa ed
–0.0021***
–0.0033***
–0.0062***
–0.0094***
–0.0046***
(0.0007)
(0.0007)
(0.0012)
(0.0021)
(0.0012)
Dummy yea 2004
Re e ence
Dummy yea 2008
–0.0700
0.0908
0.1929**
–0.0052
0.2433***
(0.0858)
(0.0777)
(0.0889)
(0.1022)
(0.0762)
Dummy yea 2010
0.1932*
0.2271***
0.2666***
0.0325
0.2308***
(0.1047)
(0.0764)
(0.0885)
(0.1076)
(0.0682)
Dummy yea 2014
0.1229
0.2337**
0.4146***
0.0754
0.2716***
(0.1070)
(0.0925)
(0.0864)
(0.1052)
(0.0665)
Cons an
2.2645***
1.6888***
0.4495
–1.6510
2.1560***
(0.5701)
(0.4900)
(0.6957)
(1.2350)
(0.8187)
Obse a ions
635
1,213
1,133
629
1,349
R-squa ed
0.363
0.375
0.341
0.303
0.234
Explana o y Va iables
Dependen Va iable is Log o Wages o Child en
Ru al
U ban
Kinh and Hoa
E hnic
Mino i ies
Log o pa en al wages
0.3825***
0.2277***
0.3022***
0.4738***
(0.0231)
(0.0321)
(0.0183)
(0.0503)
Age
0.2806***
0.2324***
0.2776***
0.0719
(0.0257)
(0.0440)
(0.0231)
(0.0648)
Age squa ed
–0.0046***
–0.0030***
–0.0042***
–0.0007
(0.0005)
(0.0009)
(0.0005)
(0.0015)
Dummy yea 2004
Dummy yea 2008
0.1653***
0.0906
0.1803***
–0.0409
(0.0493)
(0.0717)
(0.0431)
(0.1035)
Dummy yea 2010
0.2527***
0.2185***
0.2533***
0.2997***
(0.0512)
(0.0682)
(0.0454)
(0.1007)
Dummy yea 2014
0.3359***
0.2092***
0.3230***
0.3594***
(0.0540)
(0.0706)
(0.0435)
(0.1264)
Cons an
1.2758***
3.1428***
1.9500***
2.8291***
(0.3327)
(0.5703)
(0.2916)
(0.7873)
Obse a ions
3,488
1,471
4,257
702
R-squa ed
0.355
0.304
0.362
0.387
No es: Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses; *** p<0.01, ** p<0.05, * p<0.1.
Sou ce: Es ima es om he Vie Nam Household Li ing S anda d Su eys.
36