Bez, Cha lo e; Vi gilli o, Ma ia En ica
A icle — Published Ve sion
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s
le -behind places
Re iew o Regional Resea ch
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bez, Cha lo e; Vi gilli o, Ma ia En ica (2024) : Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s:
unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places, Re iew o Regional Resea ch, ISSN 1613-9836, Sp inge ,
Be lin, Heidelbe g, Vol. 44, Iss. 3, pp. 337-381,
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ORIGINAL PAPER
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10037-024-00215-x
Re iew o Regional Resea ch (2024) 44:337–381
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing
Eu ope’s le -behind places
Cha lo e Bez1,2 · Ma ia En ica Vi gilli o1
Accep ed: 18 July 2024 / Published online: 12 Sep embe 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Abs ac This pape looks a he co-e olu ion o oxic indus ial pollu ion and
economic dep i a ion by means o spillo e s om he plan ’s p oduc ion ac i i ies.
Geolocalised acili y-le el da a om he Eu opean Pollu an Release and T ans-
e Regis e (E-PRTR) a e used o calcula e annual chemical-speci ic pollu ion,
weigh ed by i s oxici y. We combine he la e wi h egional da a on employmen ,
wages, and demog aphics sou ced om Camb idge Econome ics, co e ing mo e
han 1200 NUTS-3 egions in 15 coun ies, o e he pe iod 2007–2018. We em-
ploy quan ile eg essions o de ec he he e ogenei y ac oss egions and unde s and
he speci ici ies o he 10 h and 25 h pe cen iles. Ou i s con ibu ion consis s in
gi ing a no el and comp ehensi e accoun o he geog aphy o oxic pollu ion in
Eu ope, bo h a acili y and egional le el, disagg ega ed by sec o s. Second, we
eg ess oxic pollu ion (in ensi y e ec ) and pollu an concen a ion (composi ion
e ec ) on labou ma ke dimensions o le -behind places. Ou esul s poin o he
exis ence o economic dependence on noxious indus ialisa ion in le -behind places.
In addi ion, whene e en i onmen al e iciency-enhancing p oduc ion echnologies
a e adop ed we obse e associa ed labou -sa ing e ec s in indus ial employmen ,
bu posi i e egional spillo e s. Th ough he lens o economic geog aphy, ou esul s
call o a new poli ical economy o le -behind places wi hin he ealm o sus ainable
de elopmen .
Cha lo e Bez
Cha lo e.Sophia.Bez@pik-po sdam.de
Ma ia En ica Vi gilli o
ma iaen ica. i gilli o@san annapisa.i
1Scuola Supe io e San ’Anna, Ins i u e o Economics and EMbeDS, Piazza Ma i i della
Libe à, 56127 Pisa, I aly
2Po sdam Ins i u e o Clima e Impac Resea ch (PIK), Teleg a enbe g, 14473 Po sdam, Ge many
K
338 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
Keywo ds En i onmen al inequali y · Le -behind places · Toxic pollu ion ·
Labou ma ke s
MSC-Classi ica ion JEL classi ica ion · Q52 · P18 · R11 · O3
1 In oduc ion
Wha do acili ies such as ex-ILVA in I aly, A celo Mi al in F ance, INEOS Chem-
icals G angemou h in he UK, and Lausi z Ene gie K a we ke in Ge many ha e
in common? They a e angible illus a ions o geog aphies cha ac e ised by he co-
e olu ion o oxic indus ial pollu ion and economic dep i a ion.
Inspi ed by hose examples, his pape in ends o add ess he geog aphy o le -
behind places om an en i onmen al pe spec i e. The exis ing li e a u e has p e-
dominan ly cha ac e ised le -behind places in e ms o hei economic and poli ical
dimension. We p opose a new cha ac e isa ion o le -behind places as e i o ies in
which socio-economic dep i a ion, measu ed as nega i e employmen , wage, and
demog aphic p ospec s, coexis wi h oxic pollu ion. To achie e his objec i e, we
empi ically examine he ela ionship be ween wha we ex-an e iden i y as le -be-
hind places – NUTS-3 geog aphical uni s loca ed in he lowe pe cen iles o labou
ma ke s, as measu ed by employmen , wages, and demog aphic ou lows – and oxic
emissions.
The heo e ical a ionale behind he link be ween oxic pollu ion and le -behind
places is ha he p esence o a highly pollu ing acili y in a gi en a ea migh ad-
e sely a ec egional economic de elopmen , bo h in e ms o employmen seg e-
ga ion in such acili y and sec o , inducing dependence on noxious indus ialisa ion,
bu also in e ms o he poo economic ajec o y and bad specialisa ion. The la e
highligh s an economic de elopmen pa h unable o di e om a lock-in, po en ially
esul ing in a decline in employmen oppo uni ies o e ime and a dampening e ec
on local labou ma ke s (see ela edly Ash and Boyce 2018; Boschma e al. 2017).
The p esence o hese acili ies exe s a signi ican in luence on a gi en e i-
o y, gi ing ise o bo h di ec and indi ec links wi h i s economic de elopmen and
labou ma ke s. This can be a ibu ed no only o he ypically la ge size o he es ab-
lishmen s bu also, mo e undamen ally, o he ma e ialis and his o ical oles hese
wo kplaces play in shaping he socio-economic dynamics o he in ol ed egions.
Geog aphic dispa i ies co-e ol e wi h pa h-dependen p ocesses, he la e s a i ying
along di e en dimensions: ad anced p oduc ion and complex indus ial di e si i-
ca ion go hand in hand wi h high-inno a i e ac i i ies and good jobs (Rod ik and
S an che a 2021), aising employmen oppo uni ies o he “winning” egions. On
he o he side, deindus ialisa ion, de e io a ion o p oduc i e capaci y and locked-in
p oduc i e ac i i ies wi h low complexi y cha ac e ise le -behind places, wi h low-
paid jobs and educed employmen oppo uni ies.
So a , only a ew case s udies ha e been conduc ed in such places in o de o
highligh he ole pollu ing ac i i ies play (G eco and Bagna di 2018; Fel in e al.
2021). In addi ion, he li e a u e lacks bo h a quan i a i e way o iden i y such places
and a comp ehensi e mapping o hei ac ual s a us and e olu ion. Beyond he eco-
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Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 339
nomic cha ac e iza ion o social inequali y, wha happens in e ms o en i onmen al
inequali y? Fa om andom o de , he dis ibu ion o highly oxic indus ial ac-
i i y ac oss egions ends o be concen a ed as well, and i does so exac ly in
places expe iencing socio-economic dep i a ion. In his espec , en i onmen al and
social inequali y end o s a i y. Mo e speci ically, is oxic pollu ion linked o socio-
economic inequali ies and indus ial decay a he egional le el?
In o de o add ess such ques ion, we use geolocalised acili y-le el da a om he
Eu opean Pollu an Release and T ans e Regis e (E-PRTR) (Eu opean Commission
2006) o calcula e annual chemical-speci ic pollu ion, weigh ed by CAS-numbe
oxici y using he USE ox 2.12 model (Fan ke e al. 2017). The E-PRTR con ains
en i onmen al da a om o e 30,000 geo e e enced indus ial acili ies in Eu ope,
wi h in o ma ion on quan i ies o 91 key pollu an s eleased in o ai , wa e , and
land. Ou i s con ibu ion is he e o e o p oduce a geog aphy o oxic pollu ion.
Acco dingly, nowadays many le -behind places a e s ill hea ily dependen on ossil
and o he oxic indus ies, mainly p oducing me als, mine als, chemicals, and o he
aw ma e ials.
Gi en he geog aphy o oxic pollu ion, ou second con ibu ion is o in es iga e
he nexus be ween oxic pollu ion and he socio-economic spillo e s on indus ial
labou ma ke s. The e o e, ou dependen a iables a e de ined as le -behind places.
Ou explana o y a iables a e wo indices o oxic emissions, one accoun s o he
shee quan i y o oxic emissions, he o he accoun s o quali y imp o emen s in
he emissions’ mix. To c ea e hose indices, we agg ega e acili y-le el pollu ion by
sec o a he egional le el. Ou analysis co e s mo e han 1200 NUTS-3 egions
o 15 Eu opean coun ies, o e he pe iod 2007–2018, and includes high-pollu ing
adi ional indus ies. Such empi ical design allows us o de ec po en ial lock-in
dynamics in bad specialisa ion s a egies. The e o e, ou second con ibu ion lies
in iden i ying he pa icula i ies o le -behind places om a socio-en i onmen al
pe spec i e. Thi d, a e mapping oxic pollu ion o le -behind places, we s udy
channels and sou ces o spillo e s om indus ial ac i i ies o he whole egional
economy by mo ing om he geog aphy o places o he geog aphy o egions.
We build wo indices o pollu ion: a oxic pollu ion index, weigh ing he quan i y
o pollu an s emi ed by hei oxici y ( ia CAS numbe ), and a concen a ion index,
cap u ing he pollu an po olio a he acili y le el. The in ensi y o pollu ion, i.e., i s
o e all oxici y, and he pollu an concen a ion a e con as ed, by means o quan ile
eg ession, agains he dynamics o le -behind places in e ms o di ec sec o al
le el links wi h indus ial employmen and wages, and indi ec egional le el links
a he NUTS-3 le el. By he la e , we s udy he po en ial spa ial spillo e s in he
egions le behind, in e ms o employmen , wages, and demog aphic losses.
We lay ou wo channels o oxic pollu ion p opaga ion: a i s -o de channel
acco ding o which in ensi y o oxic pollu ion is posi i ely associa ed wi h employ-
men and wages a he indus ial le el. No su p isingly, his esul mainly holds
o he lowe quan iles o wages and employmen dis ibu ions, he e o e in a ou
o he noxious dependence ha le -behind places ha e de eloped wi h indus ial
decay (Fel in e al. 2021). A second-o de channel acco ding o which he educ-
ion o he pollu an mix a he acili y le el, a p oxy o echnical change o inpu s
ecombina ion in he con ex o en i onmen al e iciency, is nega i ely associa ed
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340 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
wi h indus ial employmen and wages, again wi h highe magni udes o he lowe
quan iles o he dis ibu ions. In his espec , he aba emen o oxic pollu ion ia
imp o ed en i onmen al e iciency p ocesses migh spu employmen ealloca ion
owa d o he , less noxious sec o s o ac i i y, a he han noxious indus ialisa ion.
We inally documen he exis ence o spa ial inequali y eedback loops a he e-
gional le el, acco ding o which oxic pollu ion is obus ly nega i ely associa ed
wi h ne mig a ion om le -behind places. Vice e sa, he inc easing concen a ion
o he pollu an mix educes he p obabili y o eloca ion om a gi en place.
The es o he a icle is s uc u ed as ollows. The ollowing Sec . 2embeds
he en i onmen al dimension o le -behind places in o an economic geog aphy
pe spec i e. Sec . 3desc ibes ou da a and me hods, including how we cons uc ou
explana o y a iables. The desc ip i e e idence in Sec . 4gi es a nuanced accoun
o he geog aphy o oxic pollu ion in Eu ope, bo h a acili y and egional le el,
and disagg ega ed by sec o . Sec . 5explains ou es ima ion s a egy and shows
he es ima ion esul s, o bo h he di ec links ocused on indus y, as well as he
indi ec links wi h he egional economy as a whole. Sec . 6concludes and lays ou
se e al policy conside a ions.
2 The en i onmen al dimension o le -behind places
The economic geog aphy li e a u e has no ye de o ed speci ic a en ion o he en-
i onmen al dimension o le -behind places and nei he o he geog aphy o oxic
pollu ion. Le -behind places a e concep ually no so a om he Sou h egions
in une en de elopmen heo y (P ebisch 1950), which builds upon dependence,
powe s uc u e, and pe sis en posi ional asymme ies (Pa línek 2018; Leyshon
2021). Howe e , unco e ing le -behind places in ol es expanding he mo e adi-
ional economic li e a u e on No h-Sou h gaps and unequal de elopmen (Cimoli
and Dosi 1995) wi h a e i o ial and geog aphical ocus (Boschma e al. 2017).
Such places ha e in common he expe ience o economic s agna ion o e en de-
cline, dep essed wages, demog aphic loss, and a gene al pa e n o abandonmen .
This ma ginalisa ion was hen compounded by he policy endency o a ge u -
ban agglome a ions, “sma ci ies”, and inno a i e hub-clus e s as main engine o
economic g ow h (MacKinnon e al. 2022).
Fu he mo e, he geog aphy o discon en and le -behind places a e closely e-
la ed concep s. Wi h he ecen su ge o populis and an i-sys em endencies a ound
Eu ope (Rod íguez-Pose 2018), o ins ance, he B exi e e endum (Goodwin and
Hea h 2016; An onucci e al. 2017), le -behind places concep ually ha e ecei ed
inc easing a en ion. The ballo box backlash b ough o he o e on socio-eco-
nomic issues ha ha e g own ou o long- e m endencies, bu ha e o en been
neglec ed by he economics li e a u e. Hence, while deindus ialised, ma ginalised,
and declining a eas ha e mo ed ou o policy ocus, hei u gen poli ical ele ance
has spa ked gene al enewed policy a en ion. The ollowing subsec ions explain he
in e sec ion be ween a new concep ualiza ion o le -behind places unde he lens o
economic geog aphy. We mobilise wo b oad concep s, namely i) pa h dependence
and egional lock-ins, and ii) he poli ical economy o le -behind places.
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Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 341
Pa h dependence and egional lock-ins cons i u e key mechanisms elucida ing
he ma e ialis dimension o le -behind places. Lock-ins en ail place- and his o y-
dependen pa hs occu ing by means o he con inuous ep oduc ion o localised
knowledge and socio- echnological egimes. Specialisa ion, especially in he p o-
duc ion o less dynamic and less complex p oduc s, pushes owa d low g ow h
ajec o ies and highe ulne abili y o economic c ises (Dosi e al. 2022).
The p ope ies o sec o al sys ems o inno a ions o economic de elopmen we e
ecognised long ago (Male ba and O senigo 1996). T adi ionally, hea y indus ies
a e expec ed o di e in hei echnological egimes o inno a ion and compe i ion
compa ed o o he s (B eschi and Male ba 1997). In ac , hey a e no suscep ible o
ei he high le els o inno a ion o in ense compe i ion (Töd ling and T ippl 2005).
The e o e, ex-an e he e ogenei y o be ween-sec o al pollu ion pa e ns is expec ed
o be mo e ele an han wi hin-sec o al ones. Howe e , esea ch on disp opo ion-
ali y (F eudenbu g 2005; Collins e al. 2016) and co-pollu an elas ici ies (Dedoussi
e al. 2019;Zwickle al.2021), looking a pollu ion a he acili y-le el, inds li le
e idence o “ echnological impe a i es o a gi en sec o ” o pollu e, also when con-
olling o size. In ac , in gene al, i seems ha majo pollu e s a e o en wi hin-
sec o ou lie s cha ac e ised by a low a e o e iciency, indica ing ha en i onmen-
al damage is o en nei he economically no echnologically equi ed by he a ie y
o p oduc ion echniques a ailable. In his espec , pollu ion, and pa icula ly high-
scale oxic pollu ion, is a p oxy o low- echnological dynamism and absence o
in es men in e icien echniques o p oduc ion, a he han a necessa y ex e nali y
o he sec o .
Conside , o ins ance, he well-known case o he ex ILVA s eel plan in Ta an o,
I aly (G eco and Bagna di 2018). The la e ep esen s a clea combina ion o lack o
echnological upg ading, absence o in es men in enhancing echniques o p oduc-
ion, and pu po ed employmen -heal h ade-o , e ealed by an owne ship-manage-
ial o ien a ion his o ically esis an o p omo e echnical p og ess in he plan . How-
e e , he mono-indus ialisa ion pa e n o he a ea has c ea ed a s ong economic
dependence in e ms o job oppo uni ies. Ano he example is he once-no o ious
Ruh egion in Wes Ge many, especially he ci ies o Duisbu g and Bochum (F öh-
lich e al. 2022). Nowadays, his egion is ma ked by a high incidence o oxic
pollu ion and s uc u al weakness, indica ing he impo ance o equi y conside a-
ions (A o a and Sch oede 2022). G abhe (1993) gi es an in-dep h explana ion
o he lock-in o egional de elopmen in he Ruh a ea, once a complex indus ial
g ow h pole, deeply specialised in coal, i on, and s eel. As we shall show, many
indus ial complexes, especially in he ene gy and s eel indus y, a e s ill ope a ing
in his a ea, howe e , he social con ac un a eled, and employmen wo sened o
disappea ed. As G abhe (1993) a gues, he “weakness o s ong ies” eme ges as
he main cause o such lock-in ajec o ies.
A e le -behind places a necessa y cos o pay o economic de elopmen ? In he
p esence o oxic pollu ion, le -behind places can be conside ed indus ial sac i ice
zones (Le ne 2012). In such con ex s, socio-economic e osion is a key agen nec-
essa y o he ep oduc ion o spa iali ies o powe ma king he di e ence be ween
co es and pe iphe ies (Massey 2009). Exposu e o oxic ha m coupled wi h he slow
decay o chemical change main ains and ein o ces egional di e gences. The con-
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342 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
cep o sac i ice allows o concep ualise oxic pollu ion as an in ended imposi ion
o powe o e a egion and i s inhabi an s, c ea ing an une en oxic geog aphy, and
implies he “ igh o pollu e” enabled by a na u alised economic powe (F eudenbu g
2005).
Indus ies ha a e di ie , mo e dange ous, and mo e h ea ening o human heal h
p esen a special case o he spa iali y o powe , as concep ualised by Massey
(2009). A ound hose indus ies, social and labou s uggles a e ac ually shaped by
hei objec i e ela ion wi h capi al di ec ed o pollu ing ac i i ies. Gi en ha such
places ha e ma e ialis in e es s embedded in o he p oduc ion p ocess, place and
pa h dependency mu ually ein o ce each o he , and lead o a lock-in o pollu ion-
dependen g ow h. Indeed, he geog aphy o oxic pollu ion migh also help o
unde s and he di ec ion in which he poli ical economy o le -behind places migh
mani es by means o he spa ial ep oduc ion o powe .
Ce ainly, oxic pollu ion is no he sole cause o economic decline. Indeed, he e
a e plen y o places wi h high le els o exposu e o oxici y which a e no le behind
om a socio-ma e ialis pe spec i e. In ac , in he ollowing, we dis inguish wo
di e en ypes o exposu e o oxici y: an index o o al weigh ed oxici y, which
accoun s o a size e ec , and an index ha measu es any ype o imp o emen in
he composi ion o he po olio o pollu an s, in o de o ack upg ading ends
in he pollu ion mix. Le -behind places a e measu ed in e ms o le els o he
dis ibu ion o employmen , wages, and mig a ion lows. They a e in he le pa
o he empi ical dis ibu ions o hese h ee labou ma ke a iables, depending
on he quan ile eg ession ha will be es ima ed. We expec , ollowing he lock-
in hypo hesis, ha hose a eas will be mo e dependen on oxici y, as a i s -o de
channel. A he same ime, we expec ha any pa h o indus ial upg ading will
inco po a e less pollu ing bu also mo e e icien echniques, o inpu combina ions,
and in ha equi e less employmen .
3 Da a and Me hods
Ou aim is o gi e an accoun o he geog aphy o oxic pollu ion in Eu ope, o hen
s udy he co-e olu ion o oxic pollu ion on economic dep i a ion, in pa icula wi h
espec o employmen , wages, and ne mig a ion lows. This allows us o in es i-
ga e he en i onmen al dimension o le -behind egions. We combine wo da ase s
in a no el way: acili y-pollu ion da a and egional economic da a a sec o al le el,
co e ing mo e han 1200 egions in Eu ope, o e he pe iod 2007–2018. Sec . 3.1 de-
sc ibes he da ase o acili y-speci ic indus ial pollu ion sou ced om he E-PRTR,
om which we calcula e wo measu es a he sec o - egion-yea le el. The i s
index is he acili y-le el pollu ion augmen ed by i s oxici y which in o ms abou
an in ensi y e ec (Sec . 3.2), while he second is a pollu an concen a ion index
which in o ms abou he mix o he acili y pollu an po olio (Sec . 3.3). Sec . 3.4
p esen s he indus y-le el dis ibu ion o he cons uc ed indices. Sec . 3.5 desc ibes
he se o ou come a iables sou ced om Camb idge Econome ics (employmen
and wages) and Eu os a (mig a ion), which illus a e he di e en dimensions o
le -behind places.
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Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 343
3.1 Indus ial acili ies, sou ced om E-PRTR
We ge acili y-le el pollu ion da a om he Eu opean Pollu an Release and T ans-
e Regis e (E-PRTR) which p o ides en i onmen al da a om indus ial acili ies
in Eu opean Union Membe S a es, Iceland, Liech ens ein, No way, Swi ze land,
Se bia, and he UK (Eu opean Commission 2006). S a ing om 2007, he egis e
has been upda ed e e y yea wi h annual da a epo ed by some 30,000 indus ial a-
cili ies co e ing 65 economic ac i i ies. Each ac i e indus ial acili y is equi ed o
p o ide annual in o ma ion on he delibe a e and acciden al quan i ies o pollu an s
eleased o ai , wa e and land. This da a co e s 91 key pollu an s including hea y
me als, pes icides, g eenhouse gases and dioxins. The E-PRTR de ines a pollu an
as “a subs ance o a g oup o subs ances ha may be ha m ul o he en i onmen
o o human heal h on accoun o i s p ope ies and o i s in oduc ion in o he
en i onmen ” (Eu opean Commission 2006, Annex I, A icle 2, p.74). Hence, he
E-PRTR gi es insigh s in o he eleases and ans e s o egula ed subs ances o he
la ges indus ial complexes in Eu ope. Annex I o he E-PRTR Regula ion lis s 65
ac i i ies, g ouped in o 7 ac i i y sec o s.1The in o ma ion o which sec o a acili y
belongs allows o an indus y-speci ic analysis.2
To build ou o iginal da a se , we selec emissions eleased by ai , aking in o
conside a ion bo h delibe a e and acciden al emissions, and d op acili ies wi h da a
en ies o i e o ewe consecu i e yea s, as we wan o ocus on pollu e s ha ha e
shown some deg ee o con inui y wi h ega d o hei p esence in and hence possible
impac on he e i o y.3Facili ies ha did no exceed a h eshold o emissions as
es ablished by he Commission (2006, pp. 83–86) do no ha e o epo in he
E-PRTR in ha speci ic yea (e en hough hese acili ies we e s ill ope a ing), which
leads o missing da a wi hin he acili y-speci ic ime se ies. I pollu ion eco ds a e
missing in one o mo e yea s, bu a e p esen be o e and a e , we pe o m a linea
in e pola ion in o de o con ol o hose missing alues.4
We a e ocusing on he coun ies whe e mos acili ies a e loca ed, i.e., coun ies
wi h a conside able le el o indus ial ac i i y. By de ini ion, he nexus indus ial
pollu ion-employmen dynamics is less in e es ing in egions wi h li le o no indus-
ial pollu ion, as sugges ed by he E-PRTR da a. Hence, o sha pen ou analysis, we
d op he coun ies ha belong o he lowes i e pe cen in e ms o he numbe o
1These sec o a e: ag icul u e and lea he indus y, chemical indus y, ene gy, p oduc ion and p ocessing
o me als, mine al indus y, pape and wood p oduc ion and p ocessing, was e and was e wa e manage-
men .
2An ex ensi e o e iew o he E-PRTR classi ica ion including a de ailed desc ip ion o all ac i i ies
co e ed by ou da a can be ound in he Appendix, Table 8.
3The minimum p esence in he da a se is one yea , he maximum 13. On a e age, a acili y has pollu ion
en ies o en yea s. Ele en pe cen o acili ies a e p esen in he da a base o i e yea s o less. Those
a e he acili ies ha we exclude om he analysis.
4This is mo i a ed by he assump ion ha missing alues, i.e., gaps, a ise om he h eshold issue. Missing
yea s a he beginning o he end o he ime pe iod ins ead indica e he ceased ac i i y o a acili y and
he e o e a e no in e pola ed. This is analog o he p ocedu e p oposed by Rü enaue and Bes (2021b),
being con on ed wi h he same E-PRTR da a issue. Linea in e pola ion howe e only a ec s a small
po ion o he en i e emission da a se (1.78 pe cen ), uling ou he h ea o a sys ema ic bias.
K
344 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
pollu ing acili ies. This lea es us wi h he ollowing 15 coun ies: Aus ia, Belgium,
Czech Republic, Ge many, Spain, Finland, F ance, UK, G eece, I aly, Ne he lands,
Poland, Po ugal, Romania, and Sweden.
The op en pollu ing acili ies o he ou mos oxic sec o s (ene gy, me als,
mine als, chemicals), anked by he sum o emi ed pollu an s o e all yea s, a e
p esen ed in Table 1. I lis s he names o he acili ies as well as he coun ies
and ci ies ha hos such acili ies, which p o ides a i s glimpse o he de ailed
in o ma ion p o ided by he E-PRTR da ase .
3.2 Measu ing oxic pollu ion
The E-PRTR allows o disen angle pollu an s and hei unde lying oxici y. Indeed, i
is well known ha pollu an s om indus ial acili ies a e dange ous o human heal h
and he en i onmen . The amoun o pollu ion and i s pollu an mix is a esul o he
exis ing echnologies and p oduc ion p ocesses o he indus ial sys em. Al hough
p og ess has been made in e ms o educ ion o he en i onmen al impac s o oxic
pollu ion om indus y h ough egula ions and bans, he e idence ells us ha he e
a e s ill inno a i e sea ch e o s a ound oxic chemical componen s (Biggi e al.
2022). Mo eo e , as we shall see, e en banned compounds a e s ill p esen in he
E-PRTR, o example hexachlo obenzene and polychlo ina ed biphenyls, which a e
banned globally and uni e sally. They belong o he en mos oxic pollu an s p esen
in he da a.
In e ms o oxici y, he chemical wi h he highes oxici y in absolu e is me cu y
and i s compounds (HG), which clea ly eme ges as an ou lie being wel e imes
mo e oxic han he a e age compound in he da a se , and is a highly po en neu-
o oxin ha is closely linked o ene gy p oduc ion. Fo ins ance, in 2020, he EPA
p oposed o oll back i s Me cu y and Ai Toxics S anda ds (MATS) as egula o y
limi s on haza dous ai pollu ion om coal-bu ning powe plan s (EPA 2019).5I is
hence c ucial o accoun o pollu an ’s oxici y which di e s widely ac oss pollu-
an g oups and single compounds. Gi en he he e ogeneous oxici y o he di e en
pollu an s, we weigh pollu an s by hei oxici y.
We ocus on long- e m exposu e o all pollu an s ha a e known o be dange ous
o human heal h. Ou o he o iginal 91 key pollu an s we e ain 41 dis inc pollu an s,
whose oxici y a ies by se e al magni udes.6The chemical g oup o hea y me als is
he mos oxic; a he same ime, hey a e equen due o wide indus ial applica ions.
As said, he da a se also shows he p esence o se e al pollu an s ha ha e been
banned wo ldwide since he S ockholm con en ion om 2001.
We accoun o he a ia ion o oxici y by weigh ing he quan i y (mass in kilo-
g am) o each pollu an by a oxici y weigh ha we sou ce om he USE ox 2.12
da a base (Fan ke e al. 2017), as shown in Eq. 1. We ma ch pollu an s wi h hei
espec i e oxici y ia in o ma ion on Chemical Abs ac s Se ice numbe s (sho
5This decision is based on cos -bene i analyses, ying o economically jus i y indus ial con amina ion
and dis ega ding he signi ican heal h and en i onmen al bene i s by educing a b oad ange o haza dous
ai pollu an s, especially me cu y, as a gued by Aldy e al. (2020), see also O ias (2017).
6The ull lis o oxic pollu an s e ained o his analysis can be ound in he Appendix, Table 7.
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 351
Fig. 3 To al oxic pollu ion by indus y, disagg ega ed by pollu an g oups, and anked om indus y
om highes oxic pollu ion o lowes , o e 2007–2018. Sou ce: Own calcula ion based on E-PRTR
shows he disagg ega ion o such pollu an g oups by indus y. The pollu an g oup
o hea y me als accoun o he la ges sha e o oxic pollu ion ac oss all indus ies,
excep o he chemical, ag icul u e, and lea he indus ies, whose pollu an po o-
lios a y signi ican ly. The ene gy and me al indus ies a e he hea ies pollu e s,
and hei sec o al cha ac e is ics show high pe cen ages o hea y me als compa ed
o o he pollu an g oups: app oxima ely 50 pe cen o oxic pollu ion coming om
ene gy is associa ed wi h he elease o hea y me als, while his sha e inc eases o
app oxima ely 70 pe cen o he me al indus y (see blue segmen o ba s).
Wi hin he ene gy sec o , he elease o me cu y and o he highly noxious hea y
me als is mos ly associa ed wi h coal combus ion bu also oil- i ed powe plan s (EPA
2019). This makes he ala ming case o he bigges indus ial emi e s o globally-
ha ming CO2, o en si ua ed in p oximi y o u ban zones, being also a highly dan-
ge ous local pollu e .
Nex , we explo e he in e -indus y a iabili y o ou measu es o oxic pollu ion
and how hey e ol e o e ime. Fo doing so, we depic mean oxic pollu ion, in
logs, and mean pollu an concen a ion, as by he index HHI, by indus y o e ime
(see Fig. 4). The o e all ime end o oxic pollu ion is sligh ly dec easing, meaning
ha mos indus ies we e able o mode a ely cu b hei oxic emissions down. The
me al, was e and was ewa e , and pape and wood p oduc ion indus ies, howe e ,
show a s agna ing end o e he pe iod 2007–2018.
The pollu an concen a ion index is a p oxy o echnological e iciency a he
sec o al le el, e.g., he end e ec o he adop ion o pollu ion-aba emen echnolo-
gies, po en ially induced by en i onmen al egula ions, ha educe he numbe o
co-pollu an s emi ed. As shown below, he index inc eases o e ime, i.e., he a -
e age numbe o pollu an s by egion and sec o dec eases as acili ies on a e age
educe hei numbe o pollu an s by app oxima ely 20%: om 0.41 in 2007 o 0.49
in 2018. The HHI measu es he p oduc ion o co-pollu an s especially in he ene gy
sec o , whe e CO2is he main pollu an . Howe e , o he emaining indus ies, i is
mainly a p oxy o en i onmen al and echnological e iciency.
K
352 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
Fig. 4 Mean oxic pollu ion
by indus y om 2007 o 2018
(uppe panel) and mean con-
cen a ion index o pollu an s
by indus y om 2007 o 2018
(bo om panel). Sou ce: Own
calcula ion based on E-PRTR
Ac oss-indus y a iabili y o bo h measu es is e y high. The ene gy and he
me al indus ies clea ly eme ge as he wo mos pollu ion-in ense and oxic indus ies
(see blue and da k ed line in uppe panel), while o he sec o s con ibu e e y li le
o o e all le els o oxic pollu ion, o ins ance, was e and was ewa e (o ange line),
and ag icul u e and lea he indus y (g een line). A e age pollu ion concen a ion is
mo e clus e ed han oxic pollu ion. Wi h ega d o he o me , he ag icul u e and
lea he indus y eme ges as an ou lie , wi h an index close o one, indica ing mono
pollu ion.
The ene gy indus y has he lowes pollu an concen a ion index, i.e., on a e age
is he indus y ha emi s he highes numbe o di e en oxic pollu an s (blue line
in bo om panel), ollowed by he me al indus y ( ed line in bo om panel).
Highe le els o oxic pollu ion a e on a e age associa ed wi h lowe le els o pol-
lu an concen a ion, i.e., end o ha e mul i-pollu an po olios as hey emi a g ea
a ie y o di e en chemicals. A sca e plo con i ms such an in e se ela ionship.
Fig. 5plo s unweigh ed pollu an concen a ion agains oxic pollu ion. E e y do o
he same colo ep esen s one coun y in ou sample. The clea nega i e ela ionship
indica es ha on a e age acili ies wi h a mul i-pollu an po olio also a e bigge
emi e s.
The wi hin-indus y clus e ing, especially e iden o indus ies such as mine als
(see g ey c oss symbols) o me als (see blue c oss symbols), e lec s indus y-spe-
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 353
Fig. 5 Sca e plo o coun y a e ages o pollu an concen a ion (y-axis) and oxic pollu ion (x-axis)
ac oss 2007–2018. Sou ce: Own calcula ion based on E-PRTR
ci ic pollu ion pa e ns and p oduc ion p ocesses. Howe e , we highligh signi ican
wi hin-indus y a ia ion ac oss coun ies. Fo ins ance, he e a e coun ies in he
chemical indus y ha ha e compa able le els o oxic pollu ion bu di e en ypes
o pollu an mix, i.e., pollu an concen a ion indices (see, o ins ance, he e ical
a ia ions o he black iangle symbols).
3.5 Regional Economic Va iables: Camb idge Econome ics
Nex , we u n o he egional economic a iables. Wi h hese a iables, we aim o
depic he local labou ma ke in le -behind egions, o en cha ac e ised by p eca -
ious employmen , unde employmen , and demog aphic changes. The labou ma ke
da a come om Camb idge Econome ics, which combines egional and sec o al
da a om bo h Eu os a ’s REGIO da abase and AMECO, which is p o ided by he
Eu opean Commission’s Di ec o a e Gene al Economic and Financial A ai s. The
disagg ega ed da a is a ailable o 27 EU coun ies (all EU membe s a es excep
Mal a) a NUTS-3 le el and six sec o s om 1990 o 2018.13 F om his da a base,
we use employmen (bo h indus y and o al) which “co e s all pe sons engaged
in some p oduc i e ac i i y” and wages (bo h indus y and o al) o he coun ies
13 These a e: A (ag icul u e, o es y and ishing), B-E (indus y), F (cons uc ion), G-J (wholesale, e-
ail, anspo , accommoda ion and ood se ices, in o ma ion and communica ion), K-N ( inancial and
business se ices), and O-U (non-ma ke se ices).
K
354 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
and yea s as in he E-PRTR da a. All a iables a e exp essed in logs, o handle he
skewness o he dis ibu ions.
In addi ion, we sou ce popula ion changes om Eu os a ’s “demog aphic balance
and c ude a es a egional le el”. In speci ic, we look a c ude a e o ne mig a ion,
which ep esen s o al popula ion changes cleaned o na u al changes (bi hs and
dea hs). I is exp essed as he change o he popula ion in egion o e he pas ou
yea s.14
4 Geog aphy o Toxic Pollu ion
Ou i s con ibu ion consis s in gi ing a no el accoun o he geog aphy o oxic
pollu ion in Eu ope. Below is shown he spa ial dis ibu ion o he indus ial acili ies
in ou da a se . Emission quan i y is exp essed in kilog ams, weigh ed by human
oxici y o each pollu an , and summed by acili y and ac oss all yea s in he sample,
2007–2018. The size o he do s is p opo ional o he amoun o oxic pollu ion
eleased pe acili y, agg ega ed in o ou clus e s. The colo indica es o which
b oad ac i i y he acili y is associa ed, as desc ibed in he legend o Fig. 6.
Mos indus ial acili ies a e loca ed in F ance, Spain, Ge many, and he UK.
Fu he mo e, indus ies a e clus e ed wi hin coun ies and egions. We hus ca y
ou ou analysis a he sec o al le el, no leas because sec o s a e e y he e ogeneous
wi h espec o oxici y le els and emission quan i ies.
Zooming in, he example o Ge many (Fig. 6.b) shows ha he acili ies ha emi
he la ges amoun o oxic pollu ion a e om he ene gy sec o (g een la ge do s).
They mos ly belong o coal- i ed powe s a ions, loca ed in he Rhine a ea (s a e o
No h Rhine-Wes phalia, Wes e n Ge many) and in Lusa ia (s a e o Saxony, Eas e n
Ge many). Howe e , also o he indus ies a e home o majo pollu ing acili ies,
o example “We k Schwelge n”, one o Eu ope’s bigges s eelwo ks, also loca ed
in he Rhine a ea (ci y o Duisbu g). Indeed, a ecen s udy on s uc u ally weak
egions in Ge many poin s o he ci ies o Duisbu g and Do mund – bo h in he
Rhine a ea hea ily impac ed by deindus ialisa ion –, as well as se e al a eas in
Eas e n Ge many (Bi e eld-Wol en and Vo pomme n-G ei swald) (Das P og essi e
Zen um 2022). This anecdo al e idence poin s o a po en ial link be ween he
p esence o highly oxic indus ial complexes and egional economic dep i a ion.
The E-PRTR p o ides geospa ial in o ma ion, i.e., longi ude and la i ude, o e -
e y acili y. We use he la es Adminis a i e Le el da a om Eu os a (2021) and use
he same NUTS-3 bo de s o all yea s. We a ibu e a NUTS-3 le el code o e e y
poin , i.e., a acili y’s geoloca ion, ha alls wi hin a polygon om he shape ile.15
This ma ching s a egy esul s in a da a se o app oxima ely 69.000 indus y- egion-
yea pai s nes ed wi hin 1.215 NUTS-3 egions ( his me hodology is explained, o
14 Sec . 2 o he Appendix shows a map o employmen a NUTS-3 le el in Eu ope and he desc ip i e
s a is ics o he egional economic a iables using iolin plo s, see Figs. 8and 10, espec i ely.
15 In his way, o sho e acili ies ge d opped om he da a se , o ins ance oil and gas pla o ms.
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 355
Fig. 6 Spa ial dis ibu ion o in-
dus ial acili ies in 15 Eu opean
coun ies (a) and o Ge many
(b) o e 2007–2018. Colou o
he do s indica es indus y, size
o he do indica es quan i y o
oxic pollu ion. Sou ce: Own
calcula ion based on E-PRTR
ins ance, in Mohai and Saha 2006). Nex , depa ing om Eq. 1, we agg ega e oxic
pollu ion a indus y- egion-yea le el acco ding o he ollowing speci ica ion:
Tox Polls D
N
X
iD1
Tox Pollis ;(3)
whe e i e e s o acili ies, s o sec o s, o NUTS-3 egions, and o yea s.
K
356 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
Fig. 7 Regional map o oxic
pollu ion in Eu ope, in logs,
a e aged o e 2007–2018.
Sou ce: Own calcula ion based
on E-PRTR
Fig. 7displays he dis ibu ion o oxic pollu ion in logs and a e aged o e he
yea s 2007–2018 ac oss Eu opean NUTS-3 egions in he da a se . This map shows
pa e ns o clus e ing o oxic pollu ion: a highly pollu ed egion is likely o be
in geog aphical p oximi y o ano he pollu ed egion. Such clus e s a e isible in
pa icula in Spain, he UK, Ge many, Poland, he Czech Republic, and Romania.
Mo eo e , we no ice ha he pollu ed egions encompass bo h u ban-deindus ialised
(i.e., Ruh Valley) as well as u al ypes o e i o ies (i.e., No h Finland).
We p oceed in a simila way o egionally agg ega e he concen a ion index o
pollu an s (HHI). We agg ega e he HHI a sec o - egion-yea le el, and weigh i
by he con ibu ion o each sec o o he o e all egional oxic pollu ion, exp essed
as a pe cen age (see igh pa o he equa ion). The weigh ed sec o al HHI is hen
w i en as:
HHIs DPN
iD1HHIi
Ns
Tox Polls
Tox Poll
:(4)
This egional concen a ion index has a mean o 0.22 and a s anda d de ia ion
o 0.25. Once agg ega ed, he he e ogenei y o he HHI becomes especially isible
ac oss indus ies, wi h acili ies belonging o he ene gy, me als, and pape indus ies
ha ing he highes numbe o dis inc pollu an s (so-called mul i-pollu e s), and
he e o e lowe alues o he concen a ion index.
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 357
5 Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s in le -behind places
In he ollowing, we p esen ou econome ic speci ica ion, di ided in o di ec links,
es ima ed o he indus ial labou ma ke , and indi ec links, es ima ed a he egional
le el, including he e o e also non-indus ial labou ma ke s. In bo h cases, we a e
in e es ed in de ec ing he links be ween oxic pollu ion and employmen , wages,
and mig a ion (in he egional es ima ion), in o de o cha ac e ise he labou ma ke
associa ions in le -behind places.
5.1 Econome ic Speci ica ion
We use quan ile eg essions as in Koenke and Hallock (2001) o es ima e ou
dependen a iables. Quan ile eg essions a e ad an ageous because hey allow us
o analyse he di e en oles o oxic pollu ion o le -behind places, loca ed in
he le ail o he dis ibu ions, is-à- is he es . In his way, we ake in o accoun
he he e ogenei y ac oss egions ega ding employmen and wage le els, as well as
demog aphic changes. Fu he mo e, his es ima ion me hod is mo e obus o ou lie s
han OLS models and does no equi e assump ions abou he pa ame ic dis ibu ion
o he e o e m (see Koenke and Hallock 2001). We es ima e pe cen ile equa ions
o he 10 h, 25 h, 50 h, 75 h, and 90 h pe cen iles. Quan ile Reg ession me hods
allow lexibili y in he es ima ion o he coe icien s, enabling us o ob ain a ange
o condi ional quan ile unc ions (CQF), which in ou case will be gi en by he
employmen , wages, and mig a ion CQF.
Fu he mo e, we ake in o accoun ha he e a e egions in he da ase o which
oxic pollu ion is ze o due o he absence o a la ge indus ial acili y in ha a ea.
This implies ecoding egion-yea pai s o which we do no ha e da a on oxic
pollu ion as ze o.16 Hence, ou p edic o is le -censo ed, meaning ha we can ob-
se e oxic pollu ion only abo e a ce ain h eshold, as es ablished by he E-PRTR
egula ion (Eu opean Commission 2006) and ou own me hodology ha d ops non-
con inuous pollu e s. We also ind ha he a e age employmen and wage di e ence
be ween pollu ed and censo ed egions is posi i e. To co ec o he censo ing, we
in oduce a bina y indica o a iable a egion-yea le el, Indica o , as speci ied in
Eq. 5.17 Following his app oach, we es ima e baseline speci ica ions o he ollowing
gene al o m:
LB D˛sC˛cC˛ Cˇ1log.Tox Poll/s CIndica o CX C" ;(5)
whe e he dependen a iable LB, “Le -Behind”, is a ec o ha akes in o consid-
e a ion h ee di e en dimensions o being le behind o a gi en NUTS-3 egion
in yea : log o employmen , log o wages, and ne mig a ion. This is eg essed on
sec o al oxic pollu ion, in logs, compu ed a he egional le el. The nes ed na u e
16 Fo 23.7 pe cen o he da a se , we obse e he economic a iables, bu do no obse e he le el o oxic
pollu ion.
17 No e ha he indica o akes he alue 1 o a censo ed egion, i.e., when he e is no obse ed pollu ion,
and 0 o he wise.
K
358 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
o he empi ical speci ica ion allows o aking in o accoun sec o al he e ogenei y,
which eme ges as a key ace o he emission da a.18 Sec o al oxic pollu ion is he
amoun o pollu ion weigh ed by oxici y and emi ed a he egional le el in sec o
sa ime .Indica o is he dummy o he censo ed egions, o which we do no
obse e any oxic pollu ion. ˛s,˛c,and˛ a e sec o , coun y and yea ixed e ec s,
espec i ely. X ep esen s he se o con ol a iables, which a e ( ou -yea s) lagged
g oss alue added (g a) pe capi a and lagged employmen .19 Bo h a iables con ol
o egional economic ac i i y. G a is a p oxy o he sec o al p oduc ion/demand,
while lagged employmen accoun s o eedback e ec s om pas le els o employ-
men .20 Mo eo e , by including g a, we accoun o he po en ial con ac ing o ce
ha he inancial c isis has had, e.g., dep essing indus ial p oduc ion, being asym-
me ical ac oss Eu opean coun ies and egions, as laid ou in Dijks a e al. (2015);
Da ies (2011); G oo e al. (2011), all poin ing o spa ial he e ogenei y ega ding
c isis sensi i i y. Finally, s anda d e o s a e boo s apped.
While oxic pollu ion is a measu e o in ensi y and dange ousness, he concen-
a ion index adds he no ion o pollu an mix, o nega i e quali y, o he analysis.
On a e age, sec o s wi h mul i-pollu an p o iles also ha e highe le els o oxic
pollu ion as shown in Figs. 4and 5. We hence augmen he baseline speci ica ion by
in oducing he pollu an concen a ion index HHIs a sec o - egion-yea le el:21
LB D˛sC˛cC˛ Cˇ1log.Tox Poll/s Cˇ2HHIs CIndica o CX C" :(6)
5.2 Di ec links: Indus ial labou ma ke
We conside as di ec he i s -o de associa ions a he indus y le el. We look a
he links be ween oxic pollu ion and pollu an concen a ion, and indus ial labou
ma ke s in e ms o employmen and wages. Table 3depa s om he baseline
speci ica ion as w i en in Eq. 5. The es ima ion o di e en pe cen iles p o ides
a nuanced pic u e o le -behind places (de ined as he 10 h and 25 h pe cen iles)
is-à- is he es . Fo employmen in indus y,22 which we e e o as indus y em-
ploymen , we ind a posi i e and signi ican ela ionship, pa icula ly o he lowe
18 We pe o m a obus ness check whe e we agg ega e sec o al oxic pollu ion by egion on he igh -hand
side o he equa ion, hence abs ac ing om he indus ial dimension and ocusing solely on he egional
le el. This leads o a egional-le el empi ical speci ica ion whe e he le el o analysis is iden ical on bo h
sides o he equa ion. This educes he sample size app oxima ely by hal . The quali a i e esul s wi h his
al e na i e se up emain he same compa ed o he baseline speci ica ion, s essing he obus ness o ou
indings.
19 We ca y ou a obus ness check on he con ol a iables by using di e en lags, om wo o i e yea s.
Howe e , his does no change he quali a i e esul s o he analysis.
20 The inclusion o he lagged employmen a iable is s anda d in he es ima ion o labou demand equa-
ions.
21 A Wald es be ween he baseline and he augmen ed speci ica ion con i ms he s a is ical signi icance
be ween hose models.
22 “Indus y” e e s o indus y as a whole and is consis en wi h he NACE Re . 2 sec o al de ini ion. I is
he lowes le el o agg ega ion o which NUTS-3 le el da a is a ailable.
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 359
Table 3 Di ec links wi h indus ial labou ma ke , baseline speci ica ion (Eq. 5)
Di ec E ec s on Employmen and Wages
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10)
Dep. Va : Indus y Employmen Indus y Wages
Quan ile (%): 10 25 50 75 90 10 25 50 75 90
Log(Sec o al oxic pollu ion) 0.014*** 0.008*** 0.004** 0.001 –0.001 0.008*** 0.005*** –0.009*** –0.007*** –0.007***
[0.002] [0.001] [0.001] [0.001] [0.001] [0.003] [0.002] [0.002] [0.002] [0.002]
Indica o censo ed egions –0.474*** –0.344*** –0.267*** –0.186*** –0.099*** –0.301*** –0.135*** –0.096*** –0.026* 0.008
[0.013] [0.014] [0.012] [0.009] [0.009] [0.036] [0.018] [0.014] [0.015] [0.035]
Log(g a pe capi a) lagged –0.335*** –0.160*** –0.013 0.173*** 0.340*** 0.126*** 0.239*** 0.409*** 0.368*** 0.398***
[0.027] [0.021] [0.014] [0.024] [0.013] [0.041] [0.023] [0.013] [0.015] [0.020]
Log(employmen ) lagged 0.974*** 0.918*** 0.909*** 0.881*** 0.852*** 0.253*** 0.290*** 0.232*** 0.218*** 0.205***
[0.007] [0.005] [0.006] [0.004] [0.003] [0.016] [0.007] [0.007] [0.005] [0.014]
Indus y E ec s Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Coun y E ec s Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Yea E ec s Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Obs. 30,074 30,074 30,074 30,074 30,074 28,314 28,314 28,314 28,314 28,314
Pseudo R2 0.5931 0.5902 0.601 0.615 0.6387 0.3133 0.2996 0.2832 0.3218 0.3725
No es: S anda d e o s a e boo s apped. *** p < 0:01,**p < 0:05,*p<0:1
K
360 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
end o he dis ibu ion, i.e., he 10 h and 25 h pe cen iles (columns 1 and 2). The link
dec eases along he quan iles, becoming e en nega i e in he 90 h pe cen ile, e en
hough no signi ican . Hence, we ind he associa ion o be mos ly limi ed o wha
we iden i y as le -behind places, which a e cha ac e ised by weak labou ma ke s.
Fo ins ance, o he 10 h pe cen ile, a 1 pe cen inc ease in oxic pollu ion is associ-
a ed wi h a 0.014 pe cen inc ease in indus y employmen . The esul highligh s he
economic dependence, abo e ou lined, ha le -behind places mani es wi h noxious
indus ialisa ion. In addi ion, i poin s o poo economic ajec o ies and bad spe-
cialisa ion in hose places whe eby indus y employmen , e en hough po en ially
o poo quali y, is di ec ly linked o he p esence o noxious acili ies. Fo he e-
gions cha ac e ised ins ead by highe le els o employmen , he lack o signi icance
poin s o a decoupling be ween indus y employmen and oxic pollu ion. Indeed,
he highe he employmen le el o a gi en egion, he highe he economic pe o -
mance he ein, and he lowe will be he bu den exe ed by bad specialisa ion, he e
p oxied by pollu ion a he sec o al le el. The e o e, employmen dependence on
oxic pollu ion o e all dec eases along he condi ional dis ibu ion o employmen .
Fo indus y wages, a compa able pic u e eme ges. While he coe icien o in-
dus y wages is posi i e o le -behind places (columns 6 and 7), he associa ion
becomes nega i e o he highe quan iles. Hence, wi hin egions wi h low indus y
wages, oxic pollu ion is posi i ely associa ed wi h wages, again signaling depen-
dence on he sec o , while in egions wi h al eady high indus y wages, he associa-
ion ge s nega i e. The associa ion o he 10 h pe cen ile is compa able in magni ude
wi h he median, howe e o opposi e sign. The opposing associa ion o le -behind
places is-à- is he es is in line wi h he no ion o spa ial inequali y eedback
loops as poin ed ou by Pinhei o e al. (2022). The declining co-e olu ion o oxic
pollu ion along he wage dis ibu ion, simila o he employmen dynamics, sugges s
ha in high-wage egions, ake he example o Ba a ia, highly oxic acili ies ha e
a penalizing e ec on wages. These esul s he e o e highligh he ela ionship being
he e ogeneous along he condi ional dis ibu ion o bo h indus y employmen and
wages. A he same ime, hey sugges ha OLS es ima ion clouds such he e ogene-
i y, unde mining he special y o le -behind places. Such he e ogenei y he e o e
s eng hens he case o ou choice o applying quan ile eg ession o he da a.
Fu he mo e, he indica o o he censo ed egions is always nega i e and sig-
ni ican and inc eases mono onically along he employmen and wage quan iles.
Hence, in le -behind egions ( i s wo quan iles), he di e ence in labou ma ke
a iables be ween pollu ed and non-pollu ed a eas is g ea e . The nega i e ela ion-
ship is mainly due o he deg ee o indus ialisa ion and indus ial ac i i y, which
has a di ec e ec in e ms o bo h economic de elopmen o he a ea and highe
pollu ion le els, when compa ed wi h e.g., u al a eas whe e indus ial ac i i ies a e
no p esen . O e all, we documen ha oxic pollu ion impac s especially he le -
behind places. Lagged g a pe capi a is nega i e in he lowe quan iles, indica ing
a egional employmen change owa ds sec o s o he han indus y, possibly ac i-
a ed by noxious deindus ialisa ion. Lagged employmen is always posi i e, wi h
high pe sis en magni udes which dec ease along he dis ibu ion.
Gene ally, le -behind places a e conside ed o be bo h low-indus y employmen
and low-indus y wages a eas (as pe ou de ini ion, see abo e), in line wi h he ac
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 367
Rela ed o he ques ion o why o how oxic pollu ion aligns wi h economic
dep i a ion, he i s index holds signi icance. I elies on he weigh ed amoun o
oxic emission by egion, unc ioning as an indica o o egional-le el specialisa ion.
This concen a ion mani es s in speci ic indus ial sec o s, cap u ed by hei le el o
oxici y. Indeed, pollu an s a e highly sec o -speci ic, as Fig. 1highligh s (also see
a ious epo s by he In e na ional Ene gy Agency, e.g., OECD e al. 2016).
In ha way, he i s index allows s udying he ex en o which oxic pollu ion –
eme ging om sec o al specialisa ion o a gi en e i o y – a ec s he local labou
ma ke . In his con ex , he heo y o e i o ial lock-in and pa h dependency upon
high- oxic indus ial sec o s becomes pe inen : le -behind egions exhibi a s able
and posi i e ela ionship wi h oxici y in e ms o employmen and wages (compa e
Sec . 2). This phenomenon is a ibu ed o he p onounced economic dependence o
he e i o y on highly- oxic indus ial sec o s.
Apa om indus ial lock-in, i is essen ial o conside po en ial pa hs o up-
g ading o downg ading in e ms o oxic emissions o comp ehend he ajec o y
o he e i o y. In his espec , he second index we p opose cap u es he ex en o
which he composi ion o he pollu an po olio has changed o e ime: less oxic
po olios a e a p oxy o an upg ading pa h, ice- e sa, mo e oxic po olios a e
a p oxy o a downg ading pa h. The e o e, he HHI index cap u es he channels no
o pollu ion as such, bu a he as a p oxy o he e olu ion o he lock-in ajec o y.
Indeed, he index p esen s a s able and nega i e ela ionship wi h employmen and
wages a he indus y le els only in le -behind places, while i is no signi ican
in non-le -behind places. The a ionale behind his is ha i ep esen s a p oxy
o echnological upg ading o he egion, inco po a ing less emi ing bu also less
labou -in ensi e echnologies.
6 Conclusions and policy implica ions
A guably, he con empo a y c ises o e lapping ac oss social, economic, and eco-
logical sphe es a e c ea ing sys emic inequali ies ac oss space. We concep ualise
le -behind egions h ough economic dep i a ion and explo e hei en i onmen al
dimension. We explo e he co-e olu ion o oxic indus ial pollu ion and socio-eco-
nomic dep i a ion h ough channels o pa h dependence, egional lock-ins, and he
labou -sa ing e ec s o echnology, he e o e adop ing he lens o economic geog-
aphy and i s scope o in e p e a ion as a use ul oolbox o add ess en i onmen al
inequali y. Using da a o 15 Eu opean coun ies a NUTS-3 le el, a e p o iding
one o he i s comp ehensi e a emp s o map oxic pollu ion in Eu ope, we employ
quan ile eg ession o s udy how oxic pollu ion and pollu an concen a ion impac
disp opo ionally he le -behind egions.
All in all, ou indings ace his o ies o indus ial decay, p o iding e idence
ha pe sis en exposu e o pollu ion wo ks as a compounding ac o agg a a ing
al eady exis ing socio-economic dep i a ion. This has compelling implica ions o
sus ainable de elopmen . We ind opposing esul s o le -behind places is-à- is
he es , poin ing o spa ial inequali y eedback loops. Due o pa h dependence in
indus y, such le -behind places, o en ma e ially dependen on oxic indus ies and
K
368 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
wi h a hea ily impai ed en i onmen , ind hemsel es locked in hei poo economic
ajec o ies, and bad specialisa ion pa h hey ha e e ol ed in o. The e o e, o such
le -behind places, he ade-o be ween heal h and employmen kep being pe pe -
ua ed. In ac , Le ne (2012) uses he e m “sac i ice zones” which join ly concei e
en i onmen al oxici y and economic disin es men . This concep has ecen ly been
de eloped u he by Fel in e al. (2021) o coin he e m “noxious deindus ialisa-
ion” as le -behind places whe e ongoing pollu ion and unde employmen coexis .
Hence, while he sus ained elease o indus ial oxic pollu an s dis up s human,
en i onmen al, and economic heal h, i main ains he s a us quo o ep oduc i e and
social dispa i ies. The poli ical economy o le -behind places would sugges ha
a ansi ion o echnological sys ems owa ds a ze o- oxic wo ld equi es he co-e o-
lu ion no only o p oduc i e o ces and echnological domains bu also o poli ical
s uc u es cu en ly oo much a ou ing ine ia. Taken a la ge, he ela ionship be-
ween labou , capi al, and he en i onmen laid ba e in he analysis aises ques ions
abou he en i onmen al and socie al sus ainabili y o capi alism (Fabe 2008).
The empi ical analysis s ongly suppo s he need o a place-sensi i e egional
policy, wi h an u gen ocus on le -behind places, which can guide he new Jus
T ansi ion Fund (2021–2027) and EU cohesion policy. In o de o en i onmen al
and clima e policies o e en ou e i o ial inequali ies, policy-make s ha e o ake
in o accoun local con ex s in e ms o indus ial specialisa ion, echnological lock-
ins, employmen seg ega ion as well as he ma e ialis and economic dependence
on highly oxic indus ies. Mo eo e , he esul s o ou place-based analysis help
o pa ially o e come he p oduc i is opposi ion be ween labou and en i onmen ,
as we show ha whene e p ocesses o en i onmen al- echnological upg ading a e
unde aken, hey end o c owd ou wo ke s om he indus ial labou ma ke bu
a e associa ed wi h posi i e egional spillo e s, imp o ing labou ma ke a iables
o e all. Thus, egions whe e ewe oxic pollu an s a e emi ed a e egions wi h in-
mig a ion lows, while he opposi e is ue o egions cha ac e ised by a highly
di e si ied, highly pollu ing mix o pollu an s.
Fu he mo e, i is c ucial o unde s and he policy implica ions o a labou -sa ing
e ec o en i onmen al echnology in pollu ing indus ies. A e y ecen publica ion
by he In e na ional Mone a y Fund (IMF) lays ou he high geog aphical concen a-
ion o high-pollu ing jobs (Bluedo n e al. 2022). Howe e , he epo s esses he
issue o labou ealloca ion, gi en ha indi idual wo ke s a e less likely o success-
ully ealloca e o g eene jobs, hence compounding he disad an ages o al eady
le -behind people and places. Behind he impedimen o a labou ansi ion away
om oxic and ossil-dependen occupa ions owa ds g eene ones is he lack o
an indus ial policy able o c ea e coo dina ed policy ac ions o go e n he win
( echnological and ecological) ansi ion (Bianchini e al. 2023). Al hough g owing,
“g een jobs” do no ep esen a sec o pe se bu a e a he occupa ions ela ed o
he p oduc ion o po en ially “g eene goods”. Howe e , hey ha dly migh ep esen
he solu ion o en i e sec o s and ela ed supply chains unde deep o ganiza ional
and p oduc i e es uc u ing, such as au omo i e. In his espec , place-based policy
ini ia i es mus coexis wi h coo dina ed Eu opean indus ial policies (Cimoli e al.
2009) aiming o build p oduc i e bu sus ainable capaci y in he nea u u e. Le -
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 369
behind, pe iphe al egions ough o be he s a ing poin o his ype o policy ac ion,
wi h guided econ e sion and socio-economic upg ading.
Finally, ou pape also connec s o he b oade concep o he geog aphy o
discon en . I oxic pollu ion con ibu es o a place being le behind, hen he en i-
onmen al dimension migh ma e o poli ics, i.e., populis s ances, which howe e
a e mos ly an i-en i onmen alis . Ins ead, le -behind places would ha e eason o
become subjec s in en i onmen al s uggles in gene al and he G een New Deal
in pa icula , due o hei ma e ialis dependencies on oxic economic g ow h. In
his ega d, economis s a e ad ised o apply en i onmen al jus ice app oaches o
con empo a y en i onmen al challenges. This poin s o he gene al need o b ing
deindus ialised and ma ginalised places back in o policy ocus, apa om hei
poli ical ele ance.
Fu u e lines o esea ch include, i s ly, he use o spa ial econome ic echniques
o de ec spa ial co ela ion p ocesses ac oss le -behind places. Second, a s udy o
g ow h pa e ns a he acili y le el could be use ul o dis inguish be ween “g ow h
by pollu ion” and “g ow h by decon amina ion” s a egies. Thi dly, esea ch could
del e in o he ma e ialis his o ies o le -behind places by looking a mic o-le el
da a on wo ke s, examining labou ma ke ou comes, and in e sec ing class and
gende dimensions o en i onmen al jus ice (Fabe e al. 2021).
7 Appendix
7.1 De ails on E-PRTR da a sample: pollu an s and sec o s
Table 7 Summa y able o 41 dis inc oxic pollu an s and CAS numbe s as in ou E-PRTR sample, lis ed
by pollu an g oups and anked acco ding o hei USE ox 2.12 oxici y sco e
Pollu an name Pollu an
CAS
Pollu an g oup name Toxici y sco e
(USE ox 2.12)
Te achlo ome hane 56-23-5 G eenhouse gases 0.0000974
Hyd ochlo o luo oca bons 593-70-4 G eenhouse gases 0.0000301
Halons 1897-45-6 G eenhouse gases 4.71E-03
Chlo o luo oca bons 75-69-4 G eenhouse gases 1.75E-04
Hyd o- luo oca bons 811-97-2 G eenhouse gases 1.52E-04
Fluo ine and ino ganic com-
pounds (as HF)
75-02-5 Halogens 0.0000756
Chlo ine and ino ganic com-
pounds (as HCl)
136-40-3 Halogens 0.0000281
1,1,2,2- e achlo oe hane 79-34-5 Halogens 0.0000205
Me cu y and compounds (as Hg) 14302-87-5 Hea y me als 3.49
Cadmium and compounds (as
Cd)
22537-48-0 Hea y me als 0.195
A senic and compounds (as As) 17428-41-0 Hea y me als 0.0538
Ch omium and compounds (as
C )
18540-29-9 Hea y me als 0.0465
Lead and compounds (as Pb) 14280-50-3 Hea y me als 0.0428
Zinc and compounds (as Zn) 23713-49-7 Hea y me als 0.0155
K
370 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
Table 7 (Con inued)
Pollu an name Pollu an
CAS
Pollu an g oup name Toxici y sco e
(USE ox 2.12)
Nickel and compounds (as Ni) 14701-22-5 Hea y me als 0.00136
Coppe and compounds (as Cu) 15158-11-9 Hea y me als 0.0000892
Benzo(g,h,i)pe ylene 191-24-2 (Polycyclic) A oma ic Hy-
d oca bons
0.000412
An h acene 120-12-7 (Polycyclic) A oma ic Hy-
d oca bons
0.000288
Di-(2-e hyl hexyl) ph hala e 117-81-7 (Polycyclic) A oma ic Hy-
d oca bons
0.0000228
Xylenes 1330-20-7 (Polycyclic) A oma ic Hy-
d oca bons
6.66E-04
Toluene 108-88-3 (Polycyclic) A oma ic Hy-
d oca bons
2.55E-04
Phenols (as o al C) 108-95-2 (Polycyclic) A oma ic Hy-
d oca bons
2.35E-04
Nonylphenol and Nonylphenol
e hoxyla es
25154-52-3 (Polycyclic) A oma ic Hy-
d oca bons
2.33E-04
Hexachlo obenzene 118-74-1 Pe sis en O ganic Pollu an s 0.000934
Polychlo ina ed biphenyls 1336-36-3 Pe sis en O ganic Pollu an s 0.000519
Pen achlo ophenol 87-86-5 Pe sis en O ganic Pollu an s 0.000128
Pen achlo obenzene 608-93-5 Pe sis en O ganic Pollu an s 0.0000732
E hyl benzene 100-41-4 Pe sis en O ganic Pollu an s 6.98E-03
Polycyclic a oma ic hyd oca bons 2243-62-1 Pe sis en O ganic Pollu an s 5.03E-03
Vinyl chlo ide 75-01-4 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 0.0000617
Naph halene 91-20-3 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 0.0000243
E hylene oxide 75-21-8 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 0.0000119
Te achlo oe hylene 127-18-4 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 8.34E-03
T ichlo ome hane 67-66-3 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 7.13E-03
Non-me hane ola ile o ganic
compounds
100-41-4 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 6.98E-03
1,2-dichlo oe hane 107-06-2 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 5.91E-03
Benzene 71-43-2 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 5.34E-03
Dichlo ome hane 75-09-2 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 3.38E-03
T ichlo oe hylene 79-01-6 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 5.54E-04
1,1,1- ichlo oe hane 71-55-6 Vola ile O ganic Compounds 4.73E-05
Table 8 Summa y able o sec o s and desc ip ion o ac i i y as in Annex I o he E-PRTR
Sec o De ailed desc ip ion o ac i i y as in Annex I o he E-PRTR
Ene gy sec o Coal olling mills wi h a capaci y o 1 onne pe hou
Ene gy sec o Ins alla ions o gasi ica ion and lique ac ion
Ene gy sec o The mal powe s a ions and o he combus ion ins alla ions
Ene gy sec o Ins alla ions o he manu ac u e o coal p oduc s and solid smokeless uel
Ene gy sec o Mine al oil and gas e ine ies
Ene gy sec o Coke o ens
Me al indus y Me al o e (including sulphide o e) oas ing o sin e ing ins alla ions
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 371
Table 8 (Con inued)
Sec o De ailed desc ip ion o ac i i y as in Annex I o he E-PRTR
Me al indus y Ins alla ions o he p ocessing o e ous me als, Applica ion o p o ec i e used
me al coa s
Me al indus y Ins alla ion o he p oduc ion o non- e ous c ude me als om o e, concen a es
o seconda y aw ma e ials by me allu gical, chemical o elec oly ic p ocesses
Me al indus y Fe ous me al ound ies wi h a p oduc ion capaci y o 20 onnes pe day
Me al indus y Ins alla ions o he p oduc ion o pig i on o s eel (p ima y o seconda y mel ing)
including con inuous cas ing
Me al indus y Ins alla ion o he smel ing, including he alloying, o non- e ous me als, includ-
ing eco e ed p oduc s ( e ining, ound y cas ing, e c.)
Me al indus y Ins alla ions o he p ocessing o e ous me als.
Me al indus y Ins alla ions o he p oduc ion and/o smel ing o non- e ous me als.
Me al indus y Ins alla ions o he p ocessing o e ous me als, Ho - olling mills
Me al indus y Ins alla ions o su ace ea men o me als and plas ic ma e ials using an elec-
oly ic o chemical p ocess
Mine al indus y Ins alla ions o he p oduc ion o cemen clinke in o a y kilns, lime in o a y
kilns, cemen o lime in o he u naces
Mine al indus y Opencas mining and qua ying
Mine al indus y Ins alla ions o he p oduc ion o lime in o a y kilns
Mine al indus y Ins alla ions o he p oduc ion o cemen clinke o lime in o he u naces
Mine al indus y Ins alla ions o he p oduc ion o cemen clinke in o a y kilns
Mine al indus y Ins alla ions o he manu ac u e o ce amic p oduc s by i ing, in pa icula oo -
ing iles, b icks, e ac o y b icks, iles, s onewa e o po celain
Mine al indus y Ins alla ions o he manu ac u e o glass, including glass ib e
Mine al indus y Unde g ound mining and ela ed ope a ions
Mine al indus y Ins alla ions o mel ing mine al subs ances, including he p oduc ion o mine al
ib es
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Ni ogenous hyd oca bon.
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic ino ganic
chemicals: Acids.
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Syn he ic ubbe s
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Sulphu ous hyd oca bons
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic ino ganic
chemicals.
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic ino ganic
chemicals: Bases.
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Su ace-ac i e agen s and su ac an s
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic plan
heal h p oduc s and o biocides
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Dyes and pigmen s
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic ino ganic
chemicals: Sal s
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals
K
372 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
Table 8 (Con inued)
Sec o De ailed desc ip ion o ac i i y as in Annex I o he E-PRTR
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: O ganome allic compounds
Chemical indus y Ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o explosi es and py o ech-
nic p oduc s
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Simple hyd oca bons
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Phospho us-con aining hyd oca bons
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic ino ganic
chemicals: Non-me als, me al oxides o o he ino ganic compounds
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Basic plas ic ma e ials
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o phospho ous,
ni ogen o po assium based e ilise s (simple o compound e ilise s)
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic ino ganic
chemicals: Gases
Chemical indus y Ins alla ions using a chemical o biological p ocess o he p oduc ion on an in-
dus ial scale o basic pha maceu ical p oduc s
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Halogenic hyd oca bons
Chemical indus y Chemical ins alla ions o he p oduc ion on an indus ial scale o basic o ganic
chemicals: Oxygen-con aining hyd oca bons
Was e and was e -
wa e
Ins alla ions o he disposal o ecycling o animal ca casses and animal was e
Was e and was e -
wa e
U ban was e-wa e ea men plan s
Was e and was e -
wa e
Ins alla ions o he eco e y o disposal o haza dous was e
Was e and was e -
wa e
Independen ly ope a ed indus ial was e-wa e ea men plan s
Was e and was e -
wa e
Ins alla ions o he incine a ion o non-haza dous was e
Was e and was e -
wa e
Ins alla ions o he disposal o non-haza dous was e
Was e and was e -
wa e
Land ills
Pape and wood
p oduc ion
Indus ial plan s o he p ese a ion o wood and wood p oduc s wi h chemicals
Pape and wood
p oduc ion
Indus ial plan s o he p oduc ion o pulp om imbe o simila ib ous ma e i-
als
Pape and wood
p oduc ion
Indus ial plan s o he p oduc ion o pape and boa d and o he p ima y wood
p oduc s
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
Ins alla ions o he building o , and pain ing o emo al o pain om ships wi h
a capaci y o ships 100 m long
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
T ea men and p ocessing in ended o he p oduc ion o ood and be e age p od-
uc s om ege able aw ma e ials
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
T ea men and p ocessing in ended o he p oduc ion o ood and be e age p od-
uc s om animal aw ma e ials (o he han milk)
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 373
Table 8 (Con inued)
Sec o De ailed desc ip ion o ac i i y as in Annex I o he E-PRTR
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
T ea men and p ocessing o milk
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
Ins alla ions o he p oduc ion o ca bon (ha d-bu n coal) o elec o-g aphi e by
means o incine a ion o g aphi isa ion
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
Slaugh e houses
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
Plan s o he anning o hides and skins
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
In ensi e aquacul u e
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
T ea men and p ocessing in ended o he p oduc ion o ood and be e age p od-
uc s
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
Plan s o he p e- ea men o dyeing o ib es o ex iles
Ag icul u e and
lea he indus y
Ins alla ions o he su ace ea men o subs ances, objec s o p oduc s using
o ganic sol en s
7.2 De ails on egional a iables
Fig. 8 Regional map o employ-
men in 15 Eu opean coun ies,
in logs, a NUTS-3 le el, a e -
aged ac oss 2007–2018, showing
he 15 coun ies in ou sample.
Sou ce: Own calcula ion based
on Camb idge Econome ics
K
374 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
Table 9 Examples o he co ela ion be ween indus y and se ice employmen . The depic ed
pe cen ages indica e how many o he egion-yea pai s a e wi hin he 50 h pe cen ile o he dis ibu ion
Pe cen age o egion-yea pai s abo e he median o he dis ibu ion o
Indus y employmen Se ice employmen
Au e gne-Rhone-Alpes (FR) 72 75
Emilia Romagna (IT) 91 86
No h Rhine-Wes phalia (DE) 76 72
S u ga A ea (DE) 93 56
Table 10 Desc ip i e s a is ics showing he quan iles o indus y employmen and wages s a i ied by
u ban- u al classi ica ion a NUTS-3 le el and sou ced om Eu os a
Indus y Employmen and Wages s a i ied by U ban-Ru al Classi ica ion
Indus y Employmen Indus y Wages
Quan iles: 10 25 50 75 90 10 25 50 75 90
Sha e:
% p edominan ly
u ban
14.91 21.67 30.67 35.69 52.84 10.28 29.18 25.57 42.7 42.21
% in e media e 29.23 37.8 38.67 46.83 38.97 42.28 34.28 42.44 34.18 40.63
% p edominan ly
u al
55.86 40.53 30.67 17.48 8.19 47.43 36.54 31.99 23.12 17.17
Sum % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Table 11 Desc ip i e s a is ics showing he quan iles o o al employmen and wages s a i ied by u ban-
u al classi ica ion a NUTS-3 le el and sou ced om Eu os a
To al Employmen and Wages s a i ied by U ban-Ru al Classi ica ion
To al Employmen To al Wages
Quan iles: 10 25 50 75 90 10 25 50 75 90
Sha e:
% p edomi-
nan ly u ban
10.26 22.31 29.23 28.03 65.96 8.44 32.08 21.27 35.92 52.2
%in e me-
dia e
33.27 33.39 36.98 54.53 33.31 44.72 33.79 42.65 39.94 32.72
% p edomi-
nan ly u al
56.47 44.31 33.79 17.44 0.73 46.84 34.13 36.08 24.14 15.08
Sum % 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
K
Toxic pollu ion and labou ma ke s: unco e ing Eu ope’s le -behind places 375
Fig. 9 Map o co ela ion co-
e icien s be ween indus y and
se ice employmen by NUTS-2
egions depic ing wi hin- e-
gion co ela ions, pooled ac oss
all yea s, based on Camb idge
Econome ics
K
376 C. Bez, M. E. Vi gilli o
Fig. 10 Violin plo s o aem-
ploymen , indus y employmen ,
wages, indus y wages, in logs;
and bpopula ion changes e al-
ua ed o e he las ou yea s.
The desc ip i es e e o he
a e age ac oss 2007–2018. a
Va iables exp essed in logs om
Camb idge Econome ics, b
Va iable exp essed in changes
om Eu os a
K
