Rauschnabel, Philipp A.; Hü l‐Maack, Ve ena; Ahu ia, Aa on C.; Schein, Ka in E.
A icle — Published Ve sion
Augmen ed eali y ma ke ing and consume ‒b and
ela ionships: How closeness d i es b and lo e
Psychology & Ma ke ing
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John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Rauschnabel, Philipp A.; Hü l‐Maack, Ve ena; Ahu ia, Aa on C.; Schein, Ka in
E. (2024) : Augmen ed eali y ma ke ing and consume ‒b and ela ionships: How closeness d i es
b and lo e, Psychology & Ma ke ing, ISSN 1520-6793, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 41, Iss. 4, pp.
819-837,
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Recei ed: 18 Janua y 2023
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Accep ed: 1 Decembe 2023
DOI: 10.1002/ma .21953
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Augmen ed eali y ma ke ing and consume ‒b and
ela ionships: How closeness d i es b and lo e
Philipp A. Rauschnabel
1,2
|Ve ena Hü l‐Maack
3
|Aa on C. Ahu ia
4
|
Ka in E. Schein
5
1
College o Business, Uni e si ä de
Bundesweh München, Neubibe g, Ge many
2
O o‐F ied ich‐Uni e si ä Bambe g,
Bambe g, Ge many
3
Depa men o Ma ke ing & Managemen ,
Uni e si y o Hohenheim, S u ga , Ge many
4
Uni e si y o Michigan‐Dea bo n, Dea bo n,
Michigan, USA
5
Reu lingen Uni e si y, He man Holle i h
Resea ch Cen e , Böblingen, Ge many
Co espondence
Philipp A. Rauschnabel, College o Business,
Uni e si ä de Bundesweh München,
Neubibe g, Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
Ma ke e s use augmen ed eali y (AR) o place i ual b and‐ ela ed in o ma ion in o
a consume 's physical con ex . G ounded in he li e a u e on AR, b and lo e,
me apho heo y, and closeness as in e p e ed by he neu al heo y o language, he
au ho s heo ize ha b anded AR con en can educe he pe cei ed physical, spa ial
dis ance be ween a consume and a b and. This pe cei ed closeness subsequen ly
d i es he closeness o he emo ional ela ionship in he o m o b and lo e. Two
empi ical s udies alida e his amewo k. S udy 1 shows ha using an AR app ( s.
non‐AR) inc eases he pe cei ed physical closeness o he b and, which in u n
d i es b and lo e (i.e., ela ionship closeness). S udy 2 eplica es his inding in a
p e‐/pos ‐use design. He e, high le els o local p esence (i.e., he ex en o which
consume s pe cei e a b and as ac ually being p esen in hei physical en i onmen )
d i e pe cei ed physical closeness, which leads o b and lo e. We also ind ha
AR's powe o gene a e b and lo e inc eases when he consume is al eady amilia
wi h he b and. We discuss manage ial implica ions o AR ma ke ing oday and in a
me a e se u u e in which AR con en migh be p e alen in consume s' e e yday
pe cep ions o he eal wo ld.
KEYWORDS
augmen ed eali y, b and lo e, closeness, consume ‒b and ela ionships, me apho , me a e se,
spa ial compu ing, spa ial dis ance
1|INTRODUCTION
When consume s use augmen ed eali y (AR), hey ha e a hyb id
expe ience consis ing o he eal physical en i onmen a ound hem
and i ual objec s ha appea o ha e been placed wi hin ha wo ld
(Fla iàn e al., 2019; Peddie, 2017). The main dis inc i e ac o
be ween AR and o he digi al p esen a ion o ma s is con ex ual
embedding ( on de Au e al., 2023), which means ha he i ual
con en is in eg a ed in o he use 's physical en i onmen
(Rauschnabel, Felix, e al., 2022). Fo ins ance, Pokémon Go use s
pe cei e i ual c ea u es si ing on hei s ee s, IKEA Place use s
explo e i ual couches in hei li ing ooms, and ca en husias s can
expe ience i ual ca s as i he ehicles we e in hei d i eways using
he Me cedes Benz cAR app.
The g owing impo ance o AR ma ke ing has been e lec ed in
an inc ease in academic publica ions. Howe e , as ecen biblio-
g aphic analyses by Du e al. (2022), Jayaswal and Pa ida (2023), and
Kuma (2022) e eal, only a ew s udies ha e ackled issues in b and
Psychol Ma k. 2024;41:819–837. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/ma
|
819
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in any medium,
p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed.
© 2023 The Au ho s. Psychology & Ma ke ing published by Wiley Pe iodicals LLC.
managemen . Such s udies ypically ocus on how AR can d i e
cogni i e b and a i udes (e.g., Ga e e al., 2022; Zange e al., 2022)
o b and engagemen and ad ocacy (Kuma e al., 2023b). Wha has
no been su icien ly conside ed in ela ion o AR ma ke ing is he
po en ial o enhance b and lo e o o he aspec s o consume –b and
ela ionships (Scholz & Du y, 2018). The p esen esea ch is among
he i s o es ablish a link be ween AR ma ke ing and b and lo e.
B and lo e is a concep o high manage ial and heo e ical
in e es . Theo e ically, b and lo e is a speci ic o m o consume ‒
b and ela ionship wi h unique cha ac e is ics. As a complex,
mul idimensional cons uc (Ba a e al., 2012), i sha es simila i ies
wi h in e pe sonal ela ionships (Ahu ia, 2022). Resea ch has also
es ablished a s ong link be ween b and lo e and a ious a iables on
which ma ke e s end o ocus, such as inc eased loyal y and
ad ocacy, in ensi ied consume ‒b and ela ionships, dec eased p ice
sensi i i y and long‐ e m p o i abili y (e.g., Khami o e al., 2019;
Nguyen & Feng, 2021). Thus, i is no su p ising ha manage s ha e a
keen in e es in inding ways o c ea e and manage b and lo e.
Howe e , in con as o a i ude‐based measu es (e.g., b and liking),
b and lo e is p edominan ly in luenced by mo e expe ien ial a iables
a he han (solely) by mo e u ili a ian ac o s such as p oduc quali y
o p ice.
Because b and expe iences play a undamen al ole in building
b and lo e (Joshi & Ga g, 2021), AR may ha e he powe o posi i ely
impac b and lo e. To es his assump ion, we de elop a amewo k by
inco po a ing indings om he AR ma ke ing discipline, me apho
heo y (Ahu ia & Adelman, 1993; Thibodeau e al., 2019), and he neu al
heo y o language (Lako , 1993). Mo e speci ically, we heo ize ha
expe iencing b anded AR con en in one's physical en i onmen
inc eases he le el o pe cei ed physical closeness be ween a consume
andab and(i.e., he eeling ha ab andisac uallyphysicallyclose o
hem), which subsequen ly inc eases a consume 's sense o being
emo ionally close o he p oduc , hus boos ing b and lo e.
We es ed ou amewo k in wo complemen a y empi ical
s udies. S udy 1 used an expe imen al design in which consume s
expe ienced an au omo i e ma ke ing app ei he in AR o no . S udy
2 is based on a su ey design in which all esponden s used a makeup
app. Ra he han manipula ing he use o AR e sus non‐AR,
esponden s e alua ed he le el o “local p esence”(in o he wo ds,
how con incing and ealis ic he AR e ec was; Rauschnabel, Felix,
e al., 2022). In bo h s udies, we e eal AR's abili y o inc ease
pe cei ed physical closeness (i.e., spa ial dis ance) be ween a
consume and a b and. In S udy 1, we show ha esponden s in
he AR g oup pe cei e he b and as ac ually being close o hem as
esponden s in he non‐AR g oup; in S udy 2, we show ha AR's
e ec is based on he quali y o he con ex ual embedding (i.e., he
pe cei ed local p esence). Fu he mo e, bo h s udies e eal ha
pe cei ed physical closeness d i es b and lo e, e en when con ol-
ling o p io le els o b and lo e (measu ed se e al days be o e he
AR use).
Ou esul s con ibu e o he li e a u e s eams on AR and
b anding by es ablishing a connec ion be ween AR and b and lo e.
We iden i y a new mechanism and demons a e how AR enhances
b and lo e by i s , enhancing he pe cei ed physical closeness o he
b and, and second, enhancing emo ional closeness, which is a co e
componen o b and lo e. Ou indings also p o ide impo an
p ac ical implica ions. Because b anding is a co e objec i e o AR
ma ke ing in many i ms (Rauschnabel, Babin, e al., 2022), insigh s
in o how AR migh inc ease b and lo e can po en ially ha e a
signi ican in luence on ma ke ing p ac ice.
The emainde o his a icle is s uc u ed as ollows: We i s
in oduce he cen al concep s o AR and b and lo e and discuss
hem in ligh o p io esea ch. Second, we de elop a heo e ical
amewo k and hypo heses. Nex , we p esen wo complemen a y
empi ical s udies ha es ed he p oposed amewo k. Finally, we
discuss ou indings and ou line he con ibu ions o esea ch, he
implica ions o p ac i ione s, and a enues o u u e esea ch.
2|THEORY AND PRIOR RESEARCH
2.1 |Augmen ed eali y
Al hough no uni o mly de ined, in gene al, AR in eg a es i ual
con en in o a consume 's pe cep ion o he eal wo ld using digi al
echnology, such as a sma phone, able , o AR glasses (Fla ián
e al., 2019; Rauschnabel, Felix, e al., 2022). Unlike i ual eali y
(VR), in which consume s a e isola ed om he eal wo ld and
imme sed in a pu ely i ual en i onmen , in AR, consume s s ill
pe cei e hei physical su oundings (Hilken e al., 2022). Thus, AR
enables he coexis ence o bo h eali ies— he eal and i ual (i.e.,
physical and digi al)—in he same space (Ibáñez‐Sánchez e al., 2022),
allowing hyb id “phygi al”expe iences (Rauschnabel, Babin,
e al., 2022). Fo example, as illus a ed in Figu e 1, a i ual ca is
placed on a consume 's physical d i eway. Consequen ly, he mos
impo an ea u e o AR is con ex ual embedding ( on de Au
e al., 2023)—in o he wo ds, he usion o i ual con en wi h a
physical con ex (Fla ián e al., 2019; Hilken e al., 2022;
Peddie, 2017; Rauschnabel, Felix, e al., 2022).
2.1.1 |Con ex ual embedding and he ole o local
p esence
The concep o local p esence (Ve hagen e al., 2014;Vonkeman
e al., 2017) is de ined as he ex en o which a pe son using AR (o
simila ) echnology expe iences digi al objec s ha ha e been inse ed
in o hei isual ield as “ac ually being he e”(Vonkeman e al., 2017,
p. 2). In a simplis ic AR app, he inse ed objec may seem ob iously
ake o disconnec ed om he eal objec s in he image, leading he
use o expe ience he inse ed objec as ha ing a low le el o local
p esence. Howe e , he quali y o he AR app is jus one o se e al
in luences on he deg ee o local p esence expe ienced by he use .
Rauschnabel, Felix, e al. (2022) p oposed he xReali y amewo k,
which s a es ha AR expe iences can be posi ioned on a con inuum o
local p esence, anging om assis ed eali y (low) o mixed eali y
820
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RAUSCHNABEL ET AL.
(high). Pu e ex con en o simple 2D g aphics a e usually pe cei ed as
a i icial and ep esen a low le el o local p esence. In con as , a he
highes le el o local p esence, i ual con en can be so ealis ic (Chen
&Lin,2022; Chen e al., 2022) ha i is indis inguishable om eal
physical objec s (Dwi edi e al., 2022), hus allowing o “deepe
expe iences”(Spangenbe ge e al., 2022, p. 246). Because no all AR
expe iences a e equally compelling o ealis ic, local p esence is cen al
o AR esea ch ( on de Au e al., 2023; Chen & Lin, 2022;Daassi&
Debbabi, 2021;Rauschnabel,Babin,e al.,2022;Schein,2022;Smink
e al., 2020).
2.1.2 |Augmen ed eali y ma ke ing and b and
managemen
Common AR ma ke ing objec i es include b anding,inspi ing,
con incing,andkeeping, as s a ed in he BICK FOUR amewo k
(Rauschnabel, Babin, e al., 2022). Mos AR ma ke ing a icles ha e
ocused on he la e s ages o he cus ome jou ney, such as
pu chase in en ions, p oduc e alua ions, o willingness o pay (Du
e al., 2022;Kuma ,2022;Kuma e al.,2023a). Howe e , su eys
o manage s indica e ha oday's AR ma ke ing p ac ices usually
a ge consume s in he ea ly s ages o he cus ome jou ney and
in ol e goals such as building s onge b ands (e.g., Bos on
Consul ing G oup, 2018; Rauschnabel, Babin, e al., 2022). The
s udies on AR and b anding ha a e mos closely ela ed o he
p esen esea ch a e shown in Table 1. Fo example, Zange e al.
(2022) and Rauschnabel e al. (2019) showed ha AR can igge
inspi a ional hinking, which has a posi i e impac on b and
a i ude. Ja o nik (2016) ound ha ARcanlead o low
expe iences,whichin u nde e mineb ande alua ion.Scholz
and Du y (2018) conduc ed an e hnog aphic s udy and ound ha
engaging wi h a b and in one's own pe sonal a eas can os e an
in ima e ela ionship wi h i .
Pas esea ch on AR in consume ma ke ing has o en ocused
on b and a i ude. B and a i ude was a logical place o s a
esea ch on AR in ma ke ing because a i ude measu es cap u e
posi i e and nega i e e alua ions om a wide ange o sou ces.
Now ha AR's abili y o impac b and a i ude has been
es ablished, i is an app op ia e nex s ep o look a o he
dependen a iables ha a e o heo e ical and manage ial in e es .
B and lo e includes ha ing a posi i e a i ude owa d a a o ed
b and bu also includes o he psychological ea u es ha inc ease
i s impac on a consume 's beha io . Fu he mo e, b and lo e—and
o he o ms o consume –b and ela ionships— end o be be e
p edic o s o a ious manage ially ele an ou come a iables han
a i ude‐based measu es (Ba a e al., 2012;Khami o e al.,2019;
Pa k e al., 2010). These indings also highligh he need o such
insigh s om a manage ial pe spec i e.
2.2 |Me apho heo y
While me apho s we e once seen p incipally as a s ylis ic lou ish
used by au ho s and poe s, hey a e now ecognized as a undamen al
ool ha unde lies much o ou e e yday hinking (Lako &
Johnson, 2013; Thibodeau e al., 2019). To e iew he basics o
me apho heo y, we will use he example o social ela ionships as
being “close”o “dis an .”Me apho s ha e a sou ce domain (in his
case, he spa ial dis ance be ween objec s in he physical wo ld) and a
a ge domain (social ela ionships). Me apho s wo k by mapping some
aspec s o he sou ce domain on o he a ge domain, so in his
example, a ela ionship be ween wo indi iduals, like he placemen
o wo objec s, is seen as being ei he close oge he o a apa . The
sou ce domain is usually some hing—such as he space be ween
objec s— ha is clea and conc e e. The a ge domain is usually
some hing, such as social ela ionships, ha is ha de o unde s and
because i is abs ac and complex. Me apho s allow he b ain o
FIGURE 1 P inciples o he Me cedes cAR app (ske ched as used in S udy 1).
RAUSCHNABEL ET AL.
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821
p ocess abs ac concep s by hinking abou hem in mo e conc e e
and amilia ways; o example, he huge numbe o nuanced eelings,
belie s, and beha io al disposi ions ha compose a complex social
ela ionship a e summa ized in an easy‐ o‐unde s and me apho o a
ela ionship being ei he close o dis an .
Rema kably, many common me apho s a e widely sha ed ac oss
cul u es. These simila me apho s a e belie ed o a ise in many di e en
cul u es because hey a e based on he obse a ion ha , o example,
pai s o hings equen ly in e ac in ways ha a e s able ac oss cul u es
(Lako & Johnson, 2013).Fo example,whenyouaddwa e oabowl,
he wa e le el goes up, and when you add mo e s ones o a pile, he
heigh o he pile goes up. Thus, in many cul u es, heigh becomes a
gene al me apho o quan i y, such as when we say “he income wen
up,”e en hough he amoun o he paycheck is no di ec ly ela ed o
heigh (Lako , 1993). Seeing social ela ionships as “close”is ano he
such common me apho . Resea ch on wha makes a ela ionship “close”
has ound ha people in close ela ionships end o spend a g ea deal
o ime oge he engaging in a wide ange o ac i i ies (Be scheid
e al., 1989). I is plausible ha he eason ela ionships a e seen as being
“close”o “dis an ”is ha people in me apho ically close ela ionships
a eo enphysicallyclose oeacho he .
The ele ance o his “closeness”me apho has p e iously been
no ed in he ma ke ing li e a u e. Fou nie and Al a ez (2013)
measu ed he closeness o a pe son–b and ela ionship by showing
pa icipan s an image on a compu e sc een o a pe son si ing on a
pa k bench. The pa icipan s we e old o imagine ha hey we e he
pe son on he bench and we e asked o place he logo o a b and on
he same bench. The esea che s ound ha pa icipan s who el
hey had a close ela ionship wi h he b and placed he b and logo
close o he pe son on he bench.
One o he mos impo an changes in ou unde s anding o
me apho has been he de elopmen o he neu al heo y o language,
which applies b ain science o linguis ics (Feldman, 2008). Me apho , in
pa icula , has been ound o easily map on o how he b ain p ocesses
language (Lako , 1993). Al hough a e iew o he neu oscience o
me apho is beyond he scope o his pape , i is wo h no ing ha
ega dless o whe he we a e alking abou an objec ha is close o us
o a iend wi h whom we eel close, he wo d “close”will ac i a e “ he
TABLE 1 Augmen ed eali y ma ke ing and b anding: P io esea ch.
S udy Objec i e
Co e b and
cons uc Me hodology Co e indings
Ja o nik (2016) Unde s and how pe cei ed
augmen a ion d i es low
and a ec i e, cogni i e,
and beha io al esponses
and in en ions
B and a i ude (pos
usage)
Reg ession
analyses (N= 60)
Augmen a ion d i es low, which leads
o highe le els o b and a i ude
(media ion)
Scholz and
Du y (2018)
Unde s and how consume s
use b anded apps in hei
in ima e spaces and his
c ea es ela ionships wi h
he b and
N/A Quali a i e esea ch
(e hnog aphic)
Engaging wi h AR can lead o close and
in ima e ela ionships
Rauschnabel
e al. (2019)
Unde s and he ole o
inspi a ion and AR app
a i udes in shaping b and
e alua ions
B and a i ude (p e‐
pos compa ison)
Su ey da a (N= 201), SEM Inspi a ion (bu no a i ude owa d he
b and) d i es b and a i ude, while
con olling o p io b and a i udes
Ja o nik e al. (2021) Unde s and he deploymen o
AR by luxu y b ands om a
company pe spec i e
N/A Quali a i e in e iews
(N= 17) b and
manage s o luxu y
b ands and AR expe s
Luxu y b ands apply AR ma ke ing o
build speci ic luxu y a ibu es
Zange e al. (2022) Unde s and how AR igge s
a ec i e esponses, which
subsequen ly de e mine
cogni i e and beha io al
consequences
B and a i ude (pos
usage while
con olling o
p io b and
a i udes)
Expe imen al da a (N= 231
and N= 251), SEM
AR leads o highe le els o inspi a ion,
which subsequen ly d i es b and
a i ude, while con olling o p io
b and a i udes
Kuma e al. (2023b) Unde s and how AR can os e
cus ome b and ad ocacy
Cus ome b and
ad ocacy
Su ey da a
(SEM) (N= 502)
High le els o AR b and expe ience can
lead o cus ome b and ad ocacy
h ough b and a achmen and
engagemen .
This s udy Unde s and pe cei ed
closeness as a mechanism
o d i e b and lo e on AR
B and lo e Two s udies (N= 155, ca s;
N= 173, make‐up), SEM
AR leads o consume s' pe cep ions
ha a b and is ac ually close o
hem in hei physical en i onmen ;
his, in u n, d i es b and lo e
822
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same node in he same ame ci cui y”in he b ain (Lako , 1993, p. 14).
One ou come o his is ha hea ing he ph ase “she g asped he idea”
ac i a es he egion o he b ain associa ed wi h hand mo o mo emen
(Boulenge e al., 2012). I a wo d used me apho ically ac i a es he
same node o localized a ea associa ed wi h i s sou ce meaning, one
would expec ha eelings and belie s connec ed wi h ha sou ce could
also become ac i a ed (and hus become associa ed wi h he me apho 's
a ge ). Al hough neu olinguis s s udy many di e en me apho s, i is
o ui ous o ou pu poses ha se e al s udies ha e looked speci ically
a using spa ial dis ance as a me apho o desc ibe social ela ionships
be ween indi iduals and g oups. Fo ins ance, Ke kman e al. (2004)
asked Ame icans abou hei a i udes owa d Mexicans and Canadians
and also asked how a away majo ci ies in Mexico and Canada we e.
The mo e nega i e people's a i udes we e owa d each na ionali y, he
u he away hey es ima ed hei ci ies o be. In ano he s udy,
Ma hews and Ma lock (2011) ga e pa icipan s a map showing hei
s a ing poin , des ina ion, and he posi ion o some o he people in ca s
along he way. They old hal o he pa icipan s ha he people in he
o he ca s we e iends o hei s, and hey old he o he pa icipan s
ha he people in he o he ca s we e s ange s. They hen asked he
pa icipan s o d aw he ou e hey expec ed a axi would ake om he
s a o each hei des ina ion. When pa icipan s hough he o he
ca s con ained hei iends, hey imagined ha he axi d i e would
d i e close o hose o he ca s han did he pa icipan s who imagined
hose ca s con ained s ange s. In a simila way, he e may be a link
be ween how close a pe son pe cei es a p oduc o be om hem and
how emo ionally close hey eel owa d ha p oduc .
2.3 |B and lo e
B and lo e is simply lo e when he objec o ha lo e is a b and,
p oduc , o se ice (Ahu ia, 2022). As he b and lo e li e a u e
de eloped beyond i s ini ial s ages (Ahu ia, 1992,2005; Albe
e al., 2008; Ca oll & Ahu ia, 2006), b and lo e has been shown o
be a complex hie a chical cons uc wi h six main dimensions:
consume s (1) ha e a posi i e a i ude owa d he hings hey lo e,
(2) beha e passiona ely owa d hem, (3) eel a posi i e emo ional
connec ion wi h hem, (4) usually ha e a long‐ e m ela ionship wi h
hem, (5) in eg a e he hings hey lo e wi h hei iden i y, and (6) eel
ha i he lo e objec we e o go away, i would be e ible (Bagozzi
e al., 2016; Ba a e al., 2012). This desc ip ion o b and lo e has
eme ged om esea ch ha looked holis ically a consume s' lo e o
b ands as well as he p oduc s and se ices om hose b ands ha
had ouched hei li es (Ahu ia, 2005; Ba a e al., 2012). This six‐
dimensional desc ip ion o b and lo e also includes bo h b and
passion (Albe e al., 2013) and gen le o ms o b and lo e.
The e a e impo an commonali ies and di e ences be ween
b and lo e and in e pe sonal lo e. Wa anuki and Akama (2020)
conduc ed a me a‐analysis o neu oscience s udies on he di e ences
among b and lo e, oman ic lo e, and pa en al lo e. They ound ha
all h ee ypes a e associa ed wi h posi i e emo ions (Maxian
e al., 2013; Schmid & Hube , 2019). Likewise, all h ee ypes o
lo e s ongly ac i a e pa s o he b ain associa ed wi h he sel . This
s ong neu ological connec ion be ween lo e and one's sel ‐concep
suppo s wo k on bo h in e pe sonal lo e (A on & A on, 1996;
A on & Tomlinson, 2018; B anand e al., 2019; F omm, 1956;
Sp eche & Feh , 2010) and b and lo e (Ahu ia, 2005; Ahu ia
e al., 2009,2022; Albe e al., 2013; Huang, 2019; Reimann &
A on, 2009), which inds ha a p ima y psychological mechanism
unde lying lo e occu s when a pe son in eg a es a lo e objec in o
hei sel ‐concep . Howe e , Wa anuki and Akama (2020) also ound
di e ences be ween in e pe sonal lo e and b and lo e. Compa ed
wi h pa en al lo e, b and lo e c ea es a s onge ac i a ion in he
pa s o he b ain used o judge quali y, sugges ing ha b and lo e is
mo e dependen han pa en al lo e on he pe son making posi i e
judgmen s abou he lo e objec . The le els o passion, longing, and
c a ing we e also ound o be a highe in oman ic lo e han in
b and lo e. This sugges s ha while passion o a b and can be
powe ul (Albe e al., 2013), b and passion is none heless a less
powe ul han he passion indi iduals eel o oman ic pa ne s.
Pas esea ch has demons a ed he manage ial impo ance o
b and lo e. B and lo e is posi i ely associa ed wi h b and us
(Kau mann e al., 2016), skep icism abou nega i e b and in o ma ion
(Ba a e al., 2012), posi i e wo d o mou h (Ba a e al., 2012),
willingness o pay a p ice p emium (Bagozzi e al., 2016), b and
o gi eness (Hegne e al., 2017), commi men o a b and communi y
(Kau mann e al., 2016), and willingness o engage in b and co‐
c ea ion (Kau mann e al., 2016). Pe haps mos signi ican ly, a me a‐
analysis o esea ch on p edic o s o b and loyal y concluded ha
lo e and a achmen a e he p edic o s ha “a e mos s ongly linked
o cus ome b and loyal y”(Khami o e al., 2019, p. 450).
Due o b and lo e's manage ial impo ance and heo e ical
in e es , many s udies ha e in es iga ed i s an eceden s ( o an
ex ended discussion, see Ahu ia, 2022). Consume s ha e been ound
o lo e b ands when hey pe cei e hem o be high quali y and
p es igious (Bai ada e al., 2018), highly in ol ed (Bügel e al., 2011),
iden i y exp essi e (Ahu ia, 2005,2022; Ca oll & Ahu ia, 2006),
inno a i e (Bai ada e al., 2018), unique (Bicakcioglu e al., 2016),
hedonic (Sa ka , 2014), sensual and mys e ious (Rod igues &
Rod igues, 2019), c edible (Bai ada e al., 2018), ca ing (Bai ada
e al., 2018), an h opomo phic (Ahu ia, 2022; Rauschnabel &
Ahu ia, 2014), and communal o social in na u e (Ahu ia, 2022).
We aim o build on his g owing li e a u e by showing ha pe cei ed
physical closeness can also unc ion as an an eceden o b and lo e.
3|HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT:
AUGMENTED REALITY, CLOSENESS, AND
BRAND LOVE
3.1 |Augmen ed eali y and pe cei ed physical
closeness
We a gue ha when using an AR ma ke ing ool, such as he
Me cedes cAR app (as shown in Figu e 1), consume s expe ience he
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823
he p oduc o b and as being physically close o hemsel es han
hey would i hey we e looking a he p oduc wi h a con en ional
app. While he e is no AR esea ch on closeness a he b and le el, a
ew s udies ha e looked a simila concep s in XR om di e en
heo e ical angles. Fo ins ance, Finken e al. (2021) showed ha
iewing p oduc s in AR inc eases psychological p oximi y o hose
p oduc s. Tha is, p oduc s iewed in AR ( s. con ols) eel close o
consume s, which in u n posi i ely a ec s psychological owne ship
and subsequen consume eac ions. A ecen s udy u he mo e
showed ha mee ings in VR made people eel close o o he
membe s in hese mee ings compa ed o adi ional ideo con e enc-
ing (Aliman e al., 2023; Sos mann & Dal on, 2023).
The e a e wo easons o hypo hesizing AR's in luence on
closeness pe cep ions o a b and: se ing and local p esence. Se ing
e e s o he backg ound agains which an ad e ised p oduc is
placed. In Figu e 1, he se ing o he ca is he consume 's d i eway.
Depending on he pa icula AR ma ke ing ool and how i is used, he
exac dis ance be ween he use and he inse ed image will a y. Fo
example, in Figu e 1, he ca image is posi ioned di ec ly in on o
he consume , bu i migh also ha e been posi ioned ac oss he
s ee om he consume . Tha said, because mos o oday's AR
de ices use came as o cap u e he consume 's immedia e su ound-
ings and place he p oduc in hose su oundings, he p oduc will
always be placed close enough o he consume o see i . In con as ,
he se ings o ypical ca ads a e si ua ions such as winding coun y
oads o well‐designed deale show ooms—all o which a e ypically
expe ienced by he consume as ou side o hei cu en loca ion.
E en i he p oduc is depic ed agains a blank (p esumably neu al)
backg ound, i is s ill no in he same loca ion as he consume . This
di e ence in he p oduc 's se ing will lead a pe son using AR o eel
physically close o he p oduc han hey would when iewing a
con en ional app o he p oduc .
The idea ha consume s will pe cei e a p oduc o b and logo
as close o hem when i is p esen ed as being in hei immedia e
physical en i onmen is no only e y in ui i e, i can also be
suppo ed by heo y. When he backg ound o a p oduc image is
he use 's physical en i onmen , consume s p ocess he p oduc
and b and oge he wi h he o he objec s a ound hem, such as
u ni u e, buildings, o ees, ha happen o be nea by. When hese
s imuli a e p ocessed oge he , in o ma ion in eg a ion heo y
sugges s ha he assessmen s o hese s imuli con e ge
(Ande son, 1981). Because people know ha hei u ni u e and
o he hings depic ed in he AR image a e, in ac , close o hem, i is
likely ha hey adjus he closeness assessmen o he p oduc
p esen ed alongside hose elemen s. In addi ion, due o he
impo ance o con ex ual cues o consume e alua ion p ocesses
(e.g., on de Au e al., 2023;Meye s‐Le y & Tybou , 1997; P a &
Spann, 2023), we a gue ha he common p ocessing o cues in he
physical con ex (e.g., d i eway and ga age) wi h he i ual con en
(e.g., a b anded ca ) leads o a cohe en hyb id expe ience
(Rauschnabel, Felix, e al., 2022). In o he wo ds, consume s end
o look h ough hei sc een in AR in o hei ac ual, local physical
en i onmen (as i i we e a window a he han a p ojec ed image).
In con as , when looking a con en ional b anded con en on a
sma phone o able , consume s expe ience he con en on hei
sc een ( a he han me apho ically looking h ough i ). Thus, unlike in
AR, con ex ual cues o he en i onmen a e no pa o he
expe ience. In non‐AR se ings, i is he e o e unlikely ha
consume s will pe cei e he p oduc o b and logo as “being he e.”
Thus, we p oposed he ollowing:
H1a. Seeing a p oduc o b and h ough AR ( s. non‐AR) will
inc ease i s pe cei ed physical closeness.
We ha e jus explained ha when compa ing AR con en o
con en ional digi al con en , he objec s in AR will eel close o he
consume han hey will in he con en ional image, bu no all AR
apps a e c ea ed equally. When compa ing wo AR images, he
quali y o he AR implemen a ion can also impac he consume 's
sense ha he p oduc is physically close o hem. This can occu
when he wo AR apps di e in hei deg ee o “local p esence”
(Chen & Lin, 2022; Chen e al., 2022; Rauschnabel, Felix, e al., 2022).
In addi ion, people di e in how hey pe cei e AR con en and he
ex en o which hey ole a e when he AR expe ience does no eel
su icien ly eal. Agains his backg ound, local p esence e lec s he
ex en o which use s eel ha he inse ed AR objec is ealis ically
in eg a ed in o hei eal‐wo ld en i onmen . Pu di e en ly, i
e lec s he pe cei ed quali y (o con incingness o in ensi y) o he
AR expe ience. To cla i y he di e ence be ween local p esence and
pe cei ed physical closeness, conside wo di e en AR expe iences.
In he i s expe ience, an app c ea es he image o a ca es ing on
he palm o somebody's hand, bu he indi idual eels ha he image
is no con incing. In a second expe ience, an AR app is be e
designed and c ea es a mo e con incing imp ession ha a ca is
pa ked on he o he side o he s ee . In he i s expe ience, he
consume will sco e he pe cei ed physical closeness highe because
he ca is depic ed as being in he palm o hei hand a he han
ac oss he s ee (i.e., lowe spa ial dis ance). Howe e , in he i s
expe ience, he consume will sco e local p esence as lowe because
he image appea s less ealis ic and con incing han in he second
expe ience.
Al hough local p esence and pe cei ed physical closeness a e
di e en , hey a e in e linked. We a gue ha when compa ing wo
AR expe iences, highe le els o local p esence lead o highe le els
o pe cei ed physical closeness. Why would his be he case? AR
enables he coexis ence o wo eali ies—physical and digi al—in he
same space (Azuma, 1997). As a esul , using AR p esen s he b ain
wi h con lic ing in o ma ion. When he use ocuses on he AR
de ice, he p oduc appea s o be igh he e, nea he consume .
Howe e , when he consume 's eyes s ay om he de ice, i is clea
ha he objec is no p esen . This leads o he subjec i e expe ience
o he objec being “so o he e.”Unlike con en ional eali y, whe e
objec s a e ei he p esen o no , in AR, an objec 's “so o ”p esence
is a ma e o deg ee. (This is e lec ed in he measu emen i ems o
local p esence, such as “E e y hing I saw in he display appea ed o
be eal.”).
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An analogy can be d awn om esea ch on an h opomo phism.
One migh hink ha people ca ego ize hings as ei he a human o
objec . Howe e , esea ch shows ha we ca ego ize human‐like
objec s (e.g., alking p oduc s o ca s in which he on o he ca
esembles a human ace) as being pa way along a con inuum om
pe son o objec (Tou é‐Tille y & McGill, 2015), depending on he
ex en and con incingness o he human‐like a ibu es. Simila ly,
Gong (2008) ound ha a compu e 's an h opomo phic quali ies a e a
ma e o deg ee, and ha people ea a compu e in mo e human‐
like ways, he mo e an h opomo phic quali ies i has. Following his
pa e n, we expec ha consume s will see i ual objec s in AR as
being pa ly he e, and he mo e local p esence he consume
expe iences an objec as ha ing, he mo e “he e” hey will eel i o
be. Thus, when i ual AR objec s ha e high le els o local p esence,
consume s will expe ience hem as physically p esen and close. In
con as , objec s wi h low le els o local p esence will be seen as “no
eally he e,”causing mo e dis an pe cep ions.
This is qui e di e en om he issue o he se ing in which a
i ual objec is embedded. Wi h he se ing, a i ual objec depic ed
as being one me e away will na u ally be seen as close han a i ual
objec depic ed as being h ee me e s away. Howe e , wi h ega d o
local p esence, he issue is no ha he objec is pe cei ed o occupy
a physical space ha is u he away; a he , i is ha he objec
ceases o be seen as an in eg al pa o he en i onmen . An objec
ha is expe ienced as “ eally exis ing”one me e away will be
pe cei ed as close han an objec ha is seen as “somewha exis ing”
a he same dis ance. Thus, we p oposed he ollowing:
H1b. The pe cei ed le el o local p esence will be posi i ely
ela ed o he pe cei ed physical closeness o a b and.
3.2 |Physical closeness, ela ionship closeness,
and b and lo e
As discussed abo e, pas esea ch has shown he powe o
me apho s in in luencing beha io (Thibodeau e al., 2019). The
no ion o a close ela ionship elies on he applica ion o a spa ial
me apho o he ela ional domain. We heo ize ha h ough
me apho ic hinking, when consume s pe cei e a b and o be
physically close o hem, hey will also see hemsel es as ha ing a
close ela ionship o ha b and—as desc ibed abo e wi h ega d o
me apho heo y.
In addi ion, we a gue ha consume s will be a ec ed by a
p opinqui y e ec (Fes inge e al., 1950), which, in essence,
desc ibes he phenomenon in which people end o o m close
ela ionships wi h o he people who a e physically close o hem. The
e m “p opinqui y”means nea ness in space (Camb idge Dic iona y,
2023). I has o en been used o explain he o ma ion o ela ion-
ships in wo k en i onmen s and wo kplace in e ac ions. A s udy
among eache s, o example, has shown ha , in addi ion o simila i y,
he me e physical closeness o hei class ooms was posi i ely ela ed
o hei emo ional a achmen wi h each o he (Reagans, 2011).
Al hough he idea ha closeness (i.e., low spa ial dis ance) inc eases
liking and os e s ela ionships in an in e pe sonal con ex was
ini ially p esen ed decades ago (Fes inge e al., 1950; Nahemow &
Law on, 1975), unambiguous causal e idence has been p esen ed
mo e ecen ly. Shin e al. (2019) showed ha spa ial dis ance has a
di ec e ec on how much indi iduals eac wi h an app oach
eac ion, such as liking, owa d a a ge objec . The p opinqui y e ec
is ela ed o he me e exposu e e ec , which posi s ha people end
o de elop a p e e ence o hings o indi iduals o which hey a e
equen ly exposed (Fang e al., 2007). Fo he p esen esea ch, he
p opinqui y e ec p o ides u he suppo o he no ion ha
pe cei ed physical closeness enhances emo ional closeness and
ela ionship closeness wi h a b and.
To es his heo y, we needed o measu e bo h pe cei ed
physical closeness and he ela ionship closeness be ween a pe son
and a b and. This p esen ed a p ac ical di icul y because i we asked
abou bo h physical closeness and ela ionship closeness, he ac
ha bo h measu es used he wo d “closeness”may lead o
hypo hesis guessing and o he biases ha would weaken he alidi y
o he esul s. I was ad an ageous, hen, o use a measu e o
ela ionship closeness ha app oached he unde lying cons uc
wi hou speci ically using he wo d “closeness.”The b and lo e
measu e pu o wa d by Bagozzi e al. (2016) could unc ion as such a
measu e o closeness because lo e and ela ionship closeness ha e
such a high deg ee o o e lap ha hey a e, as no mally s udied and
measu ed, wo di e en e ms o he same concep . Empi ically, in
hei classic pape s, A on e al. (1992) p esen ed a heo y o
ela ionship closeness iden ical o hei widely used heo y o lo e.
La e , A on and F aley (1999) c ea ed a scale ha is used bo h as a
measu e o in e pe sonal closeness and lo e. Thus, because
pe cei ed physical closeness s eng hens ela ionship closeness and
ela ionship closeness is a o m o b and lo e, we a i ed a he
ollowing hypo hesis, which we es in S udy 1 and eplica e in
S udy 2:
H2. The pe cei ed physical closeness o a b and will be
posi i ely ela ed o ela ionship closeness as measu ed
h ough b and lo e.
3.3 |The mode a ing ole o b and amilia i y
B and amilia i y has been de ined as he deg ee o which a consume
has had a se o di ec and indi ec expe iences wi h a b and (Alba &
Hu chinson, 1987). Consume s wi h s onge b and amilia i y ha e mo e
and s onge men al associa ions wi h a b and (Fazio, 1986; Kelle , 1993;
Simonin & Ru h, 1998). We a gue ha b and amilia i y mode a es he
e ec o local p esence on he pe cei ed physical closeness o a b and,
as desc ibed in H1b and es ed in S udy 2, such ha he e ec will be
s onge a highe le els o consume b and amilia i y.
Se e al a gumen s suppo his p oposi ion. Fi s , he me e sense o
amilia i y can c ea e a mild posi i e eeling, which is some hing people
ypically accep a he han a oid (Jones e al., 2011;Zajonc&
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825
Ma kus, 1982). As ou lined abo e, he objec i e o physical deg ee o
closeness be ween he consume and he app does no a y.
None heless, we a gue ha om a pa icipan 's pe spec i e, hey will
accep a b and mo e when hey a e amilia wi h i and hence
expe ience i as close . In addi ion, i has been a gued in he li e a u e
ha he posi i e a ec i e alue o amilia i y is based on i s abili y o
signal he ha mlessness o a si ua ion (Winkielman & Cacioppo, 2001). In
con as , when people ha e he imp ession ha a s imulus is un amilia ,
pe cep ions o highe isk occu , and people end o keep hei dis ance
(Song & Schwa z, 2009). Linking hese conside a ions back o he
esea ch ques ion, we a gue ha when assessing pe cei ed physical
closeness a e an AR in e en ion, his pe cep ion will be enhanced as
people will desi e, o a leas accep , mo e closeness compa ed wi h
when con on ed wi h a comple ely un amilia objec .
In addi ion, we can p o ide a cogni i e explana ion o he
mode a ing ole o amilia i y. Exis ing knowledge o pas expe iences
becomes ac i a ed when an indi idual is in ol ed in a ealis ic AR
in e en ion, which makes he whole expe ience mo e meaning ul
and mo e easily memo able (Kelle , 1993,2003). In u n, when
e alua ing pe cei ed b and closeness, i is likely ha consume s will
pe cei e i a a highe le el when he b and possesses meaning om
hei pe spec i e. Thus, we p oposed he ollowing:
H3. Familia i y will mode a e he e ec o local p esence on
pe cei ed physical closeness (H1b) in a way ha he e ec
will be s onge ( s. weake ) when consume s ha e highe ( s.
lowe ) le els o b and amilia i y.
To close he heo e ical conside a ions, we b ie ly summa ize ou
assump ions and hypo heses and p esen an illus a ion o ou
amewo k (see Figu e 2). When consume s use AR echnology, i s
embedding capabili ies inc ease he consume 's pe cei ed physical
closeness o he b and (H1). This e ec may be s imula ed by he
me e use o he AR (i.e., compa ed wi h an app usage si ua ion
wi hou AR ea u es), which is es ed in S udy 1 wi h H1a, o by he
pe cei ed quali y o he imp ession ha he AR echnology is eally
placing he b and in he consume 's en i onmen (i.e., “local
p esence”; S udy 2, H1b). We u he heo ize ha pe cei ed physical
closeness d i es ela ionship closeness in he o m o b and lo e (H2).
In addi ion, we assume ha he s eng hs o he e ec s will di e
based on he le el o b and amilia i y (H3), because his will
de e mine he s eng h o he b and associa ions a consume can
gene a e based on he knowledge hey ha e s o ed in hei
memo ies.
4|STUDY OVERVIEW
We conduc ed wo s udies o assess he p oposed hypo heses (see
Table 2). In S udy 1, we began wi h a p ocedu e based on an AR
p esen ‐ e sus‐absen compa ison o es ablish he causal e ec ha ,
i an AR app is p ojec ing an objec in one's en i onmen , i becomes
close and is lo ed mo e in ensely. To his end, we applied an
expe imen al wo‐cell be ween‐subjec s design in which consume s
we e andomly assigned o ei he he AR o non‐AR e sion o a ca
b and's AR app (an in‐ oom AR). In he second s udy, he ocus was
on u he examining he hypo hesized ela ionship by assessing he
subjec i ely pe cei ed quali y o he augmen a ion expe ience, which
is e e ed o as he local p esence induced by he AR app. This way
o concep ualizing he independen a iable in S udy 2 complemen s
FIGURE 2 O e all amewo k: How AR ma ke ing d i es b and lo e h ough pe cei ed physical closeness.
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APPENDIX A
I. Desc ip i e s a is ics o S udy 1 and S udy 2.
S udy 1
B and lo e (M= 3.184, SD = 1.430, AVE = 0.560, C.R. = 0.884,
C onbach's α= 0.882) ( aken om Bagozzi e al., 2016; sho scale)
Owning a Me cedes would say some hing “ ue”and “deep”abou
whom I am as a pe son.
I eel mysel desi ing o d i e a Me cedes.
I eel emo ionally connec ed o Me cedes.
I belie e ha I will be using p oduc s o Me cedes o a long ime.
Supposing Me cedes we e o go ou o exis ence, I would you eel
anxie y.
My o e all eelings and e alua ions owa ds Me cedes a e posi i e.
Pe cei ed physical closeness (M= 3.561, SD = 1.546, AVE = 0.780,
C.R. = 0.913, C onbach's α= 0.909) (adap ed om Balce is
e al., 2015; Chae, 2016; O'Lea y e al., 2014)
The app allows he b and o ge “close ” o me.
I pe cei ed he b and as being close by when I used he app.
I had he imp ession ha he b and was close o me du ing he
expe ience.
χ
2
= 54.259; d = 26; p< 0.001; CFI = 0.965; TLI = 0.952; RMSEA = 0.084;
SRMR = 0.045.
S udy 2
B and lo e (M= 3.158, SD = 1.291, AVE = 0.574, C.R. = 0.889,
C onbach's α= 0.888) ( aken om Bagozzi e al., 2016;
sho scale)
Using Sepho a says some hing “ ue”and “deep”abou whom I am as a
pe son.
I eel mysel desi ing o use Sepho a p oduc s.
I eel emo ionally connec ed o Sepho a.
I belie e ha I will be using p oduc s o Sepho a o a long ime.
Supposing Sepho a we e o go ou o exis ence, I would you eel
anxie y.
My o e all eelings and e alua ions owa ds Sepho a a e posi i e.
Local p esence (M= 3.915, SD = 1.587, AVE = 0.789, C.R. = 0.937,
C onbach's α= 0.937) (adap ed om Ja o nik, 2016; Rauschnabel
e al., 2019)
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S udy 2
I had he eeling ha he Sepho a p oduc s ac ually exis ed in my
ace.
I seemed as i he beau y p oduc s had shi ed om he able on o
my ace.
E e y hing I saw in he display appea ed o be eal.
I pe cei ed he i ual make‐up as being eal.
Pe cei ed physical closeness (M= 4.189, SD = 1.541, AVE = 0.774,
C.R. = 0.911, C onbach's α= 0.907) (adap ed om Balce is
e al., 2015; Chae, 2016; O'Lea y e al., 2014)
The app allows he b and o ge “close ” o me.
I pe cei ed he b and as being close by when I used he app.
I had he imp ession ha he b and was close o me du ing he
expe ience.
B and amilia i y (M= 4.101, SD = 1.764, AVE = 0.708; C.R. = 0.826;
C onbach's α= 0.811; = 0.685) (adop ed om Ken &
Allen, 1994)
(Con inues)
S udy 2
The b and Sepho a is well known o me.
I know a lo abou he Sepho a b and.
χ
2
= 197.662; d = 84; p< 0.001; CFI = 0.938; TLI = 0.923; RMSEA = 0.088;
SRMR = 0.061.
II. Co ela ion ables.
STUDY 1 B and lo e
B and lo e
Pe cei ed physical closeness 0.368
STUDY 2
B and
lo e
Pe cei ed physical
closeness
Local
p esence
B and Lo e
Pe cei ed physical
closeness
0.476
Local p esence 0.313 0.495
B and amilia i y 0.542 0.086 0.133
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