Zhilla, Fabian
A icle
Fo eign igh e e u ns and o ganized c ime in Sou heas
Eu ope pos -Uk aine con lic
Jou nal o Illici Economies and De elopmen (JIED)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
LSE P ess, London School o Economics and Poli ical Science (LSE)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Zhilla, Fabian (2024) : Fo eign igh e e u ns and o ganized c ime in Sou heas
Eu ope pos -Uk aine con lic , Jou nal o Illici Economies and De elopmen (JIED), ISSN 2516-7227,
LSE P ess, London, Vol. 6, Iss. 1, pp. 30-41,
h ps://doi.o g/10.31389/jied.195
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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RESEARCH
CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
Fabian Zhilla
Canadian Ins i u e o
Technology, Albania
F[email p o ec ed]
KEYWORDS:
O ganised c ime; o eign
igh e s; e o ism; wa in
Uk aine; Sou heas Eu ope
TO CITE THIS ARTICLE:
Zhilla, F. 2024. Fo eign Figh e
Re u ns and O ganized C ime
in Sou heas Eu ope Pos -
Uk aine Con lic . Jou nal
o Illici Economies and
De elopmen , 6(1): pp. 30–41.
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.31389/
jied.195
Fo eign Figh e Re u ns
and O ganized C ime
in Sou heas Eu ope
Pos -Uk aine Con lic
FABIAN ZHILLA
ABSTRACT
This s udy asse s ha he epa ia ion o o eign igh e s om he con lic in Uk aine
poses a signi ican h ea o he peace and s abili y o he Sou heas Eu ope wi hin he
ealm o o ganized c ime. I con ends ha Sou heas Eu ope se es as e ile g ound
o o eign igh e s du ing imes o wa c ises, acili a ing hei exploi a ion by o ganized
c ime o illici pu poses. Rega ding he con ex o he Sou heas Eu ope, he s udy
a gues, i s ly, ha se ious o ganized c ime g oups demons a e a p opensi y o ec ui
indi iduals wi h mili a y expe ience. Secondly, i unde sco es he his o ical oo s o
o eign igh e p esence in he egion, including he ongoing con lic in Uk aine. Las ly,
i highligh s he inadequa e esponse and policies a bo h na ional and Eu opean
Union le els o add ess his conce n in he egion.
31
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Economies and
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DOI: 10.31389/jied.195
INTRODUCTION
The con lic in Uk aine ep esen s a pi o al shi in Eu opean secu i y dynamics, p omp ing
calls o no el secu i y a angemen s o add ess i s mul i ace ed na u e (Kemp & Spo e
2022). A di ec consequence o his con lic has been he p oli e a ion o c iminal ma ke s
and he bols e ing o o ganized c ime ne wo ks. In esponse o hese eme ging challenges, an
ex ao dina y mee ing o Eu opean Union (EU) Minis e s o he In e io was con ened on Ma ch
28, 2022, ollowed by a Eu opean Mul idisciplina y Pla o m Agains C iminal Th ea s (EMPACT)
mee ing hos ed by he Eu opean Union Agency o Law En o cemen Coope a ion (EUROPOL)1
on Ap il 7, 2022, speci ically ocusing on he h ea s posed by se ious and o ganized c ime
s emming om he Uk aine con lic (EUROPOL 2023).
Du ing hese mee ings, ep esen a i es om EU membe s a es delibe a ed on coo dina ion
plans o a ious c ime a eas and de ised s a egies o mi iga e h ea s emana ing om
he con lic . Ini ial in elligence ga he ed on he g ound iden i ied he de elopmen o ou
p ominen c iminal ma ke s—namely, human a icking, online aud, cybe c ime, and i ea ms
a icking—ou o he en c ime p io i ies iden i ied in he 2021 EU se ious and o ganized c ime
h ea assessmen o 2022–2025 (EUC 2021). Howe e , subsequen analysis indica ed ha
he e ol ing dynamics o he Uk aine con lic could po en ially impac all en c iminal ma ke s,
including ‘High- isk c iminal ne wo ks.’2
No ably absen om he EU’s s a egic conside a ions is he ole o e u ned o eign igh e s
in he con ex o o ganized c ime and i s implica ions o he secu i y and poli ical s abili y o
Sou heas Eu ope. I appea s ha nei he EU policymake s no he go e nmen s o Sou heas
Eu ope (Eu opean Pa liamen 2021) ha e add essed his looming h ea in hei na ional an i-
e o s a egies o o ganized c ime h ea assessmen s (EUC 2021a).
This analysis seeks o unde sco e wo c i ical aspec s ha wa an a en ion om he
in e na ional communi y and na ional go e nmen s in he egion. Fi s ly, he e exis s a
pe sis en demand among o ganized c ime g oups o indi iduals wi h mili a y aining,
including o eign igh e s. No ably, some o he mos o midable c iminal o ganiza ions in he
egion and globally a e led o comp ised o o me mili a y pe sonnel (Smi h 2018).
Secondly, he phenomenon o o eign igh e s is no no el o Sou heas Eu ope. Eme ging om
his o ical con lic s uelled by ideological o eligious e ou , he phenomenon o o eign igh e s
aces i s o igins o he Spanish Ci il Wa (1936–1939) and spans ac oss a ious con lic s in
egions such as he o me Yugosla ia, he Middle Eas , and mo e ecen ly, he Uk aine con lic ,
encompassing oles in e en s like he annexa ion o C imea in 201 (Beslin & Ignja ije ic 2017).
The in oduc ion o his s udy aims o illumina e he signi icance and ele ance o he opic by
con ex ualizing i wi hin he b oade landscape o con empo a y secu i y challenges in Eu ope,
pa icula ly in he Sou heas Eu ope. The con lic in Uk aine se es as a ca alys o explo ing
he nexus be ween e u ned o eign igh e s and o ganized c ime, o e ing unique insigh s in o
he e ol ing dynamics o egional secu i y and s abili y.
The opic is inhe en ly in iguing due o i s mul i ace ed na u e and i s po en ial implica ions o
egional secu i y a chi ec u e. The con e gence o o eign igh e s and o ganized c ime in he
a e ma h o he Uk aine con lic p esen s complex challenges ha demand nuanced analysis
and p oac i e policy esponses. By examining his in e sec ion, we can be e unde s and he
unde lying dynamics d i ing c iminal ac i i ies and hei impac on he socio-poli ical ab ic o
he Sou heas Eu opean coun ies.
1 EMPACT in oduces an in eg a ed app oach o EU in e nal secu i y, in ol ing measu es ha ange om
ex e nal bo de con ols, police, cus oms, and judicial coope a ion o in o ma ion managemen , inno a ion,
aining, p e en ion, and he ex e nal dimension o in e nal secu i y, as well as public-p i a e pa ne ships whe e
app op ia e. Fo mo e on EMPACT see he in o ma ion p o ided a he o icial websi e o EUROPOL. A ailable a :
h ps://www.eu opol.eu opa.eu/c ime-a eas-and-s a is ics/empac [Las accessed 09 Ma ch 2024].
2 EMPACT does no p o ide a speci ic de ini ion o ‘high- isk c iminal ne wo ks.’ Howe e , based on he
language used o desc ibe his c iminal ma ke , i sugges s ha such ne wo ks a e likely o encompass hose
engaging in ac i i ies in ol ing co up ion, iolence, i ea ms, and money launde ing h ough al e na i e inancial
channels. Fo mo e see Council o he Eu opean Union. 2021. Figh agains o ganized c ime: Council se s ou
10 p io i ies o he nex ou yea s, 26 May. A ailable a : h ps://www.consilium.eu opa.eu/en/p ess/p ess-
eleases/2021/05/26/ igh -agains -o ganised-c ime-council-se s-ou -10-p io i ies- o - he-nex -4-yea s/ [Las
accessed 02 Janua y 2024].
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DOI: 10.31389/jied.195
Fu he mo e, he opic holds b oade implica ions o in e na ional secu i y discou se,
pa icula ly in ligh o ongoing deba es su ounding coun e - e o ism e o s and ansna ional
o ganized c ime. The esu gence o o eign igh e s in Sou heas Eu ope unde sco es he need
o comp ehensi e s a egies ha add ess he oo causes o adicaliza ion and e ec i ely
comba o ganized c iminal ne wo ks.
O e all, his s udy seeks o shed ligh on a p essing secu i y conce n ha has hus a been
o e looked in bo h academic and policy ci cles. By del ing in o he complexi ies o he e u ned
o eign igh e phenomenon and i s links o o ganized c ime, we aim o con ibu e o a mo e
in o med unde s anding o con empo a y secu i y challenges acing he Sou heas Eu ope and
beyond.
The me hodology employed in his s udy in eg a es elemen s o desc ip i e and analy ical
app oaches, complemen ed by insigh s de i ed om a comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew. By
syn hesizing indings om he exis ing li e a u e, he s udy seeks o o e aluable insigh s
in o he eme ging challenges posed by he Uk aine con lic and hei implica ions o egional
secu i y.
The selec ion o Sou heas Eu ope as a case s udy egion is in o med by i s s a egic
signi icance and his o ical con ex , as well as insigh s gleaned om he li e a u e e iew. The
li e a u e e iew p o ides aluable heo e ical amewo ks and empi ical e idence ha in o m
he s udy’s unde s anding o he complex dynamics a play in he egion. By syn hesizing
insigh s om exis ing esea ch wi h p ima y da a sou ces, he s udy seeks o o e a holis ic
analysis o he implica ions o he Uk aine con lic on o ganized c ime and secu i y dynamics
in Sou heas Eu ope. Th ough his in eg a ed app oach, he s udy aims o con ibu e o a
deepe unde s anding o he b oade implica ions o he Uk aine con lic o egional secu i y
a chi ec u e and in e na ional secu i y discou se.
On he o he hand, i is impe a i e o acknowledge he limi ed da a a ailable on his subjec ,
wi h he p esen a icle being among he ew s udies o add ess his conce n in he con ex o
Sou heas Eu ope, ocusing speci ically on he implica ions o he 2022 Uk aine con lic .
The s udy commences by highligh ing he escala ing demand o indi iduals wi h mili a y
aining by se ious o ganized c ime o ganiza ions ope a ing in con lic zones, ollowed by
an explo a ion o why he Sou heas Eu ope se es as e ile g ound o such indi iduals.
Addi ionally, i elucida es how he Uk aine con lic has eigni ed conce ns su ounding
o eign igh e s in Sou heas Eu ope and concludes wi h an assessmen o he e icacy o
egional policies in add essing his issue. The ocus o he s udy will be on Albania, Bosnia and
He cego ina, Koso o, Mon eneg o, No h Macedonia and Se bia.
ORGANIZED CRIME’S DEMAND FOR MILITARY-TRAINED
INDIVIDUALS IN THE SOUTHEAST EUROPE
Recen academic esea ch indica es ha o ganized c ime g oups, pa icula ly hose ope a ing
wi hin Sou heas Eu ope, ha e exhibi ed conside able sophis ica ion in hei ope a ional ac ics
and ec ui men s a egies. These g oups ha e expanded hei ne wo ks globally, eaching
egions such as La in Ame ica, Sou h A ica, and he Middle Eas (EUROPOL 2020). The e olu ion
o complex c iminal ma ke s has compelled Sou heas Eu ope-based c iminal en i ies o seek
indi iduals wi h mili a y aining, capable o execu ing no only un aceable communica ion
me hods and smuggling ope a ions bu also ad anced ac ics such as coun e -su eillance,
neu aliza ion o ad e sa ies, and sophis ica ed me hods o iolence (Kemp 2020).
The e has been a no iceable inc ease in he ec ui men o co up police o ice s and special
o ces by o ganized c ime g oups, pa icula ly in d ug a icking ac i i ies (D agojlo 2022; ABC TV
2020). No able ins ances, such as he c ackdown on he Sky ECC enc yp ion ne wo k by F ench
and Du ch au ho i ies in Feb ua y 2021, e ealed he ex ensi e in ol emen o public o icials,
including law en o cemen pe sonnel (Je emic, S ojano ic & Kajose ic 2022). In a mo e ecen
case in Augus 2022, he Se bian police app ehended indi iduals, including a police o ice and
his wi e associa ed wi h he Secu i y In elligence Agency (BIA), in ol ed in smuggling la ge
quan i ies o cocaine om Sou h Ame ica o he EU. This c iminal ne wo k, epo edly linked
o powe ul c iminal o ganiza ions like he Ka aci clan and Beli uk g oup, launde ed p oceeds
h ough inancial channels spanning he Ne he lands, Se bia, and Mon eneg o (Insajde 2022).
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Simila ly, in Augus 2021, a membe o Albania’s Special Fo ces (RENEA) was a es ed o leading
an o ganized c ime g oup engaged in cocaine smuggling ope a ions in Ti ana (Exi .al. 2021).
Mili a y- ained membe s o o ganized c ime g oups ha e also been implica ed in p o iding
p o ec ion o poli ical pa ies du ing elec ions o h ea ening secu i y, as seen in he a emp ed
coup in Mon eneg o in 2016 (Gadzo 2022). The hi ing o police and special o ces pe sonnel
has played a signi ican ole in enabling Sou heas Eu ope-o igina ing c iminal o ganiza ions o
ad ance wi hin he Eu opean c iminal ma ke s o e he pas wo decades (Kemp 2020).
In i s 2023 epo , he Albanian Special An i-Co up ion and O ganized C ime S uc u e (SPAK)
emphasized in i s analysis o e o ism he iden i ica ion o mo e sophis ica ed o ms o e o ism
in 2019. This classi ica ion o e o is ac i i ies in ol es he pa icipa ion o in elligence se ices
om coun ies hos ile o Albania. The ec ui ed indi idual was di ec ed o coope a e wi h local
o ganized c ime g oups o ca y ou he e o is ac on Albanian e i o y (SPAK, 2024).
The symbio ic ela ionship be ween o ganized c ime g oups and mili a y- ained indi iduals
acili a es he neu aliza ion o law en o cemen agencies, exploi a ion o bo de con ol da a o
a icking ac i i ies, enhancemen o sec ecy and con iden iali y, and ul ima ely, he bols e ing
o e iciency agains ad e sa ies. Gi en his dynamic, he e is a o eseeable demand o mili a y-
ained indi iduals by o ganized c ime g oups in he u u e, po en ially ex ending o he ec ui men
o e u ned o eign igh e s. In he con ex o his a gumen , he Sou heas Eu ope p esen s a
conduci e en i onmen due o i s his o ical legacy o o eign igh e in ol emen , he ala ming
p esence o o eign igh e s in he ongoing Uk aine con lic , he mili a y aining o e u ned
o eign igh e s, and he ideological mo i a ions o p io c iminal backg ounds o some indi iduals.
FOREIGN FIGHTERS IN SOUTHEAST EUROPE: PAST AND PRESENT
The Sou heas Eu ope egion, gi en i s geog aphical loca ion and cul u al di e si y, has
his o ically been a ba leg ound o con lic s such as he Wo ld Wa s and he wa s o o me
Yugosla ia, among o he s. Consequen ly, he concep o o eign igh e s is no un amilia o he
egion. Ra he , he phenomenon o o eign igh e s, po ayed as a demons a ion o socie al
solida i y wi h noble causes and suppo o opp essed na ions, has been p e alen . In mode n
imes, hese indi iduals, o en e e ed o as olun ee s, can ace hei o igins back o e en s
like he Spanish Ci il Wa (1936–1939), whe e app oxima ely 1,910 people om he o me
Yugosla ia, wi h a signi ican po ion om C oa ia, olun ee ed o igh alongside he le is s
(i.e., Republican side) (Pa lako ić 2022). Simila ly, a ound 60 Albanians, including a o me
p ime minis e o Albania, pa icipa ed in his con lic (Shehu 2021).
The phenomenon o wa olun ee s con inued in mo e o ganized o ms du ing subsequen
con lic s, such as he Second Wo ld Wa and he wa s in he o me Yugosla ia (1991–2001)
(Kohlmann 2004). Howe e , he mo i a ions behind pa icipa ion shi ed, g ounded in eligious
and e hnic di e ences.
I is widely belie ed ha he numbe o o eign igh e s in ol ed in he wa s o o me Yugosla ia,
con ibu ing o all sides, did no exceed 5% o he o al igh e s pa icipa ing in hese con lic s.
Acco ding o epo s om he In e na ional C iminal T ibunal o he o me Yugosla ia, he ci y
o Višeg ad endu ed ‘one o he mos ex ensi e and u hless e hnic cleansing campaigns du ing
he wa in BiH, esul ing in he agic dea hs o abou 3,000 Bosniaks, including app oxima ely
600 women and o e 100 child en, in and a ound Višeg ad.’
Suppo ing he Se bian side we e igh e s p edominan ly om coun ies ha sha ed he
O hodox eligious a ilia ion, including Russia, G eece, Romania, and Uk aine, o en e e ed o
as ‘kon ak niki’ o con ac ed soldie s (A ielli 2012). This g oup also included kon akniki om
Poland (Ku ie WNET 2020). The go e nmen o Republika S pska sugges s ha a ound 700
Russian o eign igh e s pa icipa ed in he wa in BiH alone. Rema kably, Višeg ad now houses
a monumen commemo a ing Russian olun ee s, lis ing he names o 37 Russians who los
hei li es in BiH (Kešme 2022).
Con e sely, he Muslim Bosnian side ecei ed suppo om se e al hund ed o eign igh e s
(app oxima ely 400–1,200) o igina ing om coun ies wi h a Muslim-majo i y, p ima ily om
he Middle Eas (Azino ić & Sado ić 2008; Subašić 2019). While he e a e ongoing deba es
abou he accu acy o his da a, i is sugges ed ha he numbe o o eign igh e s wi hin he
anks o he Bosnian a my amoun ed o a leas 1% o he o mal a my (U ban 2015).
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Addi ionally, hund eds o o eign igh e s joined he Koso o Libe a ion A my, ep esen ing
a ious coun ies such as Albania, No h Macedonia, Sweden, Belgium, he UK, Ge many,
and he US. In e es ingly, hese igh e s declined suppo om olun ee s in he Middle Eas
(Kelmendi 2001). E en du ing he insu gency wa in No h Macedonia in 2001, a limi ed numbe
o olun ee s om he Koso o Libe a ion A my joined he Albanian Na ional Libe a ion A my,
while he Macedonian Secu i y Fo ces we e o icially supplied wi h mainly mili a y ai powe
om Uk aine un il July 2001 (Kuzio 2001).
Mo eo e , he Sou heas Eu ope se ed as a sou ce o o eign igh e s who en u ed o e seas.
Fo ins ance, du ing he con lic in Sy ia and I aq om 2012 o 2016, i is es ima ed ha
app oxima ely 1,000 indi iduals, including women and child en, joined ISIS (Albania–144; BiH–
240; NM–140–150; Koso o–445; Mon eneg o–20; and Se bia–49) (Azino ic 2017).
THE IMPACT OF FOREIGN FIGHTERS IN THE UKRAINIAN CONFLICTS
The in ol emen o o eign igh e s in con lic s, pa icula ly in he con ex o he in asions
o Uk aine in 2014 and 2022, has ga ne ed signi ican a en ion (Ome o ic 2022). In he
ini ial incu sion, an es ima ed 1,500 o eign igh e s pa icipa ed be ween 2014 and June
2016 (Me odie a 2019). Con e sely, du ing he 2022 in asion, app oxima ely 36,000 o eign
comba an s we e epo ed o ha e been engaged as o July 2022 (Meh a & Tho ley 2022).
These igu es, when jux aposed wi h he es ima ed 40,000 o eign igh e s who joined ISIS
du ing i s ou -yea p esence in Sy ia and I aq (2014–2018), unde sco e he subs an ial scale o
o eign in ol emen in he Uk ainian con lic s.
Among he con ibu ing ac ions, a no able p esence o o eign igh e s om he Sou heas
Eu ope has been obse ed in bo h he 2014 and 2022 in asions, ope a ing as me cena ies o
olun ee s (Me odie a 2019). Despi e limi ed publici y, i is belie ed ha a ound 300 indi iduals
om Sou heas Eu ope pa icipa ed in he ini ial in asion o Eas e n Uk aine in 2014, aligning
hemsel es wi h ei he p o-Russian sepa a is g oups o Uk ainian olun ee ba alions
(Velebi 2017). Se bia, in pa icula , eme ged as a signi ican con ibu o , wi h an app oxima e
deploymen o 100 comba an s igh ing alongside p o-Russian sepa a is o ces (Beslin &
Ignja ije ic 2017). The asse ion by Uk aine’s ambassado in Belg ade, Oleksand Aleksand o ych,
in 2017 sugges ed an e en highe numbe o Se bian comba an s in ol ed in he 2014 con lic
(Zi ano ic 2017). The in ol emen o Se bs om Se bia, Mon eneg o, Bosnia and He zego ina
(BiH) in comba and coun e -in elligence ac i i ies ac oss eigh p o-Russian pa amili a y uni s,
including he p ominen Wagne me cena y g oup, u he unde sco es he complexi y and
mul i- ace ed na u e o o eign igh e pa icipa ion in he Uk ainian con lic s (Me odie a 2019).
In he con ex o he second in asion o Uk aine in 2022, comp ehensi e da a conce ning he
o al numbe o o eign igh e s om Sou heas Eu ope is no a ailable, hus necessi a ing a
cau ious app oach when conside ing o icial igu es ha a e ei he p o ided o e u ed. Media
epo s ha e indica ed a no able p esence o olun ee s om BiH and Se bia aligning hemsel es
wi h p o-Russian ac ions in eas e n Uk aine, commonly e e ed o by Russian na ionalis s as
No o Rossiya o New Russia. Some o hese indi iduals we e epo ed o ha e been p esen
since he ini ial con lic in 2014 (Kuloglija & Husa ic 2022).
On Feb ua y 21, 2022, Se gey La o , he Fo eign Minis e o Russia, alleged he in ol emen
o me cena ies om Albania, Koso o, and BiH in he con lic (Taylo 2022). Howe e ,
ep esen a i es om Albania, Koso o, and BiH denied La o ’s asse ions, emphasizing ha
no epo s o me cena ies om hei espec i e coun ies had been documen ed, deeming
La o ’s claims as alse accusa ions (Oz u k 2022).
Subsequen ly, in June 2022, he Minis y o Secu i y o BiH decla ed ha only wo ci izens
we e con i med o be pa icipa ing in he con lic in Uk aine on opposing sides, con a y o
claims made by he Russian Minis y o De ence, which alleged a subs an ially highe numbe
o 51 indi iduals (S ije 2022). Con e sely, Mamuka Mamulash ili, a commande o he Legion
o Fo eign Volun ee s in Uk aine, epo ed in Ma ch 2022 ha only wo Albanians had joined
hei anks, wi h an addi ional 20–30 indi iduals ha ing submi ed applica ions o enlis men
(Eu onews Albania 2022).
Ques ionable epo s om Russian au ho i ies ha e sugges ed he in ol emen o o eign
igh e s om Sou heas Eu opean coun ies, no ably BiH, Albania, and Koso o, wi h o e 100
igh e s pu po edly engaged in he con lic on he Uk ainian side (Russia Today 2022). Howe e ,
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i is wo h no ing ha he majo i y o o eign igh e s suppo ing Uk aine o igina e om Wes e n
coun ies such as he Uni ed S a es, he Uni ed Kingdom, Canada, F ance, and Japan, alongside
Eas e n Eu opean na ions like Poland, Romania, and C oa ia (G gu ino ic 2022), as well as
o me So ie epublics including Geo gia, Bela us, La ia, and Li huania (Mu auskai e 2022).
A signi ican p opo ion o p o-Russian o eign igh e s a e a ilia ed wi h he ‘Wagne G oup,’
p edominan ly comp ising indi iduals om he Middle Eas (Mu auskai e 2022). None heless, as
p e iously men ioned, he e exis s a no able p esence o Se bs wi hin he anks o he ‘Wagne
G oup’ (Zi ano ic 2018). Pe aining o s a emen s made by he Russian Minis e o De ence
in June 2022, i was asse ed ha he in lux o p o-Uk ainian o eign igh e s had dec eased
by 50%, albei wi hou p o iding any subs an ia ing da a on he co esponding numbe o
indi iduals suppo ing he Russian in asion (Teslo a 2022).
Following he demise o Ye geny P igozhin in Augus 2023, a no able shi in he ope a ional
dynamics o he Wagne G oup is obse ed. Concu en ly, he K emlin has adop ed a mo e
di ec app oach in engaging mili a y leade s om Sahelian na ions. P igozhin’s s a egic
ne wo k, which included wa lo ds, coup o ches a o s, and mo ally ques ionable poli ical and
business igu es, cons i u ed a undamen al aspec o he g oup’s o ganiza ional amewo k
(Beaumon 2023). This de elopmen may po en ially impac he s a us and in ol emen o
o eign igh e s om Sou heas Eu ope wi hin he Wagne G oup (G o e e al. 2023).
PROFILE OF FOREIGN FIGHTERS
Recen schola ly in es iga ions ha e unde sco ed he po en ial secu i y isks associa ed wi h he
epa ia ion o o eign comba an s o hei coun ies o o igin o o b oade egional con ex s,
as exempli ied by he si ua ion in he Sou heas Eu ope. A conside able po ion o hese
o eign igh e s unde go igo ous mili a y aining and engage in comba in some o he mos
challenging hea es o con lic . Al hough he impac o o eign igh e s in he 2022 Uk ainian
con lic does no pa allel ha obse ed in con lic s such as hose in I aq and Sy ia, hei no able
in luence was obse ed no ably in engagemen s such as he ba le o Se e odne sk and a
he Hos omel ai po , whe e he Geo gian Legion, comp ising app oxima ely 700 indi iduals,
played a signi ican ole (Mu auskai e 2022). Addi ionally, a ious non-s a e ac o s ac ing as
p oxies o di e en s a es, such as he Wagne G oup, ha e ec ui ed adep me cena ies who
ha e been ex ensi ely in ol ed in mul iple con lic zones, including Uk aine. Meh a and Tho ley
(2022) asse ha me cena ies and o eign igh e s sha e se e al commonali ies, no ably hey
a e o en o eign na ionali y and hei po en ial o p olong o exace ba e ongoing con lic s.
In his comp ehensi e analysis o he ypology o o eign igh e s espousing ex emis ideologies
in he 2022 con lic in Uk aine, Kacpe Rekawek (2022: 6) obse es ha he ela i ely small
p esence o iolence-o ien ed ex emis s ac i ely engaged in he con lic does no nega e he
po en ial challenges hey may pose o domes ic secu i y upon hei epa ia ion. Rekawek
highligh s he conce ning con e gence o ac o s con ibu ing o his isk, including he adop ion
o iolence-o ien ed ideologies, he acquisi ion o comba aining and expe ience, access o
weapon y and explosi es wi hin he con lic zone, and enhanced ansna ional ne wo king
oppo uni ies. Consequen ly, Rekawek (2022) emphasizes he necessi y o p oac i e mi iga ion
measu es in add essing his complex secu i y h ea .
I is impo an o highligh ha he esea ch conduc ed by Rekawek (2022) does no encompass
case s udies om Sou heas Eu ope, ocusing ins ead on coun ies om No h Ame ica and he
EU. Howe e , despi e his limi a ion, ce ain conclusions can s ill be ex apola ed. Rekawek’s
s udy unde sco es he di e se ideological backg ounds o Wes e n o eign igh e s in ol ed
in he con lic , encompassing pe spec i es anging om he a igh , a le , o ed-b own
na ional communism. No ably, hose a i ing in 2022 appea ed o exhibi less adicaliza ion
and poli iciza ion compa ed o p e ious coho s (Rekawek 2022: 4).
Rega ding Balkans-o igina ed indi iduals, hei mo i a ions o en s em om na ionalis ic and
eligious sen imen s. Fo ins ance, C oa ians ci e easons such as Uk aine’s ea ly ecogni ion o
C oa ian so e eign y and assis ance ollowing ea hquakes in Zag eb and Bano ina as g ounds
o hei suppo (G gu ino ic 2022). Con e sely, p o-Russian Se bs exp ess solida i y wi h
Russia and a desi e o e enge agains he Wes , uelled by a ‘Sla ic b o he hood’ na a i e
p opaga ed by a - igh o ganiza ions like he People’s Pa ols (Kuloglija & Husa ic 2022).
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The p ima y isk lies wi h indi iduals associa ed wi h poli ically and ideologically o ien ed uni s.
Fo ins ance, he Azo ba alion, known o i s igh -wing na a i e du ing he 2014 in asion
o Eas e n Uk aine, has since in eg a ed in o he Uk ainian na ional mili a y o ces in 2022,
dis ancing i sel om ex emis ideologies (Sou an Cen e 2022).
The Russian side p esen s a mul i ace ed scena io, cha ac e ized by a con luence o iolen
non-s a e ac o s ec ui ing membe s om e o is g oups and o he ex emis s d i en by
di e se ideologies, including acially and e hnically mo i a ed iolen ex emism. P ominen
among hese o ganiza ions a e he Wagne G oup and he Russian Impe ial Mo emen (RIM),
bo h ac i ely in ol ed in pa amili a y ac i i ies and di ec mili a y engagemen s ac oss a ious
con lic zones, including he ecen con lic in Uk aine (Sou an Cen e 2022: 13). Addi ionally,
se e al ex emis g oups, such as S bska Akcija, a cle ical- ascis o ganiza ion, main ain
a ilia ions wi h RIM, u he complica ing he landscape o ex emis in ol emen in he egion.
The Se bian igh -wing pa ies’ connec ions wi h Russia a e subs an ia ed by he Czech EU
P esidency epo , which assesses he e icacy o bans on igh -wing ex emis s in Sou heas
Eu ope. The epo highligh s Russia’s in luence on he p edominan ly Ch is ian Wes e n Balkan
coun ies (Bjelo omic 2022). Howe e , in es iga ions in o he mo i a ions o o eign igh e s
om he Sou heas Eu ope who joined ISIS and pa icipa ed in he 2014 in asion o Eas e n
Uk aine e eal mo i es beyond ideology o eligion. Some o hese o eign igh e s possessed
c iminal backg ounds wi h p io con ic ions, while o he s sough in ol emen in con lic s o
e ade c iminal p osecu ion in hei home coun ies (Beslin & Ignja ije ic 2017). Consequen ly,
he ami ica ions o e u ned o eign igh e s associa ed wi h iolen non-s a e ac o s should
be iewed no solely h ough a poli ical lens bu also h ough he pe spec i e o o ganized
c ime. This is because he mo i a ions o o eign igh e s and me cena ies equen ly in e wine
ideological and p o i -d i en incen i es (Meh a & Tho ley 2022).
POLICIES ADDRESSING FOREIGN FIGHTERS IN SOUTHEAST
EUROPE
In esponse o he eme gence o ISIS and he p oli e a ion o o eign igh e s joining e o is
o ganiza ions, he UN Secu i y Council has enac ed wo signi ican esolu ions: esolu ion 2178
(2014) and esolu ion 2396 (2017). These esolu ions aim o mi iga e he ec ui men and
a el o o eign e o is igh e s and add ess he isks associa ed wi h hei e u n om con lic
zones (Fink & Cla ke 2022). Bo h esolu ions ecei ed unanimous app o al om all membe
s a es, including he Sou heas Eu ope (DeBa olo 2018).
As ou lined in he legal analysis conduc ed by Luka Glusac (2020: 48–49), all he Wes e n
Balkan coun ies (WB6) ha e amended hei legisla ion o c iminalize a ious ac i i ies
ela ed o engagemen in a med con lic s ab oad. These ac i i ies include associa ion wi h
o bidden o ganiza ions, ec ui men , logis ical suppo , public inci emen o a el ab oad, and
pa icipa ion in a med con lic s ab oad. No ably, Mon eneg o is he sole WB6 coun y whe e
engagemen in a med con lic ab oad is explici ly linked wi h e o ism. Se bia s ands ou as
he only coun y wi hin he WB6 ha has no explici ly c iminalized public suppo o a eling
ab oad o con lic zones (Glusac 2020).
Penal ies o c iminal o enses associa ed wi h o eign igh e s a y ac oss WB6 coun y, wi h
p ison sen ences anging om 5 o 15 yea s. Albania and Koso o impose he mos se e e
sen ences (Glusac 2020).
Acco ding o he Balkan In es iga i e Repo ing Ne wo k’s Te o ism and Fo eign Figh e s
Da abase, which eco ds con ic ions o domes ic e o ism and in ol emen in con lic s
in Sy ia and Uk aine, mo e han 160 indi iduals ha e been inca ce a ed ac oss Albania, BiH,
Mon eneg o, No h Macedonia and Se bia. No ably, Koso o’s da a is no included in his igu e.3
Bosnia and He zego ina has he highes numbe o cases (45), ollowed by No h Macedonia
3 The Eu opean Commission’s 2021 p og ess epo on Koso o indica es ha he e is limi ed da a speci ically
on indi iduals sen enced o joining ISIS and in ol emen in he wa in Uk aine. Howe e , he epo does p o ide
in o ma ion on cases ela ed o e o ism o enses in gene al. Acco ding o he epo , du ing he epo ing
pe iod, he police ini ia ed se en new cases ela ed o e o ism, wi h h ee suspec s a es ed. Addi ionally,
om Janua y o May 2021, ou new e o ism- ela ed cases we e ini ia ed. Indic men s we e iled agains 17
indi iduals, and cou s ound 32 people guil y, while one pe son’s indic men was ejec ed (EC 2021b: 44).
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(29), Se bia (23), and Albania (12). As o 2021, Koso o has 18 indi iduals se ing p ison
sen ences o e o ism- ela ed o enses (Konushe ci 2021).
When compa ing he numbe o p ison sen ences o he numbe o indi iduals con ic ed,
Albania has he highes a io o 12.1 sen ences pe pe son, ollowed by No h Macedonia wi h
5.65 sen ences pe pe son, BiH wi h 3.91 sen ences pe pe son, Se bia wi h 3.04 sen ences pe
pe son, and Mon eneg o wi h 0.5 sen ences pe pe son.4
I is no able ha a signi ican po ion o indi iduals con ic ed in Se bia in connec ion o he
2014 in asion o Uk aine we e membe s o he Uni é Con inen ale, an ex eme- igh mo emen
es ablished in Belg ade in 2014 (Gajić 2022).
The 2022 s udy conduc ed by he Sou an Cen e on he epe cussions o o eign igh e s
on peace and secu i y sugges s se e al ecommenda ions, one o which emphasizes he
implemen a ion o exis ing in e na ional ins umen s. Speci ically, i ad oca es o measu es
aimed a inhibi ing ansna ional o ganized c ime ne wo ks and o he en i ies om capi alizing
on he illici mo emen o small a ms and ligh weapons (SALW). Addi ionally, he s udy
unde sco es he necessi y o bols e ing ups eam in e en ions o p e en he unau ho ized
acquisi ion o SALW (Sou an Cen e 2022).
Fu he mo e, he s udy p oposes he es ablishmen o e ed o sc eened channels o enable
communi ies o p o ide di ec suppo o Uk aine. This ecommenda ion aims o ensu e ha
unds and ma e ial esou ces a e no misapp op ia ed o exploi ed by c iminal elemen s and
o he illici ac o s. By acili a ing anspa en and accoun able channels o assis ance, his
app oach seeks o mi iga e he isk o di e sion o misuse o esou ces in ended o legi ima e
pu poses (Sou an Cen e 2022).
Howe e , Glusac (2020: 62–63) p esen s a c i ical pe spec i e on he e icacy o add essing he
phenomenon o o eign igh e s p ima ily h ough c iminal p osecu ion. Glusac obse es ha
his app oach, pa icula ly p e alen in Wes e n Balkan coun ies (WB6)5 wi h b oad legisla i e
changes c iminalizing pa icipa ion in con lic s ab oad ega dless o ies o e o ism, may
p o e ine ec i e and e en coun e p oduc i e. He a gues ha puni i e measu es alone a e
unlikely o de e indi iduals om joining such con lic s; ins ead, hey may ein o ce a discou se
o exis en ial h ea and u he jus i y pa icipa ion in con lic as a means o su i al. This
unde sco es he complexi y o add essing he oo causes o adicaliza ion and he limi a ions
o solely puni i e measu es in mi iga ing he phenomenon o o eign igh e s.
Mo eo e , Glusac’s obse a ion highligh s he challenges posed by di e gen geopoli ical
in e es s in he con ex o ecen con lic s. While he e was consensus among he i e
pe manen membe s o he UN Secu i y Council on c iminalizing pa icipa ion in con lic s
ab oad o e o is pu poses, such as in Sy ia and I aq, he si ua ion becomes mo e nuanced
wi h ega ds o he con lic in Uk aine. The in ol emen o China and Russia, bo h membe s o
he Secu i y Council, complica es e o s o es ablish a uni ied app oach owa ds c iminaliza ion
(Chowdhu y Fink 2022). This aises doub s abou whe he simila consensus can be achie ed
ega ding con lic s whe e geopoli ical in e es s di e ge among Secu i y Council membe s.
Fu he mo e, he absence o a i ica ion o he In e na ional Con en ion Agains he
Rec ui men , Use, Financing, and T aining o Me cena ies by he majo i y o WB6, including
Albania, BiH, and No h Macedonia, p esen s addi ional challenges.6 The ailu e o sign his
con en ion inc eases he isk o hese coun ies inad e en ly acili a ing he use, inancing,
and aining o me cena ies by in e na ional o ganized c ime g oups. This no only unde mines
e o s o comba ansna ional c ime bu also h ea ens o des abilize he ule o law wi hin he
egion. Thus, he ailu e o a i y his con en ion unde sco es he impo ance o in e na ional
coope a ion and commi men o add essing he mul i ace ed challenges posed by o eign
igh e s and ela ed ansna ional h ea s.
4 See Balkan In es iga i e Repo ing Ne wo k. Regional Te o ism and Fo eign Figh e s Da abase. De ek o .ba.
A ailable a : h ps://www.de ek o .ba/ [Las accessed 12 Oc obe 2022].
5 Albania, Bosnia and He cego ina, Koso o, Mon eneg o, No h Macedonia and Se bia.
6 See Uni ed Na ions. Lis o signa o y coun ies. T ea y Se ies. A ailable a : h ps:// ea ies.un.o g/Pages/
ViewDe ails.aspx?s c=IND&m dsg_no=XVIII-6&chap e =18&clang=_en [Las accessed 5 Ma ch 2024].
