Lai, Ruqiang; Beh, LooSee
A icle
The impac o poli ical e icacy on ci izens' e-pa icipa ion
in digi al go e nmen
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Lai, Ruqiang; Beh, LooSee (2025) : The impac o poli ical e icacy on ci izens' e-
pa icipa ion in digi al go e nmen , Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15,
Iss. 1, pp. 1-23,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15010017
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/321162
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Recei ed: 22 Oc obe 2024
Re ised: 1 Decembe 2024
Accep ed: 2 Janua y 2025
Published: 5 Janua y 2025
Ci a ion: Lai, R., & Beh, L.-S. (2025).
The Impac o Poli ical E icacy on
Ci izens’ E-Pa icipa ion in Digi al
Go e nmen . Adminis a i e Sciences,
15(1), 17. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci15010017
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license
(h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/
licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
The Impac o Poli ical E icacy on Ci izens’ E-Pa icipa ion in
Digi al Go e nmen
Ruqiang Lai 1,* and Loo-See Beh 1,2
1
Facul y o Business and Economics, Uni e si i Malaya, Kuala Lumpu 50603, Malaysia; [email p o ec ed]
2School o Business and Technology, IMU Uni e si y, Kuala Lumpu 57000, Malaysia
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion de e mines he successes and ailu es o digi al go e n-
men o e-go e nmen . Howe e , i s esul s o da e ha e no been sa is ac o y. IT adop ion
models domina e p e ious s udies. Howe e , ci izens’ psychological ac o s ha e been
o e looked. The ield has allen in o he ap o “ echnological solu ionism.” This esea ch
ocuses on poli ical e icacy and collec ed sel - epo ed da a om 388 esponden s h ough
an online ques ionnai e. Pa ial Leas Squa es S uc u al Equa ion Modeling was ca ied
ou o da a analyses. The esul s showed ha e-pa icipa ion in en ion posi i ely a ec s
e-pa icipa ion beha io . Bo h in e nal poli ical e icacy and ex e nal poli ical e icacy ha e
a posi i e signi ican ela ionship wi h e-pa icipa ion in en ion. Addi ionally, desc ip i e
analysis esul s e ealed he ela ionships be ween ci izens’ demog aphic ac o s and hei
in luence on e-pa icipa ion, including gende , age, mon hly income, educa ion le el, po-
li ical a ilia ion, and occupa ion. This esea ch p o ides u he empi ical e idence and
insigh ul knowledge o schola s, en iching poli ical e icacy heo y. Go e nmen o icials
can bene i om his esea ch whe e a ge ed measu es can be de eloped.
Keywo ds: poli ical e icacy; e-pa icipa ion; digi al go e nmen ; China; PLS-SEM
1. In oduc ion
Ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion de e mines he successes and ailu es o digi al go e nmen
o e-go e nmen (Uni ed Na ions,2020a), since ci izens can pa icipa e in go e nmen
policymaking and poli ical agendas h ough digi al go e nmen in addi ion o ecei ing
public se ices (Macin osh,2004). Fu he mo e, e-pa icipa ion mechanisms can inc ease
go e nmen accoun abili y, be e espond o ci izens’ needs, and imp o e policies and
legisla i e measu es (Peixo o & Fox,2016). The e o e, coun ies’ digi al go e nmen s in
he wo ld ha e paid much a en ion o imp o ing ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion (Uni ed Na ions,
2020b), including China’s digi al go e nmen (CNNIC,2023).
E-pa icipa ion is expec ed o inc ease he in e ac ion be ween ci izens and he go -
e nmen , bu he esul s o da e a e unsa is ac o y (Uni ed Na ions,2020b). Fo ins ance,
Eu opean Union ci izens’ pa icipa ion in elec onic consul a ions and o es (na ional o
local) has emained la gely silen be ween 2014 and 2019 (Uni ed Na ions,2020b). In he
I ish go e nmen ’s po al OpenConsul , ci izens a e unde u ilizing se ices (Connaugh on,
2022). The same si ua ion is occu ing in China. The epo eleased by he E-Go e nmen
Resea ch Cen e in he Chinese Academy o Go e nance showed ha he use usage le el
o digi al go e nmen na ionwide is s ill e y low in China. Only 15 egions exceeded he
mean alue o he use -usage indica o among 32 p o incial go e nmen s in China, accoun -
ing o only 46.88% (Wang,2022). Addi ionally, a su ey conduc ed by Zheng e al. (2022)
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15010017
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 2 o 23
showed ha 64.89% o 11,719 esponden s had ne e pa icipa ed in ele an ac i i ies
h ough he digi al go e nmen pla o m, indica ing a low le el o
ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion.
The low le el o ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion emains a signi ican isk o e-pa icipa ion
ini ia i es (Islam,2008). Despi e he pla o m’s bes e o s, ci izens did no pa icipa e
a he expec ed le el o quali y, meaning ha he digi al pla o m did no achie e he
expec ed esul s, and i s success was limi ed (Wi z e al.,2018). C i ics a gue ha such
e-pa icipa ion ini ia i es a e en i ely go e nmen -cen ic (Pi annejad e al.,2019) and
canno achie e hei goals (Ala abia e al.,2021).
P e ious schola s ha e pu much e o in o s udying e-pa icipa ion in digi al go -
e nmen (Zolo o e al.,2018;Adnan e al.,2022). The esea ch has essen ially app oached
his om wo pe spec i es: echnical and non- echnical (Adnan e al.,2022). IT adop ion
heo ies domina e p e ious s udies, such as he Uni ied Theo y o Accep ance and Use o
Technology (UTAUT) (Venka esh e al.,2003), he Technology Accep ance Model (TAM)
(Da is,1985), he Di usion O Inno a ion (DOI) (Roge s,2003), and In o ma ion Sys em
Success Model (ISSM) (Delone & Mclean,2003). The e o e, he belie ha “neu al” (dig-
i al) echnology can sol e socie al p oblems and challenges is he co e o con empo a y
academic and policy hinking on e-pa icipa ion.
Howe e , c i ics ha e a gued ha he ield has allen in o he ap o “ echnological
solu ionism” (Lembe ,2022). Using a single IT adop ion model ha dly p o ides a s ong
heo e ical ounda ion (Medaglia,2012;Susha & G onlund,2012) and has an insu icien
explana o y powe o ac o s o he han IT. Technology is gene ally neu al, and i is up o
he ci izens who use i o achie e i s designa ed e ec s. As human g oups, ci izens do no
ocus only on he echnology i sel when using i . The psychological dynamics in ol ed
a e also in luenced by many ac o s o he socie y in which hey li e. This eminds us ha
we need o analyze and in e p e ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion beha io om he pe spec i e o
social psychology and d aw on o he heo ies o s udy e-pa icipa ion.
Beha io is usually de e mined by in en ion (Malho a & McCo ,2001). The e-
o e, a g owing numbe o schola s ha e ocused on in es iga ing how o inc ease ci i-
zens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion (EPI) (Na anjo-Zolo o e al.,2019;Oli ei a & Ga cia,2019;
Panopoulou e al.,2021). Howe e , p e ious s udies ha e mos ly been conduc ed on social
media (Ose e al.,2022) o o he pla o ms (No o Vázquez & Vicen e,2019). They lacked
in es iga ion on digi al go e nmen pla o ms in China. Social media is di e en om digi-
al go e nmen pla o ms. As a newly o icial and impo an channel o ci izens’ poli ical
pa icipa ion, esea ch on digi al go e nmen pla o ms in China needs mo e a en ion.
In addi ion, e idence has shown ha poli ical e icacy in luences e-pa icipa ion in-
en ion (No o Vázquez & Vicen e,2019;Oni e al.,2017). E-pa icipa ion has simila
cha ac e is ics o adi ional o line pa icipa ion (Sanchez-Nielsen & Lee,2013) and is also
in luenced by poli ical e icacy (Chan & Guo,2013;Pa k,2015;Sha oni,2012;Yao e al.,
2022). Howe e , p e ious s udies ha e no p o ided mo e insigh s. Schola s commonly
measu e poli ical e icacy only as a holis ic concep . Poli ical e icacy has wo dimensions,
i.e., in e nal poli ical e icacy and ex e nal poli ical e icacy (P a s & Meunie ,2021;Ose
e al.,2022). They a e di e en , and hence canno be measu ed and exp ob a ed oge he .
Mo eo e , he ela ionships be ween hem and e-pa icipa ion on digi al go e nmen pla -
o ms a e unclea and need o be in es iga ed. Ce ainly, ci izens’ socio-demog aphic
cha ac e is ics a e con ol a iables ha wa an a en ion, as hey do ha e an impac on
poli ical e icacy (Wolak,2018;Wu,2003).
The e o e, his esea ch is dedica ed o answe ing ou esea ch ques ions. Resea ch
Ques ion 1: Wha is he e ec o ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion on e-pa icipa ion
beha io on China’s digi al go e nmen pla o m? Resea ch Ques ion 2: How does ci i-
zens’ in e nal poli ical e icacy in luence e-pa icipa ion in en ion? Resea ch Ques ion 3:
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 3 o 23
How does ci izens’ ex e nal poli ical e icacy a ec e-pa icipa ion in en ion? Resea ch
Ques ion 4:
Wha is he ela ionship be ween ci izens’ demog aphic ac o s and hei in-
luence on e-pa icipa ion? This esea ch cons uc s a quan i a i e model o in es iga e
he impac o bo h in e nal and ex e nal poli ical e icacy on ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in
China’s digi al go e nmen pla o ms. I ills he esea ch gaps in he empi ical s udy o
e-pa icipa ion and he heo y o poli ical e icacy. I bene i s schola s and go e nmen
o icials by p o iding knowledge o he ela ionship be ween poli ical e icacy and ci izens’
e-pa icipa ion. Mo e insigh ul measu es hus can be o mula ed o imp o e ci izens’
e-pa icipa ion on digi al go e nmen pla o ms.
2. Li e a u e Re iew and Hypo heses De elopmen
2.1. E-Pa icipa ion on he Digi al Go e nmen Pla o m
An ea ly de ini ion o e-pa icipa ion e e s o “a ela ionship based on pa ne ship wi h
go e nmen in which ci izens ac i ely engage in de ining he p ocess and con en o policy-making”
(OECD,2003, p. 55). Macin osh (2006, pp. 364–369) de ined e-pa icipa ion as “ he use
o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies o b oaden and deepen poli ical pa icipa ion by
enabling ci izens o connec wi h one ano he and wi h hei elec ed ep esen a i es,” while a
de ini ion om Sæbø e al. (2008) emphasized he s akeholde s o e-pa icipa ion, which
e e ed o a social ac i i y, media ed by ICT, in ol ing in e ac ion be ween ci izens, he
public adminis a ion, and poli icians. The Uni ed Na ions iews e-pa icipa ion as a b anch
o e-go e nmen ; hence, hei de ini ion is “ he p ocess o engaging ci izens h ough ICTs
in policy, decision-making, and se ice design and deli e y so as o make i pa icipa o y,
inclusi e, and delibe a i e” (Uni ed Na ions,2020b). The de ini ion o e-pa icipa ion
con inues o e ol e wi h he de eloping echnology o e ime. We can easily obse e
om p e ious de ini ions ha schola s ha e emphasized he key ole o ci izens in i . As
he demand side o digi al go e nmen e-pa icipa ion ini ia i es (Uni ed Na ions,2020a),
ci izens’ pa icipa ion de e mines he success o ailu e o hese unde akings (Gumme us
e al.,2012). Bo om-up pa icipa ion om ci izens o he go e nmen becomes an impo an
complemen o op-down go e nmen ini ia ion me hods on digi al go e nmen pla o ms
( an Waa e al.,2016).
The ladde o ci izen pa icipa ion p oposed by A ns ein (1969) se ed as an impo an
basis o classi ying he s ages o e-pa icipa ion. They we e summa ized by schola s in
h ee s ages: in o ming, consul a ion, and placa ion-a ilia e (P is l & Bille ,2022). Based
on his, di e en schola s pu o wa d di e en le els o e-pa icipa ion. Fo ins ance, Mac-
in osh (2004) conside ed ha e-pa icipa ion includes h ee le els: e-Enabling, e-Engaging,
and e-Empowe ing. The u he e ol emen o he classi ica ion o e-pa icipa ion by
San ama ia-Philco e al. (2019) deno ed h ee le els o e-pa icipa ion, i.e., e-in o ming,
e-consul a i e, and e-collabo a ion. Howe e , mos o hese classi ica ions a e based on he
pe spec i e o he e-pa icipa ion se ice p o ide , i.e., he go e nmen , and no pu ely on
he ci izens’ pe spec i e.
The Uni ed Na ions di ided e-pa icipa ion in o h ee le els: E-in o ma ion, E-
consul a ion, and E-decision-making (UN,2014, p. 63). This model u ns wha was
passi e in o ac i e pa icipa ion. “E-in o ma ion enables pa icipa ion by p o iding ci izens wi h
public in o ma ion and access o in o ma ion upon demand. E-consul a ion engages people in deepe
con ibu ions o and delibe a ion on public policies and se ices. E-decision-making empowe s
people h ough co-design o policy op ions and co-p oduc ion o se ice componen s and deli e y
modali ies.” The e o e, his model aims o b ing empowe men o he people.
Dis inguishing be ween ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion and ac ual e-pa icipa ion
beha io is essen ial o unde s anding and imp o ing ci izens’ engagemen h ough
digi al go e nmen pla o ms. Ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion e lec s hei willingness
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 4 o 23
and psychological eadiness o pa icipa e. Ac ual e-pa icipa ion beha io encompasses
he eal ac ions aken by ci izens in esponse o hese in en ions (Malho a & McCo ,
2001). Howe e , high in en ion does no always ansla e in o ac ion; s udies indica e
ha while in en ions can explain a po ion o he a iance in beha io ( ypically be ween
18 and 23%), hey do no accoun o all o i , leading o wha is known as he in en ion–
beha io gap (Conne & No man,2022). Schola s ha e also demons a ed ha while many
ci izens exp ess a desi e o pa icipa e in e-pa icipa ion ini ia i es, ac ual pa icipa ion a es
o en all sho (Zheng,2017;Zheng & Schach e ,2017). Fo ins ance, he Uni ied Theo y
o Accep ance and Use o Technology (UTAUT) iden i ies cons uc s like pe o mance
expec ancy and e o expec ancy as signi ican p edic o s o in en ion o use e-pa icipa ion
ools (Na anjo-Zolo o e al.,2019). Unde s anding hese cons uc s helps in designing
be e e-pa icipa ion ini ia i es ha can e ec i ely con e in en ion in o ac ion. Fo local
go e nmen s p omo ing e-pa icipa ion, ecognizing his dis inc ion allows o a ge ed
s a egies ha no only encou age in en ion bu also acili a e ac ual pa icipa ion. The e o e,
dis inguishing be ween e-pa icipa ion in en ion and ac ual beha io is i al o de eloping
e ec i e e-pa icipa ion s a egies. I enhances ci ic engagemen and ensu e ha ci izens’
oices a e genuinely hea d in he decision-making p ocesses.
Iden ically, i is c ucial o dis inguish he e-pa icipa ion in en ion and ac ual e-
pa icipa ion beha io in he Chinese con ex . Schola s ha e a gued ha he beha io al
in en ion model ( he in luence o in en ion on beha io ) needs g ea e explici c oss-cul u al
assessmen e en hough i is conside ed o be uni e sally applicable (Malho a & McCo ,
2001). S udies indica e ha high e-pa icipa ion in en ion does no always ansla e di-
ec ly in o high e-pa icipa ion beha io (Choi & Song,2020). Hence, o unde s and he
ac ual e-pa icipa ion beha io , i is impo an o unde s and he basis on which indi idual
ci izens make hei decisions (Zheng & Schach e ,2017). Fo ins ance, many social and
psychological a iables in luence whe he and how indi iduals pa icipa e, demog aphic
cha ac e is ics such as age, gende , educa ion, and poli ical a ilia ion, and psychological
ac o s such as social capi al and poli ical e icacy. I is well known ha China is a powe ul
pa y s a e wi h a op-down poli ical sys em and a s a e- egula ed media sys em. Chi-
nese ci izens ha e ela i ely limi ed op ions o adi ional o line poli ical pa icipa ion,
and consequen ly poli ical apa hy is widesp ead. Al hough ci izens may ha e a s ong
in en ion o pa icipa e, ac ual pa icipa o y beha io may be educed due o hese ac o s.
E-pa icipa ion in digi al go e nmen is complemen a y o adi ional channels o poli ical
pa icipa ion, and i is wo h explo ing whe he i su e s om he same p oblems among
ci izens as con en ional poli ical pa icipa ion (Xu e al.,2022). The e o e, i is necessa y
o explo e whe he ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ions ansla e in o ac ual high le els
o e-pa icipa ion beha io in China. The beha io al in en ion model has been widely
demons a ed in s udies o e-go e nmen adop ion and e-pa icipa ion (Ahmed e al.,2015;
Al yala e al.,2015;Rana e al.,2015;Thao,2017). The ollowing hypo hesis was assumed
o es he same logic on China’s digi al go e nmen pla o ms.
Hypo hesis 1. Ci izens’ in en ion o e-pa icipa ion has a posi i e e ec on hei ac ual e-
pa icipa ion beha io s on he digi al go e nmen pla o m.
2.2. Poli ical E icacy
Poli ical e icacy i s came om Campbell e al. (1954, p. 187); i e e ed o “ he eeling
ha indi idual poli ical ac ion does ha e, o can ha e, an impac on he poli ical p ocess, ha is,
ha i is wo hwhile o pe o m one’s ci ic du ies.” I is a psychological de ini ion and one o
he mos p ominen ac o s in luencing an indi idual’s poli ical beha io (Aish & Jö eskog,
1990). In his de ini ion, he subjec o poli ical e icacy is he ci izen and he objec is poli ics.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 5 o 23
In addi ion, Campbell iews poli ical e icacy as an indi idual’s in insically subjec i e
pe cep ion o poli ics and sel -measu emen ega ding his o he own poli ical compe ence.
Lane (1959) conside ed ha poli ical e icacy should be comp ised o wo di e en
componen s: Fi s ly, in e nal poli ical e icacy, which means ha indi iduals belie e hey
ha e mo e in luence o e he go e nmen when compa ed wi h o he s. Secondly, ex e nal
poli ical e icacy, which means ha a pe son belie es he go e nmen will add ess his o
he conce ns when con on ing he poli ical sys em. Lane’s iew is accep ed by he majo i y
o schola s (Bene,2020;Boulianne & Ohme,2022;Lee,2006;P a s & Meunie ,2021;Wu
e al.,2022). In e nal and ex e nal poli ical e icacy le els a e no only heo e ically dis inc
(Cla ke e al.,2010) bu empi ical s udies ha e also shown a weak co ela ion be ween hem
(Balch,1974;Bene,2020;P a s & Meunie ,2021). Hence, i is necessa y o sepa a e poli ical
e icacy in o wo pa s.
In e nal poli ical e icacy e e s o “belie s abou one’s own compe ence o unde s and, and
o pa icipa e e ec i ely in poli ics” (Niemi e al.,1991, pp. 1407–1408). I is a c ucial p ecu so
o ci izens’ poli ical pa icipa ion. Indi iduals wi h a s onge in e nal e icacy belie e hei
poli ical ac ions can ha e an impac (Hu,2016). The mo e con iden people eel in hei
own poli ical capabili ies, he mo e likely hey a e o ac i ely engage in he poli ical p ocess.
In con as , hose wi h low in e nal e icacy may eel powe less and be less likely o ge
in ol ed, leading o poli ical apa hy o cynicism. E idence has shown ha people wi h
highe in e nal poli ical e icacy a e mo e likely o engage in poli ical ac i i ies like o ing,
con en ional poli ical pa icipa ion, and e en uncon en ional pa icipa ion (Reiche ,2016).
The e o e, in e nal e icacy shapes bo h he in en ion and he ac ual beha io o ci izens
when i comes o pa icipa ing in poli ics. I helps o mo i a e people o ge in ol ed in he
poli ical p ocess.
Likewise, in e nal poli ical e icacy has a signi ican in luence on ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion
o online poli ical pa icipa ion (Oni e al.,2017). The mo e con iden people eel in hei
in e nal poli ical e icacy, he mo e likely hey a e o engage in online poli ical ac i i ies
(Chen e al.,2019). The mo e people eel capable o unde s anding and in luencing poli ics,
he mo e mo i a ed hey a e o pa icipa e poli ically h ough digi al channels. I can be
conside ed ha in e nal poli ical e icacy is a key ac o d i ing ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion.
The e o e, i p oposes he ollowing hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 2. Ci izens’ in e nal poli ical e icacy has a posi i e e ec on hei in en ion o engage
in e-pa icipa ion.
Ex e nal poli ical e icacy e e s o “belie s abou he esponsi eness o go e nmen al au-
ho i ies and ins i u ions o ci izens’ demands” (Niemi e al.,1991, pp. 1407–1408). I ep esen s
an indi idual’s subjec i e assessmen o he ole o ci izens wi hin he poli ical sys em
and hei abili y o in luence poli ical p ocesses (OECD,2021). People wi h high ex e nal
poli ical e icacy eel ha he poli ical sys em and ac o s a e esponsi e o o dina y ci izens
and allow hem o ha e a say in go e nmen ac ions (Finkel,1985). The mo e people eel
he poli ical sys em is a en i e o hei demands, he mo e likely hey a e o ge in ol ed
in he poli ical p ocess. People wi h highe ex e nal e icacy a e mo e likely o engage in
bo h di ec o ms o pa icipa ion (e.g., o ing, a ending allies) and indi ec o ms (e.g.,
con ac ing o icials) (Mead,2018). Con e sely, low ex e nal poli ical e icacy can unde mine
poli ical engagemen (E zel,2023). Hence, ex e nal poli ical e icacy is conside ed a c ucial
ac o shaping poli ical pa icipa ion (OECD,2023).
Ex e nal poli ical e icacy has been p o en o posi i ely a ec bo h adi ional and
e-pa icipa ion (Zai e e al.,2023). Indi iduals wi h highe ex e nal poli ical e icacy belie e
ha hey can e ec i ely exp ess hei iews o sugges ions o he au ho i ies and ecei e
subs an i e esponses h ough digi al channels. Fo ins ance, he esea ch indings om
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 6 o 23
No o Vázquez and Vicen e (2019) showed ha indi iduals wi h highe ex e nal poli ical
e icacy a e mo e likely o engage in e-pa icipa ion in Spanish sma ci ies. The e o e, i
p oposes he ollowing hypo hesis o es he same logic in China’s digi al go e nmen .
Hypo hesis 3. Ci izens’ ex e nal poli ical e icacy has a posi i e e ec on hei in en ion o engage
in e-pa icipa ion.
3. Me hodology
3.1. Resea ch Ins umen s
A 5-poin Like - ype scale was employed o he su ey. The 5-poin Like - ype
scale has ewe op ions and is ela i ely simple o esponden s, hus educing hei le el
o us a ion. Responden s a e mo e likely o unde s and i and he e o e ha e highe
esponse a es and esponse quali y (Dawes,2008;Sachde & Ve ma,2004). The scale
o e-pa icipa ion beha io (EPB) is modi ied om Zheng (2017). I used he equency
o pa icipa ion o measu e. Each i em was measu ed on a 5-poin scale anging om
1 (ne e ) o 5 (always). The e-pa icipa ion in en ion (EPI) scale is al e ed om Mensah
e al. (2020). Bo h he in e nal poli ical e icacy (IPE) and ex e nal poli ical e icacy (EPE)
scales a e adap ed om Liu (2017). All hese i ems we e measu ed anging om 1 (s ongly
disag ee) o 5 (s ongly ag ee).
3.2. Sampling and Da a Collec ion
Th ee p o incial digi al go e nmen pla o ms we e selec ed as he ep esen a i es.
They a e he Guang Dong digi al go e nmen pla o m Yue Sheng Shi (
粤省事
), he Jiang
Xi digi al go e nmen pla o m Gan Fu Tong (
赣服通
), and he Shan Xi digi al go e nmen
pla o m San Jin Tong (
三晋通
), which all in o h ee le els: e y high, high, and medium,
espec i ely, acco ding o he o icial epo (Wang,2022). Theo e ically, he se ices o he
digi al go e nmen should co e all ci izens, and all ci izens should be he a ge popula ion
o he s udy. Howe e , due o many p ac ical ba ie s such as acili ies and equipmen ,
educa ion le el, digi al li e acy, e c., many ci izens a e subjec i ely o objec i ely unable
o use and pa icipa e on digi al go e nmen pla o ms. The e o e, ne izens in hese h ee
p o inces a e he a ge popula ion o his s udy. Con enience sampling in non-p obabili y
sampling was selec ed since he a ge popula ion is ex emely la ge. This app oach is
uncomplica ed, easie o apply, has ewe ule es ic ions, a lowe cos , and is ime-sa ing
(Bha dwaj,2019;E ikan,2016;Ge lich e al.,2018;S a on,2021). In e es ed pa icipan s
can be ec ui ed olun a ily; hence, i can collec hei sel - epo ed da a (Edga & Manz,
2017;Win on & Sabol,2022). Acco ding o K ejcie and Mo gan (1970), he minimum sample
size o his s udy is iden i ied as 384.
The su ey is conduc ed ia an online ques ionnai e and da a a e collec ed on he pla -
o m wj.qq.com, which is simila o Amazon Mechanical Tu k and has 3 million egis e ed
samples co e ing China; hus, i can loca e he h ee p o inces p ecisely. In addi ion, all
he i ems in he ques ionnai e a e se as compulso y. I p ohibi s duplica e esponden s
by blocking he same ne wo k IP add esses o he esponden s’ accoun s. Da a collec ion
s a ed in Augus 2023 and ended in Oc obe 2023. We o e ed a ewa d o RMB 5 (app oxi-
ma ely USD 0.7) o esponden s who alidly comple ed he su ey o incen i ize ac i e
pa icipa ion. A o al o 534 esponses we e ecei ed. A e da a sc eening, 121 esponses
ha did no co ec ly answe he wo a en ion es i ems we e excluded. A e calcula ing
uni a ia e and mul i a ia e ou lie s (Hai ,2019), 25 cases we e emo ed. Finally, 388 alid
esponses we e iden i ied.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 7 o 23
3.3. Da a Analysis Technique
The Pa ial Leas Squa e S uc u al Equa ion Model (PLS-SEM) is used o he da a
analysis. I is mo e app op ia e han Co a iance-Based S uc u al Equa ion Modeling
(CB-SEM) because his s udy explo es he ela ionships and explains a heo y ha was no
ye de eloped (Rigdon,2012). Mo eo e , PLS-SEM has mo e ad an ages han CB-SEM,
such as i s capaci y o be used wi h small sample sizes and non-no mal da a dis ibu ions
(Ci elek,2018;Hai e al.,2011). SPSS 27.0 and Sma PLS 4.0 we e adop ed o execu e
s a is ical analyses.
4. Resul s
4.1. Socio-Demog aphic Cha ac e is ics o Responden s
The esul s e eal ha esponden s we e e enly dis ibu ed among he h ee p o inces
su eyed, esponden s in Guang Dong p o ince comp ised 35.6%, hose in Jiang Xi p o ince
32%, and hose in Shan Xi p o ince 32.5%. Male esponden s comp ised 42.8% and e-
male esponden s 57.2%. The majo i y o esponden s we e be ween he ages o 20 and
29, which comp ised 61.1%. Responden s wi h a mon hly income o RMB 3001 o 5000
comp ised 30.7%, ollowed by esponden s wi h a mon hly income o RMB
≥
5001 (27.1%),
1001–3000
(25.8%), and
≤
1000 (16.5%). Mos esponden s we e well educa ed wi h a college
deg ee, 38.9%, and a bachelo ’s deg ee, 37.1%, oge he cons i u ing mo e han hal o all
esponden s. In e ms o poli ical a ilia ion, he as majo i y, 88.7%, o esponden s had
no a ilia ion. Responden s wo king in p i a e companies comp ised 31.7%, ollowed by
s uden s (26.5%) and hose wo king in s a e companies (19.8%), e c. Table 1displays a
summa y o esponden s’ p o iles. Acco ding o he newes S a is ical Repo on China’s
In e ne De elopmen (CNNIC,2024), as o June 2024, he a io o men o women o
in e ne use s in China was 50.8:49.2. The p opo ion o he in e ne use g oup aged 50
and abo e was 33.3% and much less han hose aged below 50. Howe e , due o ime
and inancial cons ain s, as well as he online ques ionnai e used, i was no possible o
p ecisely con ol he p opo ion o he sample dis ibu ion. O e all, he sample dis ibu ion
is ela i ely balanced and consis en wi h he socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics p o ile
when compa ed wi h he na ional s a is ics, hus making i ep esen a i e.
Table 1. Socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o esponden s.
Va iables Ca ego ies
F equency
Pe cen (%)
P o ince
Guang Dong P o ince 138 35.6
Jiang Xi P o ince 124 32
Shan Xi P o ince 126 32.5
Gende Male 166 42.8
Female 222 57.2
Age
≤19 46 11.9
20–29 237 61.1
30–39 77 19.8
40–49 15 3.9
50–59 12 3.1
≥60 1 0.3
Mon hly income
≤1000 64 16.5
1001–3000 100 25.8
3001–5000 119 30.7
≥5001 105 27.1
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 8 o 23
Table 1. Con .
Va iables Ca ego ies F equency Pe cen (%)
Educa ion le el
Middle school and below 24 6.2
High school 51 13.1
College 151 38.9
Bachelo 144 37.1
Pos g adua e and abo e 18 4.6
Poli ical A ilia ion
he Chinese Communis Pa y (CCP) 36 9.3
Democ acy Pa y 8 2.1
No a ilia ion 344 88.7
Occupa ion
Go e nmen 2 0.5
S a e companies 77 19.8
P i a e companies 123 31.7
Sel -employed 54 13.9
Unemployed 25 6.4
Re i ed 4 1
S uden 103 26.5
4.2. Measu emen Model
De ec ing and add essing non- esponse bias is c ucial in su ey esea ch as i helps
o ensu e he alidi y and eliabili y o he da a collec ed. I can no only assess he
ep esen a i eness o he sample bu can also enhance he gene alizabili y o he indings
(Cheung e al.,2017;Halbesleben & Whi man,2013). An independen samples - es was
adop ed in his s udy o de ec non- esponse bias. By compa ing he means be ween he
wo g oups o ea ly esponse and la e esponse, he di e ences be ween he p edic o s and
c i e ion a iables we e ound (Koch & Blohm,2016). This s udy sequenced he 388 alid
samples acco ding o hei esponse ime and ook he i s 20% and he las 20% as he
wo g oups o compa ison analysis. F om he independen samples - es esul s, i can be
ound ha he e is no signi ican di e ence (p> 0.05) in he s a is ical esul s be ween ea ly
esponse (n = 78) and la e esponse (n = 78). The e o e, he e is no non- esponse bias in
his s udy.
Common me hod a iance (CMV) may exis , since all da a we e collec ed om one
sou ce in his esea ch. I may h ea en he alidi y o he conclusions abou he ela ionship
be ween measu emen s (Podsako e al.,2003). Two app oaches we e conduc ed o de ec
CMV. Ha man’s single- ac o es is one o he mos popula me hods. In his esea ch,
he single ac o accoun ed o 19.66% o he a iance. Hence, i is no g ea e han 50%,
indica ing a good esul (Podsako e al.,2012). Acco ding o he sugges ions om Kock
e al. (2012) and Kock (2015), in PLS-SEM, a ull collinea i y assessmen me hod based
on a iance in la ion ac o (VIF) is ecommended o de ec CMV. In his app oach, all
a iables a e eg essed agains a common andom a iable, and single-sou ce da a a e ee
o bias i he VIF
≤
3.3. A e calcula ion, all cons uc s had VIF alues less han 3.3. Based
on he abo e esul s, he e is no CMV in his esea ch.
Subsequen ly, he PLS algo i hm was ca ied ou o measu emen model analysis.
Acco ding o Hai e al. (2019), ac o loadings abo e 0.708 a e ecommended. Meanwhile,
alues om 0.40 o 0.70 a e accep able and e en ion depends on he abili y o inc ease he
AVE alue (Hulland,1999;Wong,2013). Since all he cons uc s’ a e age a iance ex ac ed
(AVE) in his esea ch is g ea e han h eshold o 0.5, indica ing a good esul , he e is no
need o emo e he i ems whose loadings a e be ween 0.40 and 0.70. A C onbach’s alpha
anging om 0.70 o 0.95 is accep able (Ta akol & Dennick,2011). Resul s o he composi e
eliabili y c i e ion be ween 0.70 and 0.95 indica e sa is ac o y o good eliabili y le els
(Sa s ed e al.,2021). De ails a e shown in Table 2, whe e all esul s p esen good eliabili y.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 15 o 23
highe han hose who a e wo king in s a e companies, wo king in p i a e companies, sel -
employed, unemployed, and s uden s. As o e-pa icipa ion in en ion, ci izens wo king in
he go e nmen , hose wo king in s a e companies, and s uden s sco e highe han hose
who a e unemployed and e i ed. Rega ding ex e nal poli ical e icacy, ci izens wo king
in s a e companies and s uden s sco e highe han he unemployed, e i ed, and hose
wo king in p i a e companies. Table 13 shows he de ails.
5. Discussion
The pu pose o his s udy is o p esen a a ionale and empi ical e idence on how
poli ical e icacy a ec s ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in digi al go e nmen . In o de o achie e
his objec i e, i was hypo hesized ha ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion would posi i ely
in luence ac ual e-pa icipa ion beha io . Two sepa a e hypo heses we e also es ablished,
i.e., in e nal poli ical e icacy and ex e nal poli ical e icacy would posi i ely in luence ci i-
zens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion, espec i ely. Finally, he da a collec ed om 388 esponden s
we e s a is ically analyzed using PLS-SEM.
Resea ch Ques ion 1 was, “Wha is he e ec o ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion on
e-pa icipa ion beha io on China’s digi al go e nmen pla o m?” The ela ed Hypo h-
esis 1 explo ed he ela ionship be ween e-pa icipa ion in en ion and ac ual beha io . I
ound ha ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion has a signi ican posi i e ela ionship wi h
e-pa icipa ion beha io s (
β
= 0.317, = 7.215, p< 0.05). This indica es ha ci izens who
ha e a s onge in en ion o engage in e-pa icipa ion will be mo e likely o pe o m e-
pa icipa ion beha io s. This inding is consis en wi h he p e ious s udies o ElKheshin
and Saleeb (2016) and Hooda e al. (2022). I con i ms and ein o ces ha in en ion is he
key issue in enhancing beha io . The e o e, enhancing ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion is
he ocal poin needed o add ess he low e-pa icipa ion a e.
Resea ch Ques ion 2 was, “How does ci izens’ in e nal poli ical e icacy in luence
e-pa icipa ion in en ion?” and he ela ed Hypo hesis 2 explo ed he ela ionship be ween
in e nal poli ical e icacy and e-pa icipa ion in en ion. I ound ha in e nal poli ical
e icacy has a signi ican posi i e ela ionship wi h e-pa icipa ion in en ion (
β
= 0.326,
= 6.574, p< 0.05). I indica es ha ci izens wi h a highe le el o in e nal poli ical e icacy
will ha e a s onge e-pa icipa ion in en ion. This inding is consis en wi h he p e ious
s udies o Gil de Zúñiga e al. (2017), Koo e al. (2016), Lai and Beh (2024), and Leb umen
e al. (2021). Ci izens ha e mo e poli ical in o ma ion and g ea e sel -con idence in pa ici-
pa ing in poli ical ac i i ies, which leads o a s onge in en ion o pa icipa e in poli ical
ac i i ies. This has been e i ied no only in adi ional o ms o poli ical pa icipa ion bu
also in e-pa icipa ion, a o m o poli ical pa icipa ion based on new echnologies.
Resea ch Ques ion 3 was, “How does ci izens’ ex e nal poli ical e icacy a ec e-
pa icipa ion in en ion?” and he ela ed Hypo hesis 3 explo ed he ela ionship be ween
ex e nal poli ical e icacy and e-pa icipa ion in en ion. I ound ha ex e nal poli ical
e icacy has a signi ican posi i e ela ionship wi h e-pa icipa ion in en ion (
β
= 0.323,
= 6.793, p< 0.05). This esul indica es ha ci izens wi h a highe ex e nal poli ical e icacy
will ha e a s onge e-pa icipa ion in en ion. This inding is also consis en wi h he
p e ious s udies o Koo e al. (2016), Lai and Beh (2024), and Leb umen e al. (2021).
Ci izens’ us in go e nmen au ho i ies is based on he go e nmen ’s esponsi eness
o ci izens’ demands in a imely and e ec i e manne . S onge us u he s eng hens
ci izens’ in en ion o pa icipa e in poli ical ac i i ies, including e-pa icipa ion.
Resea ch Ques ion 4 was, “Wha is he ela ionship be ween ci izens’ demog aphic
ac o s and hei in luence on e-pa icipa ion?” The esul s ound he e is a signi ican
di e ence in in e nal poli ical e icacy and ex e nal poli ical e icacy based on gende . Men
ha e be e in e nal poli ical e icacy han women. This inding is in line wi h he p e ious
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 16 o 23
s udies o F aile and de Miguel Moye (2022), F aile and Ma ino a (2024), G asso and Smi h
(2022), and Ma hieu (2023). The cu en esul indica es ha he e is a pe sis en gende
gap in in e nal poli ical e icacy, whe e women end o ha e lowe le els o pe cei ed
compe ence and abili y o pa icipa e in poli ics compa ed o men. On he con a y, women
ha e be e ex e nal poli ical e icacy han men. This inding is no consis en wi h he
p e ious s udies o Hege and Ho mann (2021) and Mulde (2023), whose indings showed
no signi ican ela ionship be ween gende and ex e nal poli ical e icacy. The cu en
esul indica es ha Chinese women ha e a s onge belie in go e nmen au ho i ies
han Chinese men. Howe e , he e is no signi ican di e ence in ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion
beha io , e-pa icipa ion in en ion, in e nal poli ical e icacy, and ex e nal poli ical e icacy
based on hei age. In e ms o ci izens’ mon hly income, he e is also no signi ican
di e ence in ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion beha io , e-pa icipa ion in en ion, in e nal poli ical
e icacy, and ex e nal poli ical e icacy ega ding hei mon hly income.
Rega ding he educa ion le el, he e is a signi ican di e ence in ci izens’ e-
pa icipa ion beha io , in e nal poli ical e icacy, and ex e nal poli ical e icacy. Highe
le els o educa ion a e associa ed wi h g ea e poli ical e icacy, bo h in e nal e icacy and
ex e nal poli ical e icacy. This inding is consis en wi h he p e ious s udies o Pe e sen
(2018), Mulde (2023), and Schulz (2005). The cogni i e and mo i a ional e ec s o educa-
ion, such as p o iding indi iduals wi h g ea e poli ical knowledge and skills, con ibu e
o enhancing hei poli ical e icacy. In addi ion, ci izens possessing a highe deg ee o
educa ion ha e g ea e e-pa icipa ion beha io han hose wi hou . This inding is in line
wi h he p e ious s udies o La eguy and Ma shall (2013) and Pe sson (2013,2015). I
indica es ha indi iduals wi h highe le els o educa ion end o pa icipa e in poli ics o a
g ea e ex en han hose wi h lowe le els o educa ion.
In e ms o poli ical a ilia ion, he e is a signi ican di e ence in ci izens’ e-
pa icipa ion beha io based on hei poli ical a ilia ion. Ci izens wi h no a ilia ion a e
lowe han hose in he CCP and he Democ acy Pa y. This inding is consis en wi h he
p e ious s udies o Jiang (2023), Kim and Chen (2016), and Paudel e al. (2018). Poli ical
a ilia ion can s ongly in luence indi iduals’ poli ical beha io s. I ound ha being a ili-
a ed wi h a poli ical pa y can cause people o change hei iews on poli ical issues and
hei o ing beha io .
In addi ion, he e is a signi ican di e ence in ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion beha io , e-
pa icipa ion in en ion, and ex e nal poli ical e icacy based on hei occupa ion. Ci izens
wo king in he go e nmen ha e g ea e e-pa icipa ion beha io han hose who a e wo k-
ing in s a e companies o p i a e companies, sel -employed, unemployed, and s uden s.
Ne e heless, he esul s o e-pa icipa ion in en ion, in e nal poli ical e icacy, and ex e nal
poli ical e icacy a e almos he same. The indings indica e ha people wo king wi hin
he public sec o will ha e g ea e poli ical pa icipa ion beha io and in en ion, as well
as a highe (in e nal and ex e nal) poli ical e icacy han hose wo king ou side he public
sec o , while hose wi h job ea nings will ha e g ea e poli ical pa icipa ion beha io
and in en ion, as well as a highe (in e nal and ex e nal) poli ical e icacy, compa ed wi h
hose wi hou . This indica es occupa ional sala y does p o ide mo e au onomy, con ol, o
highe pa icipa ion le els o poli ical e icacy, while p eca ious o uns able employmen
can diminish people’s sense o poli ical in luence and engagemen . These indings a e
consis en wi h Azzollini and Macmillan (2023), P a s and Meunie (2021), Ni e al. (2022),
and Sobel (1993).
6. Conclusions
This s udy p o ides empi ical alida ion o he ac o s in luencing Chinese ci izens’
beha io and in en ion o engage in e-pa icipa ion on digi al go e nmen pla o ms.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 17 o 23
P e ious s udies o ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion ha e ocused on echnology adop ion and
lacked psychological ac o s. This s udy ocused on ci izens’ poli ical e icacy, in es iga ing
bo h in e nal and ex e nal poli ical e icacy. In addi ion, mos p e ious esea ch on e-
pa icipa ion has ocused on social media and a ely on digi al go e nmen pla o ms. This
s udy in es iga ed he impac o poli ical e icacy on e-pa icipa ion on digi al go e nmen
pla o ms. The e o e, i con ibu es o illing he esea ch gaps in he ield o e-pa icipa ion
on digi al go e nmen pla o ms.
This s udy alida ed he applicabili y o poli ical e icacy in he Chinese con ex . The
concep o poli ical e icacy o igina ed in he Wes , and mos s udies ha e also been based
on Wes e n con ex s, while esea ch in he Chinese con ex is s ill ela i ely a e. This s udy
e ec i ely alida ed poli ical e icacy in he Chinese con ex , hus con ibu ing o a mo e
applicable con ex o esea ch. Mo eo e , his s udy clea ly dis inguished wo dimensions
o poli ical e icacy o alida ion, achie ing a highe g anula i y o esea ch, which has
o en been o e looked and missing in p e ious s udies. The e o e, his s udy expanded he
esea ch bounda ies o poli ical e icacy.
This s udy also p o ides some aluable implica ions o go e nmen sec o admin-
is a o s. Fi s , ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion di ec ly a ec s e-pa icipa ion beha io .
Hence, i is necessa y o ake some measu es o enhance ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in en ion o
use he digi al go e nmen pla o m. Adminis a o s can conduc comp ehensi e esea ch
o unde s and ci izens’ needs, p e e ences, and challenges, which can help o design a
pla o m ha mee s ci izens’ expec a ions. They can also conduc egula es ing o he
pla o m o iden i y and esol e any p oblems in i s usage as well as p o ide an accessible
en i onmen , including app oaches such as disabili y-o ien ed and mul ilingual design,
o mee he needs o di e en g oups. The go e nmen can also enhance he p opaganda
o he digi al go e nmen pla o m o aise awa eness o i s exis ence and bene i s, and
simul aneously o ganize digi al skills aining semina s o empowe ci izens on how o use
he digi al go e nmen pla o ms. In addi ion, he go e nmen can also launch incen i e
p og ams o ewa d policies o ci izens who ac i ely use digi al go e nmen pla o ms.
Due o he popula i y o mobile de ices, a en ion should be paid o he op imiza ion o he
mobile-use pla o ms such as mobile apps, and o he s such as he WeCha mini p og am.
Fu he , policies and egula ions on da a secu i y and p i acy can be enhanced o gua an ee
use s’ us in he secu i y o hei pe sonal in o ma ion, simpli ying he p ocess o a oid
edundan da a inpu and enhance he use ’s in e ac i e expe ience. To ensu e con inual
usage, ci izens can be encou aged o be egula ly in ol ed o con inuously imp o e and
upda e he pla o m. By adop ing he abo e s a egies, ci izens can be u he encou aged
o engage in e-pa icipa ion on digi al go e nmen pla o ms.
Second, poli ical e icacy (in e nal and ex e nal) has been demons a ed o ha e a
signi ican impac on ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion on digi al go e nmen pla o ms. The e o e,
adminis a o s need o pay g ea a en ion o enhancing ci izens’ in e nal and ex e nal
poli ical e icacy. Se e al p o en app oaches can be implemen ed such as comp ehensi e
ci ic educa ion p og ams in schools o each s uden s abou he poli ical sys em, go e n-
men s uc u es, and he impo ance o ci ic engagemen . Campaigns can be launched
o dissemina e in o ma ion abou poli ical p ocesses, policies, and he ole o ci izens in
hem. Such s eps also demons a e ha go e nmen anspa ency does occu by p o iding
easy access o in o ma ion, go e nmen documen s, and decision-making p ocesses ia
own hall mee ings and o ums whe e ci izens can in e ac wi h o icials, ask ques ions,
and exp ess conce ns. Ci izens can also access in o ma ion abou go e nmen ac i i ies
and policies and h ough wo kshops on opics such as how o na iga e go e nmen web-
si es, unde s and policy p oposals, and e ec i ely communica e wi h elec ed people’s
ep esen a i es by u ilizing social media and o he online pla o ms o engage ci izens in
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 18 o 23
discussions, sha e in o ma ion, and ga he eedback on policies. Such mo es can p omo e a
sense o owne ship and in ol emen , dis inguish be ween eliable and un eliable sou ces,
and unde s and di e en pe spec i es. A he same ime, we ecommend ha ini ia i es
a e suppo ed on ac -checking in o ma ion and p omo ing accu acy in poli ical discou se.
Such suppo also p o ides a enues o ci izens o ge in ol ed in olun ee ing wo k and
communi y se ice, os e ing a sense o ci ic esponsibili y. This u he demons a es
ha policies and ini ia i es a e inclusi e and ha he di e se needs and pe spec i es o
he popula ion can be conside ed. By combining hese app oaches, adminis a o s can
con ibu e o building a mo e poli ically in o med, engaged, and e icacious ci izen y.
The e a e some limi a ions and u u e di ec ions o his s udy. Fi s ly, he da a in his
s udy a e non- acking su ey da a; hus, i is di icul o longi udinally examine he ends
and cha ac e is ics o ci izens’ poli ical e icacy on e-pa icipa ion in en ion o e ime. I is
ecommended ha u u e esea ch conduc a longi udinal s udy o obse e he changing
e ec s on e-pa icipa ion in en ion o e ime.
Secondly, limi ed by ime and inance, in e ne use s we e andomly selec ed o he
s udy; hus, he conclusions should be cau iously gene alized o he whole coun y. Fu u e
esea ch can y o conduc a na ionwide su ey, hough i has o be ins i u ion-based.
Las ly, his s udy only in es iga ed he in luence o poli ical e icacy on ci izens’ e-
pa icipa ion on digi al go e nmen pla o ms. Howe e , he in luences on ci izens’ e-
pa icipa ion in digi al go e nmen a e mul i ace ed and comp ehensi e, including bo h
echnological and non- echnological. Fu u e esea ch could explo e he in luence o mo e
ac o s, such as combining he echnology adop ion models, TAM, UTAUT, e c. Al e na-
i ely, knowledge could be gained om o he disciplines o in e disciplina y esea ch,
such as egional economic de elopmen indica o s.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, R.L.; me hodology, R.L.; so wa e, R.L.; alida ion, R.L.;
o mal analysis, R.L.; in es iga ion, R.L.; esou ces, R.L.; da a cu a ion, R.L.; w i ing—o iginal d a
p epa a ion, R.L.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, R.L. and L.-S.B.; isualiza ion, R.L.; supe ision,
L.-S.B.; p ojec adminis a ion, R.L.; unding acquisi ion, R.L. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he
published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : The s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla-
a ion o Helsinki, and app o ed by he Uni e si i Malaya Resea ch E hics Commi ee (UMREC)
(UM.TNC2/UMREC_2811; 31 July 2023).
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in his s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a will be made a ailable on eques om he co esponding au ho .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
Re e ences
Adnan, M., Ghazali, M., & O hman, N. Z. S. (2022). E-pa icipa ion wi hin he con ex o e-go e nmen ini ia i es: A comp ehensi e
sys ema ic e iew. Telema ics and In o ma ics Repo s,8, 100015. [C ossRe ]
Ahmed, T., Alhadi, N., & Seliaman, M. E. (2015, Ap il 26–29). Accep ance o e-go e nmen se ices in Sudan: An empi ical in es iga ion.
2015 In e na ional Con e ence on Cloud Compu ing (ICCC) (pp. 1–4), Riyadh, Saudi A abia. [C ossRe ]
Aish, A.-M., & Jö eskog, K. G. (1990). A panel model o poli ical e icacy and esponsi eness: An applica ion o LISREL 7 wi h
weigh ed leas squa es. Quali y and Quan i y,24(4), 405–426. [C ossRe ]
Ala abia , A., Soa es, D., & Es e ez, E. (2021). De e minan s o ci izens’ in en ion o engage in go e nmen -led elec onic pa icipa ion
ini ia i es h ough Facebook. Go e nmen In o ma ion Qua e ly,38(1), 101537. [C ossRe ]
Al yala , M. A. A., Rana, N. P., & Dwi edi, Y. K. (2015). Ci izen’s adop ion o an e-go e nmen sys em. In e na ional Jou nal o Elec onic
Go e nmen Resea ch,11(4), 1–23. [C ossRe ]
A ns ein, S. R. (1969). A Ladde o ci izen pa icipa ion. Jou nal o he Ame ican Ins i u e o Planne s,35(4), 216–224. [C ossRe ]
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 19 o 23
Azzollini, L., & Macmillan, R. (2023). A e “bad” jobs bad o democ acy? P eca ious wo k and elec o al pa icipa ion in Eu ope.
F on ie s in Poli ical Science,5, 1176686. [C ossRe ]
Balch, G. I. (1974). Mul iple indica o s in su ey esea ch: The concep “sense o poli ical e icacy”. Poli ical Me hodology,1(2), 1–43.
Belanche, D., Casaló, L. V., & Fla ián, M. (2024). Human e sus i ual in luences, a compa a i e s udy. Jou nal o Business Resea ch,173,
114493. [C ossRe ]
Bene, M. (2020). Does con ex ma e ? A c oss-coun y in es iga ion o he e ec s o he media con ex on ex e nal and in e nal poli ical
e icacy. In e na ional Jou nal o Compa a i e Sociology,61(4), 264–286. [C ossRe ]
Bha dwaj, P. (2019). Types o sampling in esea ch. Jou nal o he P ac ice o Ca dio ascula Sciences,5(3), 157. [C ossRe ]
Boulianne, S., & Ohme, J. (2022). Pa hways o en i onmen al ac i ism in ou coun ies: Social media, en i onmen al conce n, and
poli ical e icacy. Jou nal o You h S udies,25(6), 771–792. [C ossRe ]
Campbell, A., Gu in, G., & Mille , W. E. (1954). The o e decides (pp. xiii, 242). Row, Pe e son, and Co.
Chan, M., & Guo, J. (2013). The ole o poli ical e icacy on he ela ionship be ween acebook use and pa icipa o y beha io s: A
compa a i e s udy o young Ame ican and Chinese adul s. Cybe psychology, Beha io , and Social Ne wo king,16(6), 460–463.
[C ossRe ]
Chen, C., Bai, Y., & Wang, R. (2019). Online poli ical e icacy and poli ical pa icipa ion: A media ion analysis based on he e idence
om Taiwan. New Media & Socie y,21(8), 1667–1696. [C ossRe ]
Cheung, K. L., en Kloos e , P. M., Smi , C., de V ies, H., & Pie e se, M. E. (2017). The impac o non- esponse bias due o sampling in
public heal h s udies: A compa ison o olun a y e sus manda o y ec ui men in a Du ch na ional su ey on adolescen heal h.
BMC Public Heal h,17(1), 276. [C ossRe ]
Choi, J., & Song, C. (2020). Fac o s explaining why some ci izens engage in E-pa icipa ion, while o he s do no . Go e nmen In o ma ion
Qua e ly,37(4), 101524. [C ossRe ]
Ci elek, M. E. (2018). Compa ison o co a iance-based and pa ial leas squa e s uc u al equa ion modeling me hods unde non-
no mal dis ibu ion and small sample size limi a ions. Eu asian Academy o Sciences Eu asian Econome ics, S a is ics & Empi ical
Economics Jou nal,10, 39–50.
Cla ke, H. D., Ko nbe g, A., & Sco o, T. J. (2010). Accen ua ing he Nega i e? Me hodology,6(3), 107–117. [C ossRe ]
CNNIC. (2023). The 51 h s a is ical epo on China’s in e ne de elopmen . A ailable online: h ps://www.cnnic.com.cn/IDR/
Repo Downloads/202307/P020230707514088128694.pd (accessed on 1 Janua y 2025).
CNNIC. (2024). The 54 h s a is ical pepo on China’s in e ne de elopmen . A ailable online: h ps://www.cnnic.ne .cn/NMediaFile/
2024/0906/MAIN17255881028985DZD0SVVQH.pd (accessed on 1 Oc obe 2024).
Connaugh on, B. (2022). The implemen a ion o e-pa icipa ion pla o ms in I eland: The case o OpenConsul . In T. Randma-Lii , & V.
Lembe (Eds.), Engaging ci izens in policy making (pp. 196–208). Edwa d Elga Publishing. [C ossRe ]
Conne , M., & No man, P. (2022). Unde s anding he in en ion-beha io gap: The ole o in en ion s eng h. F on ie s in Psychology,13,
923464. [C ossRe ]
Da is. (1985). A echnology accep ance model o empi ically es ing new end-use in o ma ion sys ems: Theo y and esul s [Ph.D. hesis,
Massachuse s Ins i u e o Technology].
Dawes, J. (2008). Do da a cha ac e is ics change acco ding o he numbe o scale poin s used? An expe imen using 5-poin , 7-poin
and 10-poin scales. In e na ional Jou nal o Ma ke Resea ch,50(1), 61–104. [C ossRe ]
Delone, W. H., & Mclean, E. R. (2003). The DeLone and McLean model o in o ma ion sys ems success: A en-yea upda e. Jou nal o
Managemen In o ma ion Sys ems,19(4), 9–30. [C ossRe ]
Edga , T. W., & Manz, D. O. (2017). Resea ch me hods o cybe secu i y. Syng ess.
ElKheshin, S., & Saleeb, N. (2016, Decembe 20–21). A concep ual model o E-go e nmen adop ion in Egyp . 2016 11 h In e na ional
Con e ence on Compu e Enginee ing & Sys ems (ICCES) (pp. 254–259), Cai o, Egyp . [C ossRe ]
E ikan, I. (2016). Compa ison o con enience sampling and pu posi e sampling. Ame ican Jou nal o Theo e ical and Applied S a is ics,
5(1), 1. [C ossRe ]
E zel, M. (2023). Value o ien a ion and ex e nal poli ical e icacy: Assessing he ela ionship be ween adi ional alues, p og essi e
poli ics and poli ical esponsi eness. Compa a i e Eu opean Poli ics. [C ossRe ]
Finkel, S. E. (1985). Recip ocal e ec s o pa icipa ion and poli ical e icacy: A panel analysis. Ame ican Jou nal o Poli ical Science,29(4),
891. [C ossRe ]
F aile, M., & de Miguel Moye , C. (2022). Risk and he gende gap in in e nal poli ical e icacy in Eu ope. Wes Eu opean Poli ics,45(7),
1462–1480. [C ossRe ]
F aile, M., & Ma ino a, D. (2024). Closing he gende gap in in e nal poli ical e icacy? Gende oles and he masculine e hos o poli ics
in Spain. Poli ical Beha io ,46, 2287–2311. [C ossRe ]
Ge lich, R. N., D umhelle , K., Cla k, R., & Baskin, M. B. (2018). Mechanical u k: Is i jus ano he con enience sample? Global Jou nal
o Business Disciplines,2(1), 45–55.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 20 o 23
Gil de Zúñiga, H., Diehl, T., & A dé ol-Ab eu, A. (2017). In e nal, ex e nal, and go e nmen poli ical e icacy: E ec s on news use,
discussion, and poli ical pa icipa ion. Jou nal o B oadcas ing & Elec onic Media,61(3), 574–596. [C ossRe ]
G asso, M., & Smi h, K. (2022). Gende inequali ies in poli ical pa icipa ion and poli ical engagemen among young people in Eu ope:
A e young women less poli ically engaged han young men? Poli ics,42(1), 39–57. [C ossRe ]
Gumme us, J., Liljande , V., Weman, E., & Pihls öm, M. (2012). Cus ome engagemen in a Facebook b and communi y. Managemen
Resea ch Re iew,35(9), 857–877. [C ossRe ]
Hai , J. F. (2019). Mul i a ia e da a analysis (8 h ed.). Cengage.
Hai , J. F. (Ed.). (2017). A p ime on pa ial leas squa es s uc u al equa ion modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Sage.
Hai , J. F., Ringle, C. M., & Sa s ed , M. (2011). PLS-SEM: Indeed a sil e bulle . Jou nal o Ma ke ing Theo y and P ac ice,19(2), 139–152.
[C ossRe ]
Hai , J. F., Rishe , J. J., Sa s ed , M., & Ringle, C. M. (2019). When o use and how o epo he esul s o PLS-SEM. Eu opean Business
Re iew,31(1), 2–24. [C ossRe ]
Halbesleben, J. R. B., & Whi man, M. V. (2013). E alua ing su ey quali y in heal h se ices esea ch: A decision amewo k o
assessing non esponse bias. Heal h Se ices Resea ch,48(3), 913–930. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
Hege , K., & Ho mann, C. P. (2021). Feminism! Wha is i good o ? The ole o eminism and poli ical sel -e icacy in women’s online
poli ical pa icipa ion. Social Science Compu e Re iew,39(2), 226–244. [C ossRe ]
Hensele , J., Ringle, C. M., & Sa s ed , M. (2015). A new c i e ion o assessing disc iminan alidi y in a iance-based s uc u al
equa ion modeling. Jou nal o he Academy o Ma ke ing Science,43(1), 115–135. [C ossRe ]
Hooda, A., Gup a, P., Jeya aj, A., Giannakis, M., & Dwi edi, Y. K. (2022). The e ec s o us on beha io al in en ion and use beha io
wi hin e-go e nmen con ex s. In e na ional Jou nal o In o ma ion Managemen ,67, 102553. [C ossRe ]
Hu, R. (2016). The impac o Chinese poli ical e icacy and poli ical pa icipa ion on hei us in he police. The Jou nal o Chinese
Sociology,3(1), 3. [C ossRe ]
Hulland, J. (1999). Use o pa ial leas squa es (PLS) in s a egic managemen esea ch: A e iew o ou ecen s udies. S a egic
Managemen Jou nal,20(2), 195–204. [C ossRe ]
Islam, M. S. (2008). Towa ds a sus ainable e-pa icipa ion implemen a ion model. Eu opean Jou nal o eP ac ice,5(10). A ailable online:
h ps://www.di a-po al.o g/smash/ge /di a2:796551/FULLTEXT01.pd (accessed on 5 Sep embe 2022).
Jiang, Y. (2023). The impac o poli ical ideology, knowledge and pa icipa ion on elec o al conspi acy endo semen . F on ie s in Poli ical
Science,5, 1069468. [C ossRe ]
Kim, Y., & Chen, H.-T. (2016). Social media and online poli ical pa icipa ion: The media ing ole o exposu e o c oss-cu ing and
like-minded pe spec i es. Telema ics and In o ma ics,33(2), 320–330. [C ossRe ]
Koch, A., & Blohm, M. (2016). Non esponse bias (GESIS su ey guidelines). GESIS Leibniz Ins i u e o he Social Sciences. A ailable
online: h p://www.gesis.o g/gesis-su ey-guidelines/s a is ics/non esponse-bias/ (accessed on 1 Ma ch 2024).
Kock, N. (2015). Common me hod bias in PLS-SEM. In e na ional Jou nal o e-Collabo a ion,11(4), 1–10. [C ossRe ]
Kock, N., Kock, N., Lynn, G., & S e ens Ins i u e o Technology. (2012). La e al collinea i y and misleading esul s in a iance-based
SEM: An illus a ion and ecommenda ions. Jou nal o he Associa ion o In o ma ion Sys ems,13(7), 546–580. [C ossRe ]
Koo, J., Koo, J., & Kim, J. (2016). The e ec s o he SNS ac i i ies o poli icians on poli ical e icacy and he in en ion o pa icipa e in
o ing. Asia Paci ic Jou nal o In o ma ion Sys ems,26(1), 22–40. [C ossRe ]
K ejcie, R. V., & Mo gan, D. W. (1970). De e mining sample size o esea ch ac i i ies. Educa ional and Psychological Measu emen ,30(3),
607–610. [C ossRe ]
Lai, R., & Beh, L.-S. (2024). The oles o Zhongyong and poli ical e icacy on ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion in digi al go e nmen pla o m.
T ans o ming Go e nmen : People, P ocess and Policy. [C ossRe ]
Lane, R. E. (1959). Poli ical li e: Why people ge in ol ed in poli ics. F ee P ess. A ailable online: h ps://books.google.co.uk/books?id=
VdE1AAAAIAAJ (accessed on 1 Augus 2023).
La eguy, H. A., & Ma shall, J. (2013). The e ec o educa ion on poli ical engagemen in weakly ins i u ionalized democ acies: E idence
om Nige ia. A ailable online: h ps://p ojec s.iq.ha a d.edu/ iles/bwgape/ iles/educa ion
_
in
_
nige ia.pd (accessed on 1
Janua y 2025).
Leb umen , N., Zumbo-Leb umen , C., Roche e, C., & Roule , T. J. (2021). T igge ing pa icipa ion in sma ci ies: Poli ical e icacy,
public adminis a ion sa is ac ion and sense o belonging as d i e s o ci izens’ in en ion. Technological Fo ecas ing and Social
Change,171, 120938. [C ossRe ]
Lee, F. L. F. (2006). Collec i e e icacy, suppo o democ a iza ion, and poli ical pa icipa ion in Hong Kong. In e na ional Jou nal o
Public Opinion Resea ch,18(3), 297–317. [C ossRe ]
Lembe , V. (2022). Engaging ci izens in policy making: The po en ial and challenges o e-pa icipa ion. In T. Randma-Lii , & V. Lembe
(Eds.), Engaging ci izens in policy making (pp. 1–10). Edwa d Elga Publishing. [C ossRe ]
Liu, B. (2017). Social media use and poli ical pa icipa ion in China: The media ing ole o poli ical e icacy [Mas e ’s hesis, Uni e si y o
Sou h Flo ida].
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 21 o 23
Ma, Y., Leng, C., & Wang, H. (2024). Op imal subsampling boo s ap o massi e da a. Jou nal o Business & Economic S a is ics,42(1),
174–186. [C ossRe ]
Macin osh, A. (2004, Janua y 5–8). Cha ac e izing e-pa icipa ion in policy-making. 37 h Annual Hawaii In e na ional Con e ence on
Sys em Sciences (p. 10), Big Island, HI, USA. [C ossRe ]
Macin osh, A. (2006). ePa icipa ion in policy-making: The esea ch and he challenges. Exploi ing he Knowledge Economy: Issues,
Applica ions and Case S udies,3, 364–369.
Malho a, N. K., & McCo , J. D. (2001). A c oss-cul u al compa ison o beha io al in en ion models—Theo e ical conside a ion and an
empi ical in es iga ion. In e na ional Ma ke ing Re iew,18(3), 235–269. [C ossRe ]
Ma hieu, J. (2023). Whe e a e we wi h closing he gende gap in in e nal poli ical e icacy? Eu opean Jou nal o Poli ics and Gende ,6(3),
456–461. [C ossRe ]
Mead, S. M. (2018). E icacy and poli ical pa icipa ion: How can i make a di e ence? No he n Illinois Uni e si y.
Medaglia, R. (2012). ePa icipa ion esea ch: Mo ing cha ac e iza ion o wa d (2006–2011). Go e nmen In o ma ion Qua e ly,29(3),
346–360. [C ossRe ]
Mensah, I. K., Zeng, G., & Luo, C. (2020). e-Go e nmen se ices adop ion: An ex ension o he uni ied model o elec onic go e nmen
adop ion. SAGE Open,10(2), 215824402093359. [C ossRe ]
Mulde , L. E. M. (2023). On-si e ci izenship educa ion: An e ec i e way o boos ing democ a ic engagemen and educing inequali ies
among young people? Poli ical Beha io ,45(2), 511–535. [C ossRe ]
Na anjo-Zolo o , M., Oli ei a, T., & Cas eleyn, S. (2019). Ci izens’ in en ion o use and ecommend e-pa icipa ion. In o ma ion
Technology & People,32(2), 364–386. [C ossRe ]
Ni, J., Shen, Y., Chen, C., & Liu, X. (2022). The in luence o occupa ional alues on college s uden s’ willingness o apply o ci il
se an s: The media ing ole o poli ical e icacy. F on ie s in Psychology,13, 1020863. [C ossRe ]
Niemi, R. G., C aig, S. C., & Ma ei, F. (1991). Measu ing in e nal poli ical e icacy in he 1988 na ional elec ion s udy. Ame ican Poli ical
Science Re iew,85(4), 1407–1413. [C ossRe ]
No o Vázquez, A., & Vicen e, M. R. (2019). Explo ing he de e minan s o e-pa icipa ion in sma ci ies. In M. P. Rod íguez Bolí a ,
& L. Alcaide Muñoz (Eds.), E-pa icipa ion in sma ci ies: Technologies and models o go e nance o ci izen engagemen (Vol. 34, pp.
157–178). Sp inge In e na ional Publishing.
OECD. (2021). Go e nmen a a Glance 2021. OECD. [C ossRe ]
OECD. (2023). Go e nmen a a Glance 2023. OECD. [C ossRe ]
OECD (Ed.). (2003). P omise and p oblems o e-democ acy: Challenges o online ci izen engagemen . OECD.
Oli ei a, C., & Ga cia, A. C. B. (2019). Ci izens’ elec onic pa icipa ion: A sys ema ic e iew o hei challenges and how o o e come
hem. In e na ional Jou nal o Web Based Communi ies,15(2), 1. [C ossRe ]
Oni, A. A., Oni, S., Mba ika, V., & Ayo, C. K. (2017). Empi ical s udy o use accep ance o online poli ical pa icipa ion: In eg a ing
ci ic olun a ism model and heo y o easoned ac ion. Go e nmen In o ma ion Qua e ly,34(2), 317–328. [C ossRe ]
Ose , J., G inson, A., Boulianne, S., & Halpe in, E. (2022). How poli ical e icacy ela es o online and o line poli ical pa icipa ion: A
mul ile el me a-analysis. Poli ical Communica ion,39(5), 607–633. [C ossRe ]
Ozili, P. K. (2023). The accep able R-squa e in empi ical modelling o social science esea ch. In Social Resea ch Me hodology and
Publishing Resul s (pp. 134–143). IGI Global. [C ossRe ]
Panopoulou, E., Tambou is, E., & Ta abanis, K. (2021). An ePa icipa ion accep ance model. IEEE T ansac ions on Eme ging Topics in
Compu ing,9(1), 188–199. [C ossRe ]
Pa k, C. S. (2015). Pa hways o exp essi e and collec i e pa icipa ion: Usage pa e ns, poli ical e icacy, and poli ical pa icipa ion in
social ne wo king si es. Jou nal o B oadcas ing & Elec onic Media,59(4), 698–716. [C ossRe ]
Paudel, U. R., Gup a, R., Poudel, S., & Adhika i, K. (2018). Poli ical pa y pe cep ion and o ing beha io o people: A s udy o
communica ion pe spec i e om Nepal. Ad ances in Li e a y S udy,6(4), 179–192. [C ossRe ]
Peixo o, T., & Fox, J. (2016). When does ICT-enabled ci izen oice lead o go e nmen esponsi eness? IDS Bulle in,41(1), 23–39.
[C ossRe ]
Pe sson, M. (2013). Does educa ion cause pa icipa ion in poli ics? Uni e si y o Go henbu g.
Pe sson, M. (2015). Educa ion and poli ical pa icipa ion. B i ish Jou nal o Poli ical Science,45(3), 689–703. [C ossRe ]
Pe e sen, K. (2018). A s udy o he co ela ion be ween educa ion le el, poli ical e icacy, and he willingness o se e in he ield o public
adminis a ion [Mas e ’s hesis, Cali o nia S a e Uni e si y, No h idge].
Pi annejad, A., Janssen, M., & Rezaei, J. (2019). Towa ds a balanced e-pa icipa ion index: In eg a ing go e nmen and socie y
pe spec i es. Go e nmen In o ma ion Qua e ly,36(4), 101404. [C ossRe ]
Podsako , P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsako , N. P. (2003). Common me hod biases in beha io al esea ch: A c i ical e iew
o he li e a u e and ecommended emedies. Jou nal o Applied Psychology,88(5), 879–903. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
Podsako , P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsako , N. P. (2012). Sou ces o me hod bias in social science esea ch and ecommenda ions
on how o con ol i . Annual Re iew o Psychology,63(1), 539–569. [C ossRe ]
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 22 o 23
P a s, M., & Meunie , A. (2021). Poli ical e icacy and pa icipa ion: An empi ical analysis in Eu opean coun ies. (OECD Wo king Pape s on
Public Go e nance, Vol. 46). OECD. [C ossRe ]
P is l, A.-C., & Bille , M. S. (2022, June 18–24). Ci izen pa icipa ion in inc easingly digi alized go e nmen al en i onmen s—A sys ema ic
li e a u e e iew. ECIS 2022, Timis
,oa a, Romania.
Rana, N. P., Dwi edi, Y. K., Lal, B., & Williams, M. D. (2015, July 5–9). Assessing ci izens’ adop ion o a ansac ional e-go e nmen sys em:
Valida ion o he ex ended decomposed heo y o planned beha io (DTPB). PACIS 2015, Singapo e.
Reiche , F. (2016). How in e nal poli ical e icacy ansla es poli ical knowledge in o poli ical pa icipa ion: E idence om Ge many.
Eu ope’s Jou nal o Psychology,12(2), 221–241. [C ossRe ]
Rigdon, E. E. (2012). Re hinking pa ial leas squa es pa h modeling: In p aise o simple me hods. Long Range Planning,45(5–6),
341–358. [C ossRe ]
Roge s, E. M. (2003). Di usion o inno a ions (5 h ed.). Simon and Schus e .
Sachde , S. B., & Ve ma, H. V. (2004). Rela i e Impo ance o Se ice Quali y Dimensions: A Mul isec o al S udy. Jou nal o Se ices
Resea ch,4(1), 93.
Sæbø, Ø., Rose, J., & Ski enes Flak, L. (2008). The shape o ePa icipa ion: Cha ac e izing an eme ging esea ch a ea. Go e nmen
In o ma ion Qua e ly,25(3), 400–428. [C ossRe ]
Sanchez-Nielsen, E., & Lee, D. (2013, Janua y 7–10). ePa icipa ion in p ac ice in Eu ope: The case o “puzzled by policy: Helping you be pa o
EU”. 2013 46 h Hawaii In e na ional Con e ence on Sys em Sciences (pp. 1870–1879), Wailea, HI, USA. [C ossRe ]
San ama ia-Philco, A., Canos Ce da, J. H., & Penades G amaje, M. C. (2019). Ad ances in e-pa icipa ion: A pe spec i e o las yea s.
IEEE Access,7, 155894–155916. [C ossRe ]
Sa s ed , M., Ringle, C., & Hai , J. (2021). Pa ial leas squa es s uc u al equa ion modeling (pp. 1–47). Sp inge In e na ional Publishing.
[C ossRe ]
Schulz, W. (2005, Sep embe 8–10). Poli ical e icacy and expec ed poli ical pa icipa ion among lowe and uppe seconda y s uden s. ECPR
Gene al Con e ence, Budapes , Hunga y.
Sha oni, S. (2012). e-Ci izenship: T us in go e nmen , poli ical e icacy, and poli ical pa icipa ion in he in e ne e a. Elec onic Media &
Poli ics,1(8), 119–135.
Sobel, R. (1993). F om occupa ional in ol emen o poli ical pa icipa ion: An explo a o y analysis. Poli ical Beha io ,15(4), 339–353.
[C ossRe ]
S a on, S. J. (2021). Popula ion esea ch: Con enience sampling s a egies. P ehospi al and Disas e Medicine,36(4), 373–374. [C ossRe ]
Susha, I., & G onlund, A. (2012). ePa icipa ion esea ch: Sys ema izing he ield. Go e nmen In o ma ion Qua e ly,29(3), 373–382.
[C ossRe ]
Ta akol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense o C onbach’s alpha. In e na ional Jou nal o Medical Educa ion,2, 53–55. [C ossRe ]
[PubMed]
Thao, V. T. T. (2017). The e ec o powe dis ance on e-go e nmen adop ion in Vie nam: Empi ical in es iga ion using UTAUT model.
In e na ional Jou nal o Inno a i e Science, Enginee ing & Technology,4(5), 245–249.
UN (Ed.). (2014). Uni ed Na ions e-go e nmen su ey 2014: E-go e nmen o he u u e we wan . Uni ed Na ions.
Uni ed Na ions (Ed.). (2020a). Digi al go e nmen in he decade o ac ion o sus ainable de elopmen . Uni ed Na ions.
Uni ed Na ions. (2020b). E-pa icipa ion: A quick o e iew o ecen quali a i e ends. (UN Depa men o Economic and Social A ai s
(DESA) Wo king Pape s, Vol. 163). Uni ed Na ions. [C ossRe ]
an Waa , P., Mulde , I., & de Bon , C. (2016). A pa icipa o y app oach o en isioning a sma ci y. Social Science Compu e Re iew,
34(6), 708–723. [C ossRe ]
Venka esh, V., Mo is, M. G., Da is, G. B., & Da is, F. D. (2003). Use accep ance o in o ma ion echnology: Towa d a uni ied iew.
MIS Qua e ly,27(3), 425–478. [C ossRe ]
Wang, Y. (2022). 2022 Su ey and assessmen epo on he capaci y o p o incial go e nmen s and key ci ies o in eg a ed go e nmen se ices.
(Su ey Repo on E-Go e nmen De elopmen in China). E-Go e nmen Resea ch Cen e in Chinese Academy o Go e nance.
Win on, B. G., & Sabol, M. A. (2022). A mul i-g oup analysis o con enience samples: F ee, cheap, iendly, and ancy sou ces.
In e na ional Jou nal o Social Resea ch Me hodology,25(6), 861–876. [C ossRe ]
Wi z, B. W., Daise , P., & Binkowska, B. (2018). E-pa icipa ion: A s a egic amewo k. In e na ional Jou nal o Public Adminis a ion,
41(1), 1–12. [C ossRe ]
Wolak, J. (2018). Feelings o poli ical e icacy in he i y s a es. Poli ical Beha io ,40(3), 763–784. [C ossRe ]
Wong, K. K.-K. (2013). Pa ial leas squa es s uc u al equa ion modeling (PLS-SEM) echniques using Sma PLS. Ma ke ing Bulle in,
24(1), 1–32.
Wu, C. L. (2003). Psycho-poli ical co ela es o poli ical e icacy. Jou nal o Black S udies,33(6), 729–760. [C ossRe ]
Wu, Y., Su, I. Y., & Hu, R. (2022). Chinese eluc ance o epo c ime: Poli ical e icacy, g oup ca e and hukou. C iminology & C iminal
Jus ice,22(5), 733–754. [C ossRe ]
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 17 23 o 23
Xu, P., Johnson, K., & Rundle , A. (2022). E-pa icipa ion in con empo a y China: A compa ison wi h con en ional o line pa icipa ion.
Chinese Public Adminis a ion Re iew,13(3), 150–161. [C ossRe ]
Yao, Y., Xu, P., & Uni e si y o Massachuse s. (2022). The powe o elec onic channels and elec onic poli ical e icacy: Elec onic
pa icipa ion discou se. Communica ions o he Associa ion o In o ma ion Sys ems,50(1), 25–51. [C ossRe ]
Zai e , R., Sabbagh, N., & Koabaz, M. (2023). The impac o social media on poli ical e icacy and eal-li e ne izens poli ical pa icipa ion
(Lebanon-case s udy). In e na ional Jou nal o P o essional Business Re iew,8(5), e02153. [C ossRe ]
Zheng, Y. (2017). Explaining ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion usage: Func ionali y o e-pa icipa ion applica ions. Adminis a ion & Socie y,
49(3), 423–442. [C ossRe ]
Zheng, Y., Kong, C., Deng, Y., Li, C., Liao, C., & Yang, X. (2022). A demand-d i en pic u e o digi al go e nmen : Pe cep ion, use and
e alua ion. E-Go e nmen ,6, 2–21. [C ossRe ]
Zheng, Y., & Schach e , H. L. (2017). Explaining ci izens’ e-pa icipa ion use: The ole o pe cei ed ad an ages. Public O ganiza ion
Re iew,17(3), 409–428. [C ossRe ]
Zolo o , M. N., Oli ei a, T., & Cas eleyn, S. (2018). E-pa icipa ion adop ion models esea ch in he las 17 yea s: A weigh and
me a-analy ical e iew. Compu e s in Human Beha io ,81, 350–365. [C ossRe ]
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
