Poe z, Lenna ; Volme , Judi h
A icle — Published Ve sion
Wha Does Leade ship Do o he Leade ? Using a Pa e n-O ien ed
App oach o In es iga e he Associa ion be ween Daily Leade ship
P o iles and Daily Leade Well-Being
Jou nal o Business and Psychology
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Poe z, Lenna ; Volme , Judi h (2024) : Wha Does Leade ship Do o he Leade ?
Using a Pa e n-O ien ed App oach o In es iga e he Associa ion be ween Daily Leade ship P o iles
and Daily Leade Well-Being, Jou nal o Business and Psychology, ISSN 1573-353X, Sp inge US,
New Yo k, NY, Vol. 39, Iss. 6, pp. 1259-1281,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10869-024-09939-6
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/315316
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ORIGINAL PAPER
Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1259–1281
h ps://doi.o g/10.1007/s10869-024-09939-6
and hei associa ion wi h leade well-being emains unclea .
This gap o e looks he complexi y o his ela ionship om
bo h a heo e ical and a p ac ical pe spec i e.
Theo e ically, i is no aken in o accoun ha bo h leade -
ship (Kelemen e al., 2020) and well-being (Podsako e al.,
2019; Sonnen ag, 2015) a y subs an ially wi hin pe sons
(e.g., om day o day). This lack o wi hin-pe son esea ch
is conce ning because be ween- and wi hin-pe son e ec s
ap in o di e en esea ch ques ions and do no always yield
he same indings (McCo mick e al., 2020). The e o e, a
wi hin-pe son app oach conside ing sho - e m p ocesses o
leade ship and well-being can help expand ou unde s and-
ing o how leade s beha e a wo k on a daily basis and how
his a ec s he leade s hemsel es. P ac ically, ou s udy
p o ides implica ions o he design o leade ship in e en-
ions o add ess leade s’ e e yday leade ship ou ines.
Wi h ou day-le el and pa e n-o ien ed app oach, we
o e a new pe spec i e on leade ship based on ecen
Leade ship beha io can a y om day o day (Kelemen
e al., 2020), as leade s comple e di e en asks e e y day
and ollowe s ask o a ying daily equi emen s. Resea ch
has shown ha leade ship p o iles (i.e., he combina ion o
di e en leade ship beha io s wi hin one leade ) exis and
di e be ween pe sons (e.g., A nold e al., 2017; Douce e
al., 2015). Addi ionally, hese leade ship p o iles a e di e -
en ially ela ed o leade s’ well-being (A nold e al., 2017).
Howe e , he na u e o wi hin-pe son leade ship p o iles
Addi ional supplemen a y ma e ials may be ound he e by sea ching
on a icle i le h ps://os .io/collec ions/jbp/disco e .
Lenna Poe z
lenna .poe z@uni-bambe g.de
1 Wo k and O ganiza ional Psychology G oup, Depa men o
Psychology, Uni e si y o Bambe g, Ma kuspla z 3,
96047 Bambe g, Ge many
Abs ac
Leade beha io can a y daily, and leade s ace mul iple demands and p oblems in one day. The e o e, s udying how
leade beha io s in e play on he day-le el (i.e., daily leade ship p o iles) is essen ial. Building on conse a ion o
esou ces heo y as a me a- heo y, we in es iga ed which daily leade ship p o iles exis and whe he p o ile membe ship
changes ac oss one week. Addi ionally, we examined whe he he leade ship p o iles a e di e en ially ela ed o leade s’
daily well-being (i.e., emo ional exhaus ion, posi i e and nega i e a ec ), media ed by hei daily expe ienced h i ing
and ime p essu e. In a dia y s udy o e i e wo kdays (N = 289 leade s), we ound h ee quali a i ely di e en daily
leade ship p o iles: one domina ed by passi e beha io s (passi e), one domina ed by ans o ma ional and con ingen
ewa d beha io s ( ans o ma ional- ewa ding), and one wi h ele a ed ans o ma ional and all ansac ional beha io s
(comp ehensi e). The ans o ma ional- ewa ding and he comp ehensi e p o ile showed g ea e s abili y ac oss he week
han he passi e p o ile. Days in he ans o ma ional- ewa ding p o ile we e mos bene icial o leade s’ well-being. In
con as , days in he comp ehensi e p o ile seemed o be a double-edged swo d o leade s, as indica ed by highe expe-
ienced h i ing and posi i e a ec and simul aneously enhanced expe ienced ime p essu e, emo ional exhaus ion, and
nega i e a ec . Taken oge he , we illumina e he in e play o leade ship beha io s on he day-le el and he di e en ial
associa ions wi h leade s’ well-being.
Keywo ds Leade ship · Well-being · Time p essu e · Th i ing · La en p o ile analysis · Daily dia y s udy
Accep ed: 3 Feb ua y 2024 / Published online: 17 Feb ua y 2024
© The Au ho (s) 2024
Wha Does Leade ship Do o he Leade ? Using a Pa e n-O ien ed
App oach o In es iga e he Associa ion be ween Daily Leade ship
P o iles and Daily Leade Well-Being
Lenna Poe z1· Judi hVolme 1
1 3
Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1259–1281
esea ch on he daily a iabili y o leade ship (Kelemen e
al., 2020). We assume ha leade s will likely exhibi di -
e en leade ship p o iles on di e en days. By leade ship
p o iles, we mean a combina ion and in e play o di e en
leade ship beha io s p esen wi hin one leade . Ou day-
le el app oach complemen s a s able be ween-pe son pe -
spec i e ha ocuses on he pa icula clus e o beha io s
leade s show mos o he ime (i.e., mo e gene al and pe sis-
en leade ship p o iles). In con as o he be ween-pe son
app oach, we a e in e es ed in he wi hin-pe son pe spec-
i e, compa ing a leade ’s beha io on one day wi h he
same leade ’s beha io on ano he day.
Fo example, he e migh be a day when a leade p ima -
ily demons a es ans o ma ional and con ingen ewa d
beha io s. On his day, he leade would belong o P o-
ile A (e.g., a p o ile called ans o ma ional- ewa ding).
On ano he day, he same leade migh show only low o
medium le els o ans o ma ional and ansac ional beha -
io s bu also medium le els o laissez ai e beha io s. On
his day, he leade would belong o P o ile B (e.g., a p o ile
called passi e). The e o e, we do no aim o d aw conclu-
sions on, o example, ans o ma ional- ewa ding e sus
passi e leade s pe se (as his would imply a s able pe -
spec i e on leade ship). Ins ead, we compa e days a leade
belongs o one p o ile wi h days he same leade belongs o
ano he p o ile.
We con ibu e o exis ing esea ch by combining h ee
ecen s eams in he ield o leade ship: a pa e n-o ien ed
app oach, a day-le el app oach, and one ocusing on leade -
cen e ed ou comes. Fi s , we mo e beyond exis ing leade -
ship esea ch by ocusing on mul iple leade ship beha io s
in conjunc ion wi hin one pe son and one day. In his way,
we can compa e be ween-pe son p o iles ound p e iously
(e.g., A nold e al., 2017) o he wi hin-pe son p o iles o
ou s udy. This compa ison helps o ex end ou knowledge
o leade ship as we can show ei he ha he be ween-pe son
p o iles a e compa able o he wi hin-pe son p o iles (i.e.,
homology ac oss le els) o ha he wi hin- and be ween-
pe son le el p o iles di e om each o he – bo h o which
would be cen al new insigh s. Addi ionally, by in es iga ing
whe he p o ile membe ship is dynamic (i.e., shows day- o-
day a ia ion) o ela i ely s able ac oss he week, we gain
deepe insigh in o he numbe and a iabili y o p o iles
o leade s ac oss he week. Such a esea ch ques ion gi es
u he insigh in o leade s’ daily leade ship beha io s and
canno be answe ed wi h be ween-pe son designs (A nold
e al., 2017).
Second, we in es iga e whe he he daily leade ship p o-
iles a e di e en ially associa ed wi h wo k- ela ed leade
ou comes. P e ious day-le el leade -cen e ed esea ch has
shown ha leade ship is ela ed o leade well-being (Lanaj
e al., 2016; Liao e al., 2020). Howe e , hese s udies
ocused only on single leade ship beha io s in isola ion and
hus did no conside ha leade s may use se e al leade ship
beha io s wi hin one day. In ou s udy, we add an impo an
aspec o he s udies men ioned abo e: we acknowledge ha
he associa ions o ce ain leade ship beha io s wi h leade s’
well-being can di e depending on he co-occu ence wi h
o he leade ship beha io s on he same day. This app oach
allows us o add ess he ques ion o whe he a leade epo s
g ea e well-being on a day hey belong o P o ile A com-
pa ed o a day hey belong o P o ile B. Answe ing his
ques ion is also c ucial as i can help cla i y on he day-le el
how he leade ship pa e n ha was a gued o be mos bene-
icial o ollowe s (i.e., he combina ion o ans o ma ional
and ansac ional elemen s; A olio, 2011) is ela ed o daily
leade well-being.
The associa ions be ween leade ship p o iles and well-
being a e no necessa ily he same on he be ween-pe son
and wi hin-pe son le el (McCo mick e al., 2020). Fo
example, he sho - e m p ocesses migh look di e en
han he long- e m p ocesses. Based on conse a ion o
esou ces heo y (COR heo y, Hob oll, 1989), indi iduals
need o in es esou ces o keep exis ing o gain addi ional
esou ces. Speci ically, leade s who gene ally belong o a
p o ile domina ed by ans o ma ional beha io s a e likely
o p o i om hese leade ship beha io s in he long un,
as ans o ma ional leade ship is associa ed wi h mul iple
bene icial ou comes (Wang e al., 2011). A he same ime,
ans o ma ional beha io s a e esou ce-in ensi e (Lin e
al., 2019). The e o e, leade s need o in es esou ces in
hei beha io i s , which makes a sho - e m esou ce loss
likely. This example shows ha e en hough he ela ionship
wi h leade well-being migh be posi i e on he be ween-
pe son le el, i s ill can be nega i e on he wi hin-pe son
le el. The e o e, ou ocus on he wi hin-pe son associa ion
o daily leade ship p o iles and daily leade well-being is a
c ucial ex ension o exis ing be ween-pe son esea ch.
Thi d, we examine a ec and emo ional exhaus ion as
indica o s o leade well-being. These indica o s o well-
being a e impo an o s udy as bo h a ec i i y (e.g., Joseph
e al., 2015) and he deple ion o ene gy esou ces (i.e.,
emo ional exhaus ion; A nold e al., 2015, 2017; By ne e
al., 2014) ha e been a gued o be ele an in he con ex
o leade ship and leade s’ well-being. In es iga ing a ec-
i e (i.e., posi i e and nega i e a ec ) and s ain-based (i.e.,
emo ional exhaus ion) well-being allows us o be e unde -
s and he ine-g ained associa ions o leade ship and leade
well-being. Speci ically, i helps o accoun o he po en ial
double-edged na u e o he same leade ship beha io s o
leade s’ well-being, depending on he well-being indica o .
In line wi h COR heo y and p e ious s udies (A nold e
al., 2017; Kaluza e al., 2020; Lin e al., 2019; Zwingmann e
al., 2016), we a gue ha ce ain daily leade ship p o iles a e
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Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1259–1281
associa ed wi h mo e o ewe esou ces o leade s. In con-
as o p e ious s udies (e.g., Kaluza e al., 2020; Lanaj e
al., 2016; Zwingmann e al., 2016), we challenge he unde -
s anding o ce ain leade ship beha io s o be exclusi ely
posi i e o nega i e o leade s. Ins ead, we assume leade -
ship can be a double-edged swo d o leade s depending on
he well-being indica o unde in es iga ion. Fo example,
p e ious s udies ound posi i e wi hin-pe son associa ions
o ans o ma ional leade ship wi h posi i e a ec (Lanaj e
al., 2016) bu also wi h emo ional exhaus ion (Lin e al.,
2019). Thus, ce ain esou ce-in ensi e leade ship p o-
iles may d ain leade s’ ene gy esou ces (as indica ed by
highe emo ional exhaus ion) due o he in es men o ime,
ene gy, o e o . A he same ime, hey could also bene i
leade s’ a ec i e esou ces (as indica ed by highe posi i e
and lowe nega i e a ec ) due o he esou ce-enhancing
elemen s o hese leade ship beha io s (such as s eng h use
o posi i e ollowe eedback).
Las , we con ibu e o he “black-box” discussion, ha
is, why leade ship beha io is ela ed o leade s’ well-being.
We examine h i ing (i.e., a psychological s a e ep esen ed
by i ali y and lea ning a wo k; Sp ei ze e al., 2005) and
ime p essu e (i.e., a s a e wi h oo much o do in oo li le
ime; Fay & Sonnen ag, 2002) as po en ial media ing mech-
anisms be ween daily leade ship p o iles and daily leade
well-being. Building on cu en esea ch (Kleine e al.,
2019) ha concep ualizes h i ing as a media o be ween
ela ional esou ces and well-being, we p opose ha leade -
ship can also be a ela ional esou ce o leade s and, hence,
associa ed wi h mo e h i ing. Time p essu e, in u n, is a
c ucial a iable when s udying leade ship and well-being as
leade s a e con on ed wi h mul iple asks and challenges
ha can be associa ed wi h inc eased ime p essu e (Dóci
e al., 2020; Ha ms e al., 2017), and ime p essu e can be
ela ed o se e al nega i e ou comes (e.g., Debus e al.,
2019; Hoppe e al., 2023; Muehlenmeie e al., 2022). We
assume hese wo media o s can also help explain he p o-
posed wo-sided na u e o ce ain leade ship p o iles. Fo
example, esou ce-in ensi e ollowe -o ien ed leade ship
p o iles can be ela ed o inc eased a ec i e well-being,
gi en an associa ion wi h highe h i ing. A he same ime,
hey can be associa ed wi h dec eased ene ge ic well-being
due o highe ime p essu e on ha day. Ou esea ch model
is depic ed in Fig. 1.
Theo e ical Backg ound and Hypo heses
A Conse a ion o Resou ces Pe spec i e on
Leade ship and Leade Well-Being
We d aw on COR heo y (Hob oll, 1989), which s a es ha
indi iduals aim o keep, p o ec , and os e hei esou ces.
Resou ces can be unde s ood “as hose objec s, pe sonal
cha ac e is ics, condi ions, o ene gies ha a e alued by
he indi idual o ha se e as a means o a ainmen o
hese objec s, pe sonal cha ac e is ics, condi ions, o ene -
gies” (Hob oll, 1989, p. 516). Resou ces a e hus impo an
and aluable o indi iduals, no only in hei own igh bu
also because hey allow indi iduals o in es esou ces o
p o ec agains esou ce loss o gain new esou ces (Hob oll
e al., 2018). Those indi iduals who possess esou ces and
can in es hem o gain new esou ces a e mo e likely o
en e a gain cycle. In con as , esou ce loss cycles a e mo e
likely o indi iduals wi h ewe esou ces: As hey can less
p o ec agains esou ce loss o gain new esou ces, u he
esou ce loss is mo e likely (Hob oll e al., 2018).
We build upon he COR p inciples as he leade ship
beha io s unde in es iga ion di e (a) in he ex en o
which esou ce in es men is necessa y and (b) in hei
po en ial o ini ia e esou ce gains. Fo example, as ou -
lined in mo e de ail below, ans o ma ional leade beha -
io s a e esou ce-in ensi e (e.g., equi ing ime, ene gy,
o e o ; Lin e al., 2019), so leade s need o in es mo e
esou ces when ac ing in a ans o ma ional manne com-
pa ed o when hey wi hd aw om hei leade ship espon-
sibili ies and ac passi ely. This esou ce in es men can
be associa ed wi h esou ce losses (e.g., highe emo ional
exhaus ion). A he same ime, ans o ma ional leade ship
inco po a es many elemen s ha bene i leade s (e.g., goal
p og ess, meaning ul ollowe in e ac ions, s eng h use;
Lanaj e al., 2016) and ha e a g ea e po en ial o ini ia e
Fig. 1 Model o s udy a iables and hypo hesized
e ec s. No e TFL = T ans o ma ional leade ship,
CR = Con ingen ewa d, MBE-A = Managemen -by-
excep ion ac i e, MBE-P = Managemen -by-excep ion
passi e, LF = Laissez- ai e
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Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1259–1281
as leade ship luc ua es daily (Kelemen e al., 2020) and
he in e play be ween mul iple leade ship beha io s can be
di e en on a wi hin-pe son compa ed o a be ween-pe son
le el (McCo mick e al., 2020), ou day-le el and wi hin-
pe son pe spec i e is an impo an ex ension o p e ious
esea ch.
Based on p e ious be ween-pe son indings (A nold e
al., 2017; Douce e al., 2015) and heo ies abou op imal
pa e ns o leade ship (A olio, 2011), we can heo ize abou
plausible wi hin-pe son p o iles o daily leade ship. On he
one hand, in line wi h p e ious be ween-pe son pa e ns
ound (A nold e al., 2017; Douce e al., 2015), he e migh
be days on which leade s demons a e high le els o TFL
and CR beha io s and low le els o MBE and LF beha io s
(e.g., when a leade communica es a ision o a signi ican
change and he goals and ewa ds associa ed wi h i ). On he
o he hand, he e migh be days on which leade s p ima ily
cla i y goals, expec a ions, and ewa ds (i.e., high le els o
CR beha io s; Douce e al., 2015).
Fu he mo e, o he days migh be cha ac e ized by mul-
iple di e en asks ha make i impo an o leade s o
show high le els o TFL, CR, and MBE beha io s al o-
ge he , such as in A nold e al.’s (2017) comp ehensi e p o-
ile. Again, on o he days, leade s migh p ima ily deal wi h
hei own asks ha p e en hem om ac i e in e ac ions
wi h hei ollowe s, he e o e implying a highly passi e
p o ile (i.e., low le els o TFL, CR, MBE-A, and MBE-P
beha io s, high le els o LF beha io s; A nold e al., 2017).
Due o ou day-le el app oach, we migh also ind di e en
p o iles han hose om p e ious be ween-pe son s udies
because leade s only epo on hei beha io on he espec-
i e day and no on hei leade ship in gene al in a summa-
i e judgmen (Gab iel e al., 2019). Some days migh be
cha ac e ized by he same demands o asks h oughou he
day. The e o e, we a e mo e likely o de ec p o iles wi h
ele a ed le els o only one leade ship beha io (i.e., ei he
TFL, CR, MBE-A, MBE-P, o LF).
Wi hin-pe son o daily associa ions can look di e en
han be ween-pe son associa ions (McCo mick e al., 2020),
and daily s udies can challenge how we iew leade ship by
p oducing esul s ha would no align wi h heo y on he
be ween-pe son le el (Kelemen e al., 2020). As speci ic
hypo heses would no only include he numbe bu also he
shape o p o iles, he e a e many possible combina ions.
Fu he mo e, induc i e and explo a o y app oaches a e
adequa e when he e is only sca ce heo e ical o empi i-
cal guidance, which is o en he case wi h pe son-cen e ed
s udies due o a di e en ocus han a iable-cen e ed s ud-
ies (Chawla e al., 2020; Gab iel e al., 2018; Mo in e al.,
2011; Wang & Hanges, 2011). The e o e, e en hough
exis ing be ween-pe son s udies help us heo ize abou pos-
sible daily leade ship p o iles, no esea ch p o ides clea
esou ce gain p ocesses (e.g., highe posi i e a ec ) han
passi e beha io s. The e o e, he associa ion be ween lead-
e ship and well-being e lec s he cen al COR p inciples o
esou ce in es men and gain.
Fu he mo e, COR heo y is pa icula ly ele an o
s udying he in e play o di e en leade ship beha io s and
hei link wi h leade s’ well-being. Resou ces in e ac and
o en appea oge he , e lec ed in esou ce ca a ans (Hob-
oll e al., 2018), and esou ces in combina ion can be ela ed
o psychological ou comes di e en ly han single esou ces
(A nold e al., 2017; Hob oll e al., 2018). Thus, we p o-
pose ha speci ic combina ions o leade ship beha io s (i.e.,
leade ship p o iles) migh be di e en ially ela ed o leade
well-being compa ed o single leade ship beha io s.
Full-Range Leade ship Beha io s
We d aw on he ull- ange leade ship heo y (A olio, 2011),
one o he mos equen ly in es iga ed leade ship heo ies
(Dinh e al., 2014), o in es iga e daily leade ship p o iles.
In ou s udy, leade ship p o iles indica e a combina ion and
in e play o ans o ma ional, ansac ional, and laissez- ai e
beha io s ha can coexis wi hin one leade . T ans o ma-
ional leade beha io s (TFL) inco po a e s imula ing and
inspi ing ollowe s, communica ing a mo i a ing ision o
he eam and he o ganiza ion, challenging he s a us quo,
ac ing cha isma ically, being a ole model o ollowe s, o
dealing wi h each ollowe ’s needs. T ansac ional leade -
ship, in u n, inco po a es cla i ying oles, asks, objec i es,
and ewa ds (con ingen ewa d, CR), ac i ely sea ching o
ollowe s’ mis akes and de iances om ules and s anda ds
(managemen -by-excep ion ac i e, MBE-A), and deal-
ing wi h ollowe s’ e o s and de iances wi hou ac i ely
sea ching o hose (managemen -by-excep ion passi e,
MBE-P). Las , laissez- ai e (LF) beha io s a e e lec ed
by “non-leade ship,” which means a oidance o decision-
making and wi hd awal o leade ship esponsibili ies (Bass
& Riggio, 2006).
La en P o iles o Daily Leade ship Beha io s
A pa e n-o ien ed app oach (i.e., la en p o ile app oach;
LPA) ies o iden i y unobse ed (i.e., la en ) subg oups in
a popula ion whose membe s sha e speci ic pe sonal a i-
bu es (Spu k e al., 2020). Applied o leade ship esea ch, he
aim is o iden i y subg oups o leade s who sha e a simila
combina ion o di e en leade ship beha io s (A nold e al.,
2017). P e ious esea ch len suppo o Bass’ (1985) heo-
izing by demons a ing ha di e en leade ship beha io s
coexis o a a ying deg ee wi hin one indi idual and ha
hese pa e ns di e be ween pe sons (A nold e al., 2017;
Douce e al., 2015; Ga an O’Shea e al., 2009). Howe e ,
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Ou comes o P o iles o Daily Leade ship Beha io s
Leade ship beha io is ela ed o leade well-being (Kaluza
e al., 2020) and is associa ed wi h cos s and bene i s o
leade s (Lanaj e al., 2016; Lin e al., 2019). Howe e , i is
less clea how daily leade ship p o iles a e ela ed o daily
leade well-being. We sugges ha some leade ship p o iles
a e simul aneously associa ed wi h mo e o less esou ce
acquisi ion (e.g., posi i e a ec ) and esou ce deple ion
(e.g., emo ional exhaus ion). Based on COR heo y (Hob-
oll, 1989), we assume ha a dual-pa hway model can bes
explain he link be ween leade ship beha io s and leade
well-being. This assump ion aligns wi h ecen esea ch on
leade ship as a double-edged swo d o leade s by show-
ing simul aneous posi i e associa ions be ween leade ship
esou ces (e.g., ole occupancy and job con ol) and job
demands (e.g., ime p essu e; Li e al., 2018). Wi h he p es-
en s udy, we can b eak down his mac o-le el pe spec i e
o a a he mic o-le el pe spec i e by in es iga ing whe he
speci ic daily leade ship beha io s a e ela ed o enhanced
o educed leade s’ ime p essu e and h i ing, and, in u n,
hei well-being.
Fo example, ake a day on which leade s demons a e
p ima ily TFL and CR beha io s bu low le els o MBE
and LF. On such a day, leade s use mo e ime han on o he
days o communica e isions and ideals o ollowe s and
con empla e ways o pe suade hem e ec i ely. Addi ion-
ally, leade s challenge exis ing assump ions and encou age
hemsel es and hei ollowe s o b eak old ou ines and ind
new solu ions o exis ing p oblems. Thinking abou pos-
sible new ou ines and ac ing acco dingly akes mo e ime
han pe sis ing in he old ones, o example, because he new
app oaches a e no ye au oma ed. Fu he mo e, leade s deal
wi h each ollowe ’s needs and conce ns on such a day. This
beha io u he axes leade s’ ime esou ces, o example,
because hey canno e e o one-size- i s-all app oaches bu
mus deal wi h each ollowe indi idually. Mo eo e , lead-
e s spend ime in in ensi e con ac wi h hei ollowe s o
cla i y goals and expec a ions, dis ibu e asks, o ewa d
hem o success ul ask comple ion (A olio, 2011).
All hese beha io s a e ime-in ensi e and d ain leade s’
esou ces (Lin e al., 2019). Gi en ha ime p essu e indi-
ca es a si ua ion wi h much o do in oo li le ime (Fay &
Sonnen ag, 2002), he desc ibed beha io s a e likely o be
associa ed wi h inc eased ime p essu e. Highe ime p es-
su e and he lowe esou ce pool associa ed wi h i , in u n,
is expec ed o be ela ed o lowe well-being a he end o
he wo king day (e.g., g ea e emo ional exhaus ion – a s a e
indica i e o deple ed esou ces; A nold e al., 2017).
A he same ime, he desc ibed combina ion o high TFL
and CR and low MBE and LF can also be associa ed wi h a
highe amoun o esou ces. The beha io s ou lined abo e
guidance on he numbe and shape o daily leade ship
beha io s assessed a he wi hin-pe son le el. Thus, we s a e
he ollowing esea ch ques ion:
Resea ch Ques ion 1 Which daily leade ship p o iles exis
o leade s?
S abili y o Membe ship in Daily Leade ship P o iles
We also examine whe he leade ship p o ile membe ship is
dynamic h oughou he week, luc ua ing om day o day.
We can assess his s abili y by de e mining whe he lead-
e s belong o he same o di e en p o iles om one day
o he nex (i.e., is a leade who is a membe o P o ile A
on one day also a membe o P o ile A on he nex day).
F om a heo e ical pe spec i e, Bass (1999) sugges ed ha
“e e y leade displays a equency o bo h he ansac ional
and ans o ma ional beha io s as pa o hei unique s yle,
bu each leade ’s p o ile in ol es mo e o one and less o
he o he ” (p.11). The heo y suppo s he assump ion ha
e e y leade inco po a es ansac ional and ans o ma ional
elemen s in hei daily leade ship ou ine.
Howe e , we p opose ha he deg ee and equency o
which ce ain beha io s a e demons a ed can a y no only
be ween bu also wi hin leade s (Kelemen e al., 2020). As
leade s a e con on ed wi h di e en asks, p oblems, and
ollowe issues daily, hey also need o al e hei beha -
io o deal e ec i ely wi h hei challenges. Fo example,
a leade who gene ally ac s e y ans o ma ional and clea
abou expec a ions and ewa ds (i.e., high on TFL and CR
beha io s) migh s ill ac passi ely on a day when hey p i-
ma ily need o deal wi h hei own asks. Simila ly, also
leade s who mos ly wi hd aw hemsel es om hei leade -
ship esponsibili ies (i.e., leade s high on passi e beha io s)
migh see he necessi y o demons a e ac i e beha io s
(e.g., communica ing a ision, mo i a ing hei employ-
ees, o cla i ying expec a ions and ewa ds) on o he days
because hei eam is con on ed wi h a new challenge o
a signi ican change. These examples unde sco e ha a
change in p o ile membe ship om day o day is likely, and
hey a e in line wi h esea ch on he luc ua ing na u e o
daily leade ship beha io (B ee aa e al., 2014), inding
subs an ial wi hin-pe son a iance o ull- ange leade ship
beha io s. In sum, we aim o answe he ollowing open
esea ch ques ion:
Resea ch Ques ion 2 Is membe ship in daily leade ship
p o iles s able ac oss one week?
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employees wi h leade ship esponsibili ies h ough a well-
es ablished, la ge online panel p o ide (Bilendi/ espondi).
The pa icipan s ecei ed i e panel c edi s o e e y minu e,
which equals €0.05. In he p esen s udy, he o al du a ion
o bo h daily su eys was en minu es, co esponding o
€0.50 (€0.25 pe su ey). An addi ional incen i e o €1.50
was paid ou o pa icipan s who ook pa in ull o a
leas h ee days. Pa icipan s needed o wo k du ing egula
wo king hou s (i.e., be ween 7 am and 6 pm). We ollowed
s anda d esea ch p ac ice in daily dia y s udies (Chawla e
al., 2020; Rosen e al., 2016) and included pa icipan s who
p o ided alid esponses a bo h measu emen poin s on a
leas h ee days.
Pa icipan s we e su eyed wice a day (i.e., in he a e -
noon a he end o he wo kday, o be illed ou be ween
3 pm and 7 pm, and in he e ening be o e bed ime, o be
illed ou be ween 8 pm and 12 am). The a e noon su ey
assessed leade s’ a ings o hei leade ship beha io on he
espec i e day, cha ac e is ics o hei wo king day (i.e.,
wo king hou s, h i ing, ime p essu e, and job con ol, as
well as equency and du a ion o in e ac ion wi h ollow-
e s), and he p e ious nigh ’s sleep quali y. The e ening
su ey assessed leade s’ a ings o hei daily le el o emo-
ional exhaus ion and posi i e and nega i e a ec i i y, as
well as pleasu able e ening expe iences and wo k- amily
con lic as con ol a iables. Be o e he daily su eys, pa -
icipan s comple ed a baseline su ey including sc een-ou
c i e ia (i.e., employmen , leade ship esponsibili y, no shi
wo k, no i egula wo k hou s) and demog aphic a iables.
In o al, 678 pa icipan s egis e ed o he s udy and
answe ed he baseline su ey. O hese, 289 pa icipan s
comple ed bo h he a e noon and he e ening su ey o a
leas h ee days, cons i u ing ou inal sample. Pa icipan s
gene a ed 1279 esponses in he a e noon (4.43 su eys pe
pe son) and 1170 esponses in he e ening (4.05 su eys pe
pe son) o a possible numbe o 1445 esponses ( esponse
a e o 89% and 81%, espec i ely). Ou sample size aligns
wi h cu en ecommenda ions o expe ience sampling
s udies o ensu e su icien powe (Gab iel e al., 2019). On
a e age, he pa icipan s o ou sample (30.4% emale) we e
45.56 yea s old (SD = 11.09), wo ked in hei cu en job
o 15.66 (SD = 10.22) yea s, and in hei cu en o ganiza-
ion o 12.88 (SD = 10.24) yea s. Pa icipan s came om a
wide ange o indus ies (e.g., inance, educa ion and heal h,
IT, o public adminis a ion) and we e in a low (31.1%),
medium (54.3%), o high leade ship posi ion (14.5%). On
a e age, leade s held a leade ship posi ion o 9.73 yea s
(SD = 8.26) and wo ked 42.25 (SD = 7.64) hou s pe week.
include, o example, helping ollowe s wi h pe sonal p ob-
lems, ini ia ing new solu ions o exis ing p oblems, and
making use o hei own s eng hs, which was ound o be
e y e ec i e in e ms o ollowe ou comes on a be ween-
pe son le el (Douce e al., 2015). Thus, he combina ion
o hese beha io s is likely associa ed wi h pe cep ions o
h i ing a wo k on ha day (Kleine e al., 2019; Niessen e
al., 2012), o ins ance, because i gi es leade s he chance
o acqui e o apply knowledge and skills a wo k (Po a h
e al., 2012). Th i ing is an essen ial esou ce o indi idu-
als and can be ela ed o a g ea e esou ce pool. I can be
associa ed wi h g ea e well-being, such as inc eased posi-
i e a ec , dec eased nega i e a ec , and lowe emo ional
exhaus ion (Kleine e al., 2019).
In con as , bo h bene icial and de imen al associa ions
could be a enua ed when assuming a di e en p o ile low
on TFL, CR, MBE-A, MBE-P, and high on LF. On days
leade s show mo e passi e leade ship beha io s, hey do
no in es ha many esou ces (e.g., ime o e o ) in o
ollowe -di ec ed beha io . Fo example, leade s migh
wi hd aw om in e ac ions wi h hei ollowe s, no make
decisions, o no deal wi h u gen p oblems o conce ns.
This (lack o ) beha io can be associa ed wi h educed ime
p essu e, hus helping o p ese e he leade s’ esou ces
(Dawson e al., 2016) and, he e o e, linked o educed neg-
a i e a ec o emo ional exhaus ion (C aw o d e al., 2010).
A he same ime, on days leade s belong o such a p o ile,
hey migh also expe ience less h i ing because such days
migh be e lec ed by ewe oppo uni ies o lea ning and
s eng h use. The e o e, membe ship in he passi e p o ile
migh be associa ed wi h less posi i e a ec . Conside ing
hese exempla y p o iles, we s a e he ollowing ques ions:
Resea ch Ques ion 3 A e daily leade ship p o iles di e en-
ially ela ed o daily h i ing, ime p essu e, and leade e e-
ning well-being (i.e., emo ional exhaus ion, posi i e a ec ,
and nega i e a ec )?
Resea ch Ques ion 4 Is he associa ion be ween daily lead-
e ship p o iles and daily leade e ening well-being medi-
a ed by daily h i ing and ime p essu e?
Me hod
P ocedu e and Pa icipan s
The p esen s udy ecei ed e hical app o al om he e hi-
cal commi ee o ou ins i u ion. We conduc ed a daily dia y
s udy o e i e consecu i e wo kdays wi h wo daily mea-
su emen poin s. To his end, we ec ui ed Ge man wo king
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Posi i e and Nega i e A ec
Following Sonnen ag e al. (2008), daily posi i e and nega-
i e a ec was a ed using he Posi i e and Nega i e A ec
Schedule (PANAS; Wa son e al., 1988) wi h six i ems o
posi i e a ec and nega i e a ec , espec i ely. A sample
i em o posi i e a ec was “ac i e,” and o nega i e a ec ,
“anxious.” The i ems we e a ed on a 5-poin scale (1 = no
a all, 5 = e y much). C onbach’s alpha a e aged ac oss he
week was 0.86 ( ange: 0.84–0.88) and 0.90 ( ange: 0.88–
0.92) o posi i e and nega i e a ec , espec i ely.
Th i ing
We assessed daily h i ing a wo k wi h he 10-i em measu e
de eloped by Po a h e al. (2012), which cap u es lea ning
and i ali y wi h i e i ems each. We adap ed he wo ding o
i ou daily assessmen . Sample i ems we e “Today a wo k,
I ha e de eloped a lo as a pe son” (lea ning) and “Today
a wo k, I el ale and awake” ( i ali y). The i ems we e
a ed on a 5-poin scale (1 = s ongly disag ee, 5 = s ongly
ag ee). C onbach’s alpha a e aged ac oss he week was
0.82 ( ange: 0.81–0.83).
Time P essu e
Time p essu e was assessed using he co esponding 5-i em
subscale o he Ins umen o S ess-Rela ed Job Analysis
(ISTA; Semme e al., 1999), adap ed o day-le el in es i-
ga ion (Ohly & F i z, 2010). A sample i em was “Today, I
was unde ime p essu e.” Ra ings we e made on a 5-poin
scale (1 = o ally disag ee, 5 = o ally ag ee). C onbach’s
alpha a e aged ac oss he week was 0.92 ( ange: 0.90–0.94).
Con ol Va iables
We included se e al con ol a iables in ou analyses as
s udies showed s ong associa ions o hese a iables wi h
well-being. Speci ically, we con olled o job con ol as a
cen al job- ela ed p edic o o well-being (e.g., C aw o d e
al., 2010), p e ious nigh ’s sleep quali y as a physiological
a iable wi h s ong associa ions wi h exhaus ion and a ec
(e.g., Li wille e al., 2017), and o pleasu able e ening
ac i i ies (e.g., S eed e al., 2021) and wo k- amily con-
lic (e.g., F ench & Allen, 2020) as wo ac o s ha can be
associa ed wi h e ening well-being. Job con ol was mea-
su ed using he co esponding 5-i em subscale o he ISTA
(Semme e al., 1999), adap ed o day-le el in es iga ion
(Ohly & F i z, 2010). Leade s‘ sleep quali y was assessed
using he ollowing i em o he Pi sbu gh Sleep Quali y
Index (PSQI; Buysse e al., 1989): “How would you e alu-
a e you sleep quali y las nigh ?”. We measu ed pleasu able
Measu es
All i ems we e adminis e ed in Ge man. I Ge man i ems
o he ins umen s we e una ailable (i.e., o h i ing and
wo k- amily con lic ), we used he ansla ion and back-
ansla ion me hod o ansla e he i ems (B islin, 1970).
Leade ship Beha io s
T ans o ma ional leade ship was assessed wi h six i ems
o he T ans o ma ional Leade ship In en o y (Heini z &
Rowold, 2007; Podsako e al., 1990, 1996) as used and
alida ed o he day-le el in es iga ion by Diebig e al.
(2017). A sample i em was “Today, I challenged my ollow-
e s o hink abou old p oblems in new ways.” We decided
on his scale o wo easons: Fi s , wi h six i ems, he mea-
su e is much sho e han he 19 i ems o he Mul i ac o
Leade ship Ques ionnai e (MLQ Fo m 5x Sho ; Fel e,
2006) and is he e o e mo e app op ia e o he daily assess-
men s. Second, compa ed o he i ems used in o he s udies
(e.g., Lanaj e al., 2016), he i ems a e alida ed in Ge man
and o he day-le el.
The o he leade ship beha io s we e assessed wi h
he espec i e subscales con ingen ewa d (3 i ems, e.g.,
“Today, I showed sa is ac ion when o he s me expec a-
ions”), managemen -by-excep ion ac i e (4 i ems, e.g.,
“Today, I p ima ily deal wi h e o s and complain s”), man-
agemen -by-excep ion passi e (4 i ems, e.g., “Today, I was
i mly con inced ha no hing should be changed wi hou
necessi y”), and laissez- ai e (3 i ems, e.g., “Today, I cla i-
ied impo an ques ions immedia ely”) o he Mul i ac o
Leade ship Ques ionnai e (Fel e, 2006). The i em o mula-
ion was adap ed o he day-le el in es iga ion. Ra ings we e
made on a 5-poin scale (1 = o ally disag ee, 5 = o ally
ag ee). C onbach’s alpha a e aged ac oss he week was
0.82 o ans o ma ional leade ship ( ange: 0.75–0.86),
0.78 o con ingen ewa d ( ange: 0.67–0.82), 0.87 o
managemen -by-excep ion ac i e ( ange: 0.85–0.91), 0.86
o managemen -by-excep ion passi e ( ange: 0.80–0.88),
and 0.80 o laissez- ai e ( ange: 0.74–0.86).
Emo ional Exhaus ion
Emo ional exhaus ion was measu ed wi h he co espond-
ing 8-i em subscale o he Oldenbu g Bu nou In en o y
(OLBI; Deme ou i e al., 2003) and adap ed o day-le el
in es iga ion (e.g., Volme & F i sche, 2016). A sample
i em was “Today a e my wo k, I eel wo n ou and wea y.”
The i ems we e a ed on a 5-poin scale (1 = no ue a all,
5 = comple ely ue). C onbach’s alpha a e aged ac oss he
week was 0.90 ( ange: 0.89–0.90).
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(BIC), sample-size-adjus ed BIC (SSA-BIC), Lo-Mendell-
Rubin likelihood es (LMR; Lo e al., 2001), and en opy.
Addi ionally, we calcula ed an elbow plo o he BIC and
CAIC alues and examined he poin whe e he slope o he
plo la ens (Howa d e al., 2016; Mo in & Ma sh, 2015).
In de e mining he bes p o ile solu ion, we also aimed o
ensu e ha all p o iles we e heo e ically in e p e able
(Spu k e al., 2020) and ha he p o ile size was no oo
small (Lubke & Neale, 2006).
To answe ou Resea ch Ques ion 2 on he s abili y o
p o ile membe ship, we in es iga ed i leade s belonged o
he same leade ship p o iles h oughou he week o we e
membe s o di e en p o iles om day o day. Fo his, we
ollowed he app oach o Chawla e al. (2020) and calcu-
la ed he numbe o di e en p o ile ypes o each leade
ac oss he week. The eby, o e e y p o ile, we ecei ed he
pe cen age o leade s who belonged o he espec i e p o-
ile e e y day o he week. Addi ionally, we in es iga ed he
change o p o ile membe ship om day o day. Fo e e y
p o ile we ound, we calcula ed he pe cen age o leade s
who we e membe s o he a ge p o ile on Day and we e
also membe s o he same a ge p o ile on Day + 1 e sus
hose who we e membe s o a di e en p o ile on Day + 1.
To answe Resea ch Ques ion 3, we used BCH analy-
sis (Aspa ouho & Mu hén, 2014) o examine whe he he
associa ions wi h he media o s and he well-being ou comes
di e ed be ween p o iles. We conduc ed sepa a e analy-
ses o each media o and ou come. To es o he indi ec
e ec s o p o ile membe ship on well-being ia h i ing and
ime p essu e, we used bias-co ec ed boo s apped s anda d
e o s and con idence in e als based on 10,000 boo s ap
samples (Hayes & P eache , 2014). We conduc ed pai wise
compa isons be ween he p o iles and se he passi e p o ile
as he e e ence ca ego y.
Resul s
P elimina y Analyses
Desc ip i e da a and co ela ions o ou s udy a iables a e
shown in Table 1. We calcula ed in aclass co ela ion coe -
icien s (ICC) o check he app op ia eness o a mul ile el
app oach (Bliese e al., 2018). The ICCs o ou s udy a i-
ables anged be ween 0.42 (con ingen ewa d) and 0.73
(nega i e a ec ). The e o e, he po ion o wi hin-pe son
a iance be ween 27% and 58% jus i ied using a mul ile el
app oach.
In he nex s ep, we conduc ed mul ile el CFAs. The p o-
posed en- ac o model on Le el 1 and Le el 2 did no con-
e ge. Hence, as ou main ocus was on he wi hin-pe son
le el, we modeled he en- ac o model on Le el 1 and a
e ening expe iences wi h ou i ems aken om Sonnen-
ag e al. (2014) and adap ed hem o he daily assessmen .
We assessed wo k- amily con lic wi h he co esponding
5-i em scale om Ne emeye e al. (1996) and adap ed i o
he daily assessmen and o a ocus on he b oade aspec o
p i a e li e ins ead o he o iginal emphasis on amily li e
(e.g., Pe e s e al., 2014).
Demog aphic Da a
We assessed age, gende , p o ession, wo king hou s, job
enu e, o ganiza ional enu e, leade ship esponsibili y,
leade ship enu e, numbe o di ec epo s, and equency
and du a ion o leade – ollowe in e ac ions.
Analy ic S a egy
We i s conduc ed mul ile el con i ma o y ac o analy-
sis (CFA) o model he ac o s uc u e a Le el 1 wi h he
espec i e leade ship beha io s (TFL, CR, MBE-A, MBE-
P, LF), he media o s ( h i ing and ime p essu e), and he
well-being indica o s (emo ional exhaus ion, posi i e a ec ,
nega i e a ec ) as dis inc ac o s1. I ems we e wi hin-pe -
son cen e ed (Chawla e al., 2020; Sco e al., 2010). Fol-
lowing ecen ecommenda ions (Mäkikangas e al., 2018),
we used aw sco es o he mul ile el la en p o ile analysis
(MLPA), as g oup-mean cen e ing can change model in e -
p e a ion. Due o non-con e gence o ou models in he
case o eely es ima ed a iances (Aspa ouho & Mu hén,
2008), we only allowed he means o he p o ile indica o s
(i.e., leade ship beha io s) o be eely es ima ed (Diallo e
al., 2016).
We in es iga ed he numbe o p o iles o answe
Resea ch Ques ion 1 using Mplus Ve sion 8.7 (Mu hén &
Mu hén, 2017). To his end, we s a ed by speci ying a wo-
p o ile solu ion and inc eased he numbe o p o iles un il
he model i did no imp o e u he (Nylund e al., 2007).
The ull in o ma ion maximum likelihood es ima o wi h
obus s anda d e o es ima ion was used (Aspa ouho &
Mu hén, 2008). To check he model i and o decide on he
op imal numbe o p o iles, we elied on se e al i indices:
Log Likelihood (LL), Akaike In o ma ion C i e ion (AIC),
consis en AIC (CAIC), Bayesian In o ma ion C i e ion
1 We also compa ed he en- ac o solu ion wi h al e na i e models:
a ou - ac o solu ion (combining all leade ship beha io s in o one
single ac o and combining all well-being measu es in o one single
ac o ), a se en- ac o solu ion (combining CR, MBE-A, and MBE-P
in o one single ac o and combining posi i e a ec and nega i e
a ec in o a single ac o ), wo eigh - ac o solu ions (combining a)
CR, MBE-A, and MBE-P in o a single ac o , and b) posi i e a ec ,
nega i e a ec , and emo ional exhaus ion in o one single ac o ), and a
nine- ac o solu ion (combining posi i e a ec and nega i e a ec in o
one single ac o )
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leade ship om day o day, o example, as an adap a ion o
day-speci ic asks and challenges.
The inding o high a iabili y o di e en leade ship
beha io s wi hin one leade ac oss one week con as s mo e
adi ional pe spec i es on leade ship. These pe spec i es
assume ha leade ship beha io s ep esen leade s’ s able
beha io al endencies o e ime ha a e d i en by s able
leade cha ac e is ics (e.g., pe sonali y, Judge e al., 2002,
2009; Judge & Bono, 2000). Wi h ou s udy, we do no
neglec ha his s able pe spec i e has i s ue pa s, as indi-
ca ed by ex an esea ch showing be ween-pe son di e -
ences in leade s’ beha io s (e.g., Bass e al., 2003; Lo d e
al., 2017). A he same ime, wi h ou day-le el app oach, we
S abili y o Daily Leade ship P o iles
Ou dynamic app oach ha conside s day- o-day changes in
leade ship beha io builds on p e ious s udies ha showed
ha leade ship a ies daily wi hin leade s (Kelemen e al.,
2020). In he same line, we ound changes in p o ile mem-
be ship om one day o he nex , and almos hal o ou
sample belonged o mo e han one p o ile ac oss he week.
Simila ly, we obse ed changes om all h ee p o iles on
one day o all o he s on he consecu i e day. These ind-
ings demons a e ha leade s, o a ce ain deg ee, can d aw
on di e en leade ship beha io s o he ull- ange model o
Pa hs Th i ing Time
p essu e
Emo ional
exhaus ion
Posi i e a ec Nega i e
a ec
Indi idual
pa hs
P o ile 2 ( s.
P o ile 1)
a = 0.66*** a = 0.64*** c’a = 0.30**
c’b = –0.29**
c’a = 0.08
c’b = 0.58***
c’a = –0.04
c’b = –0.25***
P o ile 3 ( s.
P o ile 1)
a = 0.21*** a = 0.55*** c’a = 0.36***
c’b = 0.04
c’a = 0.01
c’b = 0.18***
c’a = 0.41***
c’b = 0.17**
Th i ing bc = –0.51***
bd = –0.50***
bc = 0.64***
bd = 0.67***
bc = –0.18***
bd = –0.29***
Time p essu e bc = 0.40***
bd = 0.38***
bc = –0.13***
bd = –0.05
bc = 0.14***
bd = 0.31***
Rela i e indi-
ec e ec ( ia
h i ing)
P o ile 2 ( s.
P o ile 1)
ab = –0.34,
SE = 0.05
95% CI [–0.45,
–0.24]
ab = 0.42, SE = 0.06
95% CI [0.31, 0.54]
ab = –0.12,
SE = 0.03
95% CI
[–0.18, –0.07]
P o ile 3 ( s.
P o ile 1)
ab = –0.11, SE = 0.03
95% CI [–0.16,
–0.06]
ab = 0.14, SE = 0.03
95% CI [0.08, 0.21]
ab = –0.06,
SE = 0.02
95% CI
[–0.11, –0.02]
Rela i e indi-
ec e ec ( ia
ime p essu e)
P o ile 2 ( s.
P o ile 1)
ab = 0.26, SE = 0.05
95% CI [0.16, 0.35]
ab = –0.08, SE = 0.02
95% CI [–0.13, –0.05]
ab = 0.09,
SE = 0.02
95% CI [0.05,
0.13]
P o ile 3 ( s.
P o ile 1)
ab = 0.21, SE = 0.03
95% CI [0.16, 0.27]
ab = –0.03, SE = 0.02
95% CI [–0.07, 0.02]
ab = 0.17,
SE = 0.03
95% CI [0.12,
0.24]
Rela i e o al
e ec
P o ile 2 ( s.
P o ile 1)
c = –0.04, SE = 0.09
95% CI [–0.22, 0.14]
c = 0.50***, SE = 0.08
95% CI [0.33, 0.67]
c = –0.16*,
SE = 0.06
95% CI
[–0.28, –0.05]
P o ile 3 ( s.
P o ile 1)
c = 0.25***, SE = 0.05
95% CI [0.16, 0.34]
c = 0.15**, SE = 0.05
95% CI [0.06, 0.24]
c = 0.34***,
SE = 0.06
95% CI [0.24,
0.45]
Table 8 Resul s o media ion
analyses ( esea ch ques ion 4)
No esa indica es he pa h om
p edic o o media o , b indica es
he pa h om media o o
ou come a iable, c’ indica es
he di ec e ec o p edic o on
ou come a iable a e con ol-
ling o he e ec o media o ,
ab indica es he indi ec e ec
o p edic o on ou come a iable
h ough media o , c indica es he
di ec e ec o p edic o on ou -
come a iable. CI = c o n ide n ce
in e al
P o ile 1 = Passi e p o ile;
P o ile 2 = T ans o ma ional-
ewa ding p o ile; P o ile
3 = Comp ehensi e p o ile
a Wi h h i ing as media o . b
Wi h ime p essu e as media o . c
P o ile 2 s. P o ile 1. d P o ile 3
s. P o ile 1
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001
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beha io s wi h impo an daily leade expe iences and well-
being. P e ious indings showed a da k side o TFL o lead-
e s’ emo ional exhaus ion (Lin e al., 2019; Zwingmann e
al., 2016). The esul s o ou s udy indica e ha TFL pe
se is no au oma ically ela ed o highe emo ional exhaus-
ion bu ha he ela ionship depends on o he leade ship
beha io s ha leade s demons a e on he same day. The
le el o emo ional exhaus ion on days leade s belonged o
he ans o ma ional- ewa ding p o ile was compa ably low
as on days leade s belonged o he passi e p o ile (which is
e lec ed by lowe le els o TFL). This inding is in e es ing
because TFL comp ises esou ce-in ensi e beha io s ha
make esou ce in es men necessa y (Lin e al., 2019) and
ha could ha e been associa ed wi h educed esou ces o
leade s (i.e., highe emo ional exhaus ion).
Howe e , we could only de ec ele a ed le els o emo-
ional exhaus ion on days leade s belonged o he comp e-
hensi e p o ile. These days, leade s showed no only TFL
and CR bu also MBE-A and MBE-P beha io s. Based on
COR heo y, i could be ha leade s need o in es a highe
amoun o esou ces (e.g., ime, ene gy, cogni i e esou ces)
in hei beha io when belonging o ha p o ile compa ed o
days hey p ima ily show TFL and CR beha io s. On days
in he comp ehensi e p o ile, leade s ha e o co e a ious
beha io s (e.g., dealing wi h indi idual ollowe s’ needs,
cla i ying goals and expec a ions, p oac i ely and eac-
i ely dealing wi h e o s), lea ing hem wi h ewe ene gy
esou ces a he end o he day. Ano he eason could be
ha leade s show di e en con lic ing leade ship beha io s
on ha day (e.g., TFL beha io s ocusing on empowe ing
and us ing he ollowe s s. MBE-A beha io s e lec ing
mic omanagemen ocusing on con olling ollowe s and
sea ching o e o s). Demons a ing con lic ing beha -
io s could be associa ed wi h a d ain o leade s’ esou ces
(A nold e al., 2017), as indica ed by highe emo ional
exhaus ion.
Ou indings on he passi e p o ile con as p e ious me a-
analy ic e idence (Kaluza e al., 2020), which showed ha
passi e leade ship was associa ed wi h lowe well-being.
They also con as p e ious be ween-pe son pa e n-o i-
en ed esea ch showing ha a p o ile domina ed by passi e
beha io s poses a isk o leade s’ well-being (A nold e al.,
2017). The esul s o ou daily app oach sugges ha daily
passi e beha io s can also bene i leade s, as indica ed by
lowe le els o emo ional exhaus ion. One eason o his
associa ion migh be ha leade s wi hd aw om leade -
ship esponsibili ies hese days. The e o e, hey may in es
ewe esou ces (e.g., ime, ene gy) in ollowe -o ien ed
beha io s on days hey belong o he passi e p o ile, which
is ela ed o mo e esou ces a he end o he day (i.e., lowe
emo ional exhaus ion). Taking ou esul s and he ones o
p e ious esea ch oge he , i seems ha belonging o he
add a complemen a y pe spec i e on leade ship, acknowl-
edging ha leade ship beha io s can also di e wi hin one
leade , ha is, on he wi hin-pe son le el (McClean e al.,
2019). This inding aligns well wi h ecen esea ch on he
daily a iabili y o leade ship (Kelemen e al., 2020). E en
hough leade s migh ha e a s able beha io al endency
o e ime, hei daily beha io can s ill de ia e om his
s able endency om ime o ime. In he p esen s udy, we
we e no able o in es iga e (daily) causes o leade s’ daily
leade ship beha io s (compa e also he limi a ions sec-
ion). Howe e , based on ecen esea ch, i is easonable
o assume ha daily si ua ional equi emen s, such as daily
job demands and asks (Nielsen & Cleal, 2011; Rosen e al.,
2019; She e al., 2019), can shape leade s’ daily leade ship
beha io s.
When compa ing he passi e wi h he ans o ma ional-
ewa ding and comp ehensi e p o ile, we no e wo c ucial
di e ences in he membe ship s abili y ac oss one week.
Fi s , he s abili y was lowe in he passi e p o ile han in
he o he wo. Only a small pa o ou sample s ayed in he
passi e p o ile e e y day o he week. Second, he a iabil-
i y o he pe cen age o leade s who belonged o he pas-
si e p o ile on wo consecu i e days was highe han in he
o he wo p o iles. Fo some days, we obse ed ha almos
all leade s who belonged o he passi e p o ile on one day
s ayed in he passi e p o ile he nex day. In con as , on
o he days, we obse ed ha a ound wo- hi d o he leade s
belonging o he passi e p o ile on one day changed o he
ans o ma ional- ewa ding o comp ehensi e p o ile on he
nex day. These indings show ha i is a he unlikely ha
leade s ac passi ely all he ime bu ha hey can change
hei beha io acco ding o day-speci ic demands. The e-
o e, hey a e no passi e leade s pe se bu can also d aw on
mo e ac i e beha io s when necessa y.
In con as , leade s belonging o he ans o ma ional-
ewa ding o he comp ehensi e p o ile a he beginning o
he week we e likely o s ay in he espec i e p o ile o he
es o he week. This low p obabili y o change was also
e lec ed in he ac ha only a ew leade s (maximum 10%)
changed om he ans o ma ional- ewa ding o he com-
p ehensi e p o ile o he passi e one. We assume ha he
bene i s o leade s associa ed wi h hese wo p o iles (e.g.,
highe posi i e a ec , c ., Resea ch Ques ion 3) migh mo i-
a e leade s o show he same combina ions o beha io s
daily.
Daily Leade ship P o iles and Emo ional Exhaus ion
Ou s udy builds on p io esea ch on leade ship beha -
io s and leade well-being (Kaluza e al., 2020; Lanaj e
al., 2016; Lin e al., 2019). We ex end p e ious indings by
in es iga ing he associa ion o a combina ion o leade ship
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in hei leade ship beha io s (e.g., in e ac ions wi h hei ol-
lowe s, sea ching o e o s, e c.). On he o he hand, days
in he comp ehensi e p o ile migh be cha ac e ized by high
demands, deadlines, and wo kload (i.e., high ime p essu e),
connec ed wi h he need o d aw on a g ea e beha io al ep-
e oi e o deal wi h he demands. Ou esul s suppo he
assump ion ha on days leade s belong o he comp ehen-
si e p o ile, hey ha e o deal wi h a g ea e amoun o ime
p essu e (i.e., ei he due o he leade ship beha io o due o
o he cha ac e is ics o he wo king day) ha migh be asso-
cia ed wi h esou ce expendi u e, e lec ed in highe le els
o emo ional exhaus ion and nega i e a ec .
The inding ha ime p essu e is highe on days in he
ans o ma ional- ewa ding compa ed o days in he pas-
si e p o ile is no su p ising. On he one hand, being
ac i ely in ol ed in ans o ma ional and ewa ding in e -
ac ions wi h ollowe s equi es ime and e o o lead-
e s. I equi es in es ing esou ces in leade ship beha io
(Lin e al., 2019), which can be associa ed wi h inc eased
ime p essu e (A nold e al., 2017). On he o he hand, i
could also be ha days in he passi e p o ile e lec ed a
“slow day” (i.e., low ime p essu e) wi h a lack o oppo -
uni ies o leade s o engage in ac i i y wi h hei ollow-
e s. In e es ingly, he highe le el o ime p essu e o he
ans o ma ional- ewa ding e sus he passi e p o ile was
no e lec ed in he le el o emo ional exhaus ion o posi i e
and nega i e a ec . Thus, he e seem o be aspec s o he
ans o ma ional- ewa ding p o ile ha can compensa e o
he educed esou ces associa ed wi h highe ime p essu e
and bu e nega i e associa ions wi h well-being.
Th i ing was highes on days in he ans o ma ional-
ewa ding p o ile and could hus be a compensa o y ac o .
Again, di e en di ec ions o he associa ions a e concei -
able. On he one hand, engaging in combined TFL and CR
beha io s seemed o be bene icial o leade s as i could be
an oppo uni y o hem o expe ience g ea e i ali y and
lea ning. Hence, o example, pa s o hese ans o ma-
ional- ewa ding beha io s, such as encou aging onesel
and he ollowe s o y new app oaches o ackle p oblems,
can help en ich he leade ’s esou ce pool and acqui e new
knowledge and compe encies o onesel . Al hough o a
sligh ly lowe ex en , hese highe esou ces could also be
obse ed on days in he comp ehensi e p o ile. We suppose
ha he le el o h i ing was pa icula ly associa ed wi h he
ans o ma ional- ewa ding beha io s.
In con as , he lowes le els o h i ing on days in he
passi e p o ile migh e lec ha he lack o ac i e cons uc-
i e beha io s educes he oppo uni ies o he ou lined
esou ce gains o leade s. Howe e , on he o he hand i
could also be ha on days leade s (due o wha e e si u-
a ional cha ac e is ics) expe ienced g ea e h i ing, hey
engaged mo e s ongly in ans o ma ional- ewa ding
passi e p o ile migh ha e sho - e m posi i e associa ions
wi h leade s’ well-being due o lowe esou ce expendi u e.
Howe e , gi en ha indi iduals need o in es esou ces o
gain new ones (Hob oll e al., 2018), he long- e m associa-
ions wi h leade s’ well-being seem o be nega i e (A nold
e al., 2017).
Daily Leade ship P o iles and A ec i i y
We showed ha he p o ile discussed as mos bene icial o
ollowe s (i.e., he ans o ma ional- ewa ding p o ile) was
associa ed wi h he highes le els o posi i e a ec and he
lowes le els o nega i e a ec . I is no iceable ha lead-
e s epo ed only sligh ly lowe le els o posi i e a ec on
days hey belonged o he comp ehensi e p o ile compa ed
o he ans o ma ional- ewa ding p o ile. A he same ime,
he comp ehensi e p o ile was associa ed wi h conside ably
highe alues o nega i e a ec han days in he ans o ma-
ional- ewa ding p o ile. Hence, i seems as i his comp e-
hensi e daily p o ile includes bene icial aspec s o leade s
(e.g., meaning ul and inspi ing in e ac ions wi h ollowe s)
bu also de imen al ones (e.g., dealing wi h ollowe s’ mis-
akes and de i ing consequences).
The passi e p o ile seemed o be he leas bene icial one
o leade s’ a ec , as days in he passi e p o ile we e associ-
a ed wi h he lowes alue on posi i e a ec compa ed o
he o he wo p o iles, and nega i e a ec was he second
highes a e days in he comp ehensi e p o ile. The e o e,
we assume ha days domina ed by ac ing passi ely owa ds
ollowe s do no include many e en s o in e ac ions ha
leade s can bene i om and, a he same ime, migh e en
be connec ed o ewe esou ces, as indica ed by inc eased
nega i e a ec . Ne e heless, we no e ha he passi e p o-
ile’s absolu e le el o nega i e a ec was s ill ela i ely low
(M = 1.55).
Daily Leade ship P o iles, Time P essu e, and Th i ing
We ound ime p essu e and h i ing o be a iables ha can
help explain he p o ile di e ences in leade s’ well-being.
Howe e , e en hough we ound suppo o he media -
ing ole o he wo a iables be ween leade ship and leade
well-being, we canno ule ou he possibili y ha si ua ional
cha ac e is ics o he wo king day (and associa ed expe i-
ences o a ce ain amoun o ime p essu e and h i ing)
shape leade s’ beha io on ha day, which is hen associa ed
wi h hei e ening well-being. The e o e, he high le els o
ime p essu e in he comp ehensi e p o ile migh , on he
one hand, e lec he si ua ion in which leade s a e ac i ely
in ol ed in all kinds o di e en beha io s h oughou he
day. These mul iple beha io s, in u n, can be associa ed
wi h inc eased ime p essu e as leade s need o in es ime
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2018). This exempla y inding shows ha esou ce-d aining
o esou ce-gaining e ec s can be sho -li ed and ha he
associa ions can be di e en when in es iga ing hem ac oss
ex ended pe iods (e.g., om one day o he nex , ac oss one
week).
Indi iduals need o in es esou ces o p ese e exis ing
o gain new ones. The e o e, i could also be ha he low
le el o daily esou ce in es men associa ed wi h he pas-
si e p o ile can ha m leade s’ well-being on he nex day o
a e mul iple days because o a lowe chance o gaining
esou ces h ough he beha io s. Simila ly, he p o ile ha
u ned ou o be he mos bene icial one o leade s’ daily
well-being (i.e., he ans o ma ional- ewa ding p o ile)
migh also ha e nega i e consequences o leade s’ well-
being a e a ew days because he s onge esou ce in es -
men comes in o e ec (e.g., in case no new esou ces can
be gained). COR heo y s a es ha esou ce gain inc eases
in salience in he con ex o esou ce loss and ha esou ce
loss is mo e powe ul han esou ce gain (Hob oll e al.,
2018). The e o e, an in e es ing ques ion in his ega d is
whe he (and i yes, a wha ime) esou ce gains can o se
esou ce losses (o ice e sa), which could p oduce a ne
esou ce gain o loss.
P ac ical Implica ions
The p esen indings ha e impo an implica ions o lead-
e s and o ganiza ions. Fi s , leade s can be sensi ized o he
ac ha hei leade ship beha io s can a y daily and ha
hey migh use di e en combina ions o leade ship beha -
io s om day o day. This awa eness can help leade s adap
hei leade ship beha io s o he wo king day’s cha ac e -
is ics and de elop hei own si ua ional leade ship epe -
oi e based on hei ollowe s’ daily needs. Connec ed o
his, ou s udy sugges s ha leade ship aining should no
solely inco po a e TFL (A hu & Ha dy, 2014; D i e al.,
2002; Kelloway e al., 2000) bu o he beha io s as well,
especially CR. This app oach also aligns wi h he ull- ange
leade ship model, which p oposes ha a combina ion o
TFL and CR beha io s is associa ed wi h highe leade ship
e ec i eness (A olio, 2011).
Second, in line wi h p e ious indings (A nold e al.,
2017; Kaluza e al., 2020), ou s udy sugges s ha leade -
ship aining should also ocus on leade s’ well-being, as
leade ship beha io s a e associa ed wi h he la e . Speci i-
cally, aining should inco po a e ha ce ain combina ions
o leade ship beha io s can simul aneously be bene icial
and de imen al o leade s’ well-being. Leade s should be
awa e o hese ela ionships and po en ial ade-o s. This
knowledge can help mo i a e leade s o cons uc i e lead-
e ship e en i hese beha io s migh be associa ed wi h
esou ce expendi u e a some poin . The knowledge can also
beha io s, gi en he highe le els o i ali y and lea ning
hey el . In con as , on days wi h lowe i ali y le els and
lowe lea ning ocus, leade s migh did no wan o we e no
able o engage in ac i e exchange wi h hei ollowe s, and
he e o e belonged o he passi e p o ile.
Implica ions o COR Theo y
O e all, he p esen s udy has impo an implica ions o
COR heo y (Hob oll e al., 2018). We showed ha daily
leade ship beha io is a ac o ha is ele an o leade s’
daily esou ce pool. Addi ionally, leade s’ daily expe i-
ence o ime p essu e and h i ing a e ele an daily ac o s
associa ed wi h leade s’ esou ces. Compa ing ou indings
wi h p e ious a iable-cen e ed s udies (e.g., on ans o -
ma ional leade ship; Lanaj e al., 2016; Lin e al., 2019),
we addi ionally demons a ed ha he speci ic combina ions
o daily leade ship beha io s make a di e ence in leade s’
well-being compa ed o when conside ed alone. Fo exam-
ple, leade s epo ed di e en le els o well-being on days
hey demons a ed ele a ed le els o TFL and CR (i.e., he
ans o ma ional- ewa ding p o ile) compa ed o days hey
addi ionally showed high le els o MBE-A and MBE-P
(i.e., he comp ehensi e p o ile). This inding aligns wi h he
assump ion ha combined esou ces can ela e di e en ly o
psychological ou comes han single esou ces (Halbesleben
e al., 2014).
We also showed ha ou daily leade ship p o iles di -
e ed in hei esou ce-d aining and esou ce-gaining po en-
ial and ha hese p ocesses occu ed simul aneously. Fo
example, we ound a p o ile associa ed wi h low esou ce
in es men bu also low esou ce gains (passi e p o ile) and
a p o ile wi h high esou ce in es men bu also medium o
high esou ce gains (comp ehensi e p o ile), as indica ed by
di e en le els o a ec and emo ional exhaus ion. The e-
o e, leade ship is no necessa ily exclusi ely bene icial o
de imen al o leade s’ esou ce pool bu depends on he
speci ic esou ces (e.g., indica o s o well-being) unde
in es iga ion.
One aspec we did no examine in he p esen s udy ha
could help en ich he heo y on he associa ion o leade -
ship and leade well-being is he possibili y o lagged e ec s
om one day o he nex o ac oss mul iple days. This aspec
ackles he ques ion o he iming o e ec s. Howe e , p e i-
ous esea ch lacks a clea heo y on he pe iods o e which
e ec s can occu o e en change in di ec ionali y (Kaluza
e al., 2020; Kelemen e al., 2020). Fo example, a s udy
showed ha daily abusi e leade beha io s we e associ-
a ed wi h enhanced leade eco e y a he end o he day
and enhanced nex -day leade wo k engagemen . In con-
as , engaging in abusi e beha io s was nega i ely ela ed
o leade s’ wo k engagemen a e se e al days (Qin e al.,
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Jou nal o Business and Psychology (2024) 39:1259–1281
Thi d, ou s udy only co e ed one week. The e o e, we
can only d aw ou conclusions based on hese i e days, and
he esul s migh look di e en when conduc ing he s udy
o e mo e han one week. Howe e , we employed se e al
s a egies o ensu e ha he iming o he s udy did no p o-
oundly a ec he esul s. Fo example, he pa icipan s
came om di e en o ganiza ions and di e en indus ies,
he e o e minimizing he isk ha he e a e ou s anding
(wo k- ela ed) e en s ha a ec e e y pa icipan in he
same way a he same ime. Addi ionally, we in o med he
leade s ha hey should only pa icipa e in he s udy when
he su ey week is a s anda d wo king week o hem. Fu -
he mo e, ou wi hin-pe son app oach minimizes he isk o
he in luence o ex e nal ac o s as we conduc ed in ape -
sonal ( s. in e pe sonal) analyses.
Fou h, e en hough we sepa a ed he assessmen o lead-
e ship beha io s (a e noon) and well-being (e ening), we
assessed ou media o s ime p essu e and h i ing a he
same ime as he leade ship beha io s, which inc eases he
isk o common-me hod bias (Podsako e al., 2003). Mo e-
o e , we canno d aw causal conclusions because we did
no apply an expe imen al design. The e o e, o ins ance,
we canno ule ou ha ime p essu e and h i ing had an
e ec on leade s’ well-being, media ed h ough leade ship
beha io s. Fo example, we canno say whe he leade s
epo ed lowe le els o ime p essu e because hey demon-
s a ed mo e passi e beha io s on ha day o whe he i was
a “slow day” wi h low ime p essu e (i.e., ime p essu e as a
si ua ional cha ac e is ic o he wo king day) which esul ed
in he enac men o passi e beha io s. This possibili y is
suppo ed by ecen esea ch on si ua ional an eceden s o
leade ship (Rosen e al., 2019; S empel e al., 2023). In sum,
we can no ule ou he issue o endogenei y, ha is, he
p oblem ha omi ed a iables p edic ou s udy a iables.
We encou age u u e esea ch o use expe imen al designs
o make causal in e ences (P. M. Podsako & Podsako ,
2019) and o apply an ins umen al a iable app oach
(Schowal e & Volme , 2023).
Fi h, choosing ou well-being indica o s allowed us o
shed ligh on he double-edged na u e o ce ain leade ship
p o iles o leade s’ well-being. Howe e , well-being is a
b oad concep ha can be unde s ood in many ways (Son-
nen ag, 2015). The e o e, we encou age u u e esea ch o
examine o he well-being indica o s, such as job sa is ac-
ion, wo k engagemen , o basic needs sa is ac ion.
Las , e en hough we conduc ed se e al checks o ensu e
da a quali y (e.g., ega ding esponse pa e ns, esponse
ime, o inconsis ency wi hin i ems assessing he same con-
s uc ), insu icien e o esponding poses a isk o da a
quali y, especially in online su eys. We encou age u u e
s udies o use addi ional app oaches o ensu e da a quali y,
such as he in equency app oach (Huang e al., 2015).
guide leade s’ sel - e lec ion abou hei well-being on days
cha ac e ized by esou ce-in ensi e leade ship. These days,
i migh be e en mo e c i ical o leade s o engage in e ec-
i e e ening eco e y (Sonnen ag e al., 2017).
Limi a ions and Fu u e Resea ch
We no e some limi a ions o ou s udy ha should be consid-
e ed when in e p e ing ou esul s. Fi s , we assessed lead-
e ship beha io s wi h leade a ings only. This app oach is
adequa e o a iables e lec ing in e nal s a es ha a e di -
icul o de e mine om an ou side pe spec i e (i.e., ime
p essu e, h i ing, well-being). Ne e heless, he a ings on
leade ship beha io s can be suscep ible o common-me hod
bias (Podsako e al., 2003). Howe e , especially in la ge
eams, in which leade s in e ac wi h mul iple ollowe s,
assessing leade ship beha io om he pe spec i e o only
a limi ed numbe o ollowe s can also bias he leade ship
a ings. We a gue ha , ac oss one wo k day, he leade s a e
he bes sou ce o a e hei ex ensi e beha io s owa ds all
hei ollowe s on a ce ain day because he ollowe s migh
no pe cei e he comple e a ie y o hei leade s’ beha -
io s. We pe cei e his app oach as adequa e, especially as
we we e in e es ed in mul iple leade ship beha io s simul-
aneously. Ne e heless, we encou age u u e esea ch o
include ollowe a ings o a ings by hi d-pa y obse e s
o leade ship beha io s o o e come he po en ial biases o
ou s udy.
Second, we did no in es iga e an eceden s o p o ile
membe ship. Fu u e esea ch could examine ac o s ha
inc ease he likelihood o belonging o one p o ile e sus
ano he , bo h on he pe son le el (e.g., mo i a ion o lead,
leade ship expe ience) and he daily le el (e.g., eco e y
expe iences, wo k engagemen , wo k demands). Fo exam-
ple, in line wi h he ole o daily si ua ional cha ac e is ics
discussed below, passi e leade ship beha io s migh be a
esponse o low wo k demands on ha day. Addi ionally,
e en hough we explo ed he dynamics o p o ile membe -
ship ac oss one week, we could no assess ac o s ha can
explain shi s in p o ile membe ship om one day o he
nex . Fu u e s udies should apply la en ansi ion analysis
wi h co a ia es (LTA, e.g., Kam e al., 2016) o examine
a iables ha a e associa ed wi h changes in p o ile mem-
be ship ac oss ime. An addi ional in e es ing aspec o
u u e esea ch ela ed o he dynamic o p o ile membe -
ship could be explo ing adap abili y h oughou he week
in mo e de ail. Fo example, i could be ha mo e adap-
a ion (i.e., mo e equen changes o p o ile membe ship)
is ela ed o mo e exhaus ion o e ime, especially a he
end o a week. Vice e sa, educed well-being migh also
a ec a leade ’s abili y o adequa ely adap one’s leade ship
beha io s o wo k demands.
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Conclusion
The combina ion o in a-indi idual, pa e n-o ien ed, and
leade ou come-cen e ed s eams in leade ship esea ch
allowed us o in es iga e daily combina ions o leade ship
beha io s and hei associa ions wi h leade well-being. Ou
indings highligh he need o s udy he in e play o daily
leade ship beha io s wi hin leade s o ca ch he en i e y o
leade s’ daily leade ship ou ines. Addi ionally, speci ic com-
bina ions o leade ship beha io s, such as ans o ma ional
and ansac ional elemen s, can be a double-edged swo d
o leade s ega ding hei well-being. Fu he mo e, leade -
ship beha io s ha ha m leade s’ well-being in he long un
can pa ly be posi i e o leade s om a daily wi hin-pe son
pe spec i e. Ou esul s unde line he necessi y o a wi hin-
pe son app oach o leade well-being and a di e en ia ed
in es iga ion o mul iple well-being indica o s.
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek
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psycha chi es.5333. Da a collec ion o he p esen s udy was unded
by PsychLab, a se ice o he Leibniz Ins i u e o Psychology (ZPID).
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