Becke , Max; Bendiek, Anneg e ; Kempin, Ronja
Resea ch Repo
S eng hening Eu ope's capaci y o ac in o eign and
secu i y policy: Secu i isa ion canno sol e he EU's
decision-making ap
SWP Commen , No. 17/2025
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
S i ung Wissenscha und Poli ik (SWP), Ge man Ins i u e o In e na ional and Secu i y A ai s,
Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Becke , Max; Bendiek, Anneg e ; Kempin, Ronja (2025) : S eng hening Eu ope's
capaci y o ac in o eign and secu i y policy: Secu i isa ion canno sol e he EU's decision-making
ap, SWP Commen , No. 17/2025, S i ung Wissenscha und Poli ik (SWP), Be lin,
h ps://doi.o g/10.18449/2025C17
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/316691
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NO.
17
APRIL 2025
In oduc ion
S eng hening Eu ope’s Capaci y o Ac
in Fo eign and Secu i y Policy
Secu i isa ion Canno Sol e he EU’s Decision-making T ap
Max Becke , Anneg e Bendiek and Ronja Kempin
Since Russia’s ull-scale in asion o Uk aine on 24 Feb ua y 2022, a p ocess o secu-
i isa ion o he Eu opean Union’s (EU) ex e nal ac ion can be obse ed. F om an
ins i u ional pe spec i e, he Common Fo eign and Secu i y Policy (CFSP) inc easingly
o e laps wi h he Common Secu i y and De ence Policy (CSDP). Howe e , his does
no sol e he p oblem o a lack o capaci y o ac in o eign and secu i y policy. On
he con a y, he end owa ds he secu i isa ion o EU o eign policy is a dis ac ion
om he long o e due e o m o Eu ope’s capaci y o ac in o eign and secu i y
policy. The e a e wo op ions o inally imp o e his: a) a Eu opeanisa ion o he Eu o-
pean pilla in NATO, and b) a communi a isa ion o he CFSP and CSDP.
In he a e ma h o he Munich Secu i y
Con e ence in Feb ua y 2025 and he sub-
sequen public humilia ion o Uk ainian
P esiden Volodymy Zelensky by Donald
T ump and J.D. Vance, i is e iden ha he
Uni ed S a es has elinquished i s ole as
Eu ope’s secu i y gua an o . Fu he mo e,
he US eluc ance o admi Uk aine in o
NATO has been ea i med, and he p os-
pec o secu ing a cease i e along he
Russian-Uk ainian bo de wi h US oops o
h ough secu i y gua an ees o deployed
soldie s is no being pu sued. The espon-
sibili y o his ask now alls upon he
Eu opean na ions, who mus do so wi hou
he suppo o NATO and wi hou he secu-
i y gua an ees p o ided by he Uni ed
S a es in he e en o con lic wi h Moscow.
This new eali y is p o ing o be a signi -
ican challenge o Eu opean s a es, as hey,
along wi h he EU, ind hemsel es elian
on he Uni ed S a es o a conside able ex-
en in e ms o mili a y and secu i y policy.
The accession o Finland and Sweden o
NATO in 2023 and 2024, espec i ely, has
led o a decline in he numbe o non-
aligned membe s a es wi hin he EU. The
Uni ed S a es has concluded bila e al
de ence ag eemen s wi h nume ous NATO
s a es – including Sweden, No way and,
mos ecen ly, Finland – wi h he aim o
enabling o expanding access o Ame ican
a med o ces o mili a y bases in hese
coun ies. In addi ion, he EU and NATO
ha e s eng hened hei s a egic pa ne -
ship in ecen yea s, ha ing signed hei
SWP Commen 17
Ap il 2025
2
hi d join decla a ion on coope a ion in
Janua y 2023.
Simul aneously, economic ela ions
be ween Eu ope and he Uni ed S a es a e
cha ac e ised by in ense compe i ion. The
In la ion Reduc ion Ac was enac ed in
2022, es ablishing he ounda ion o a
s eng hened na ional indus ial policy in
he Uni ed S a es. In con as , he EU’s
G een Deal Indus ial Plan, al hough well-
in en ioned, lacked he inancial esou ces
o ma ch hese ac ions. Addi ionally, P esi-
den T ump is ac i ely pu suing he en-
o cemen o US in e es s o e hose o he
EU, he eby weakening he EU’s egula o y
capaci y. I is e iden ha he p ima y
objec i e o he Uni ed S a es is o c ea e
disco d among EU membe s a es and o
di ide he Union poli ically.
In he con ex o he Uni ed S a es’ s a-
egic shi in i s o eign policy ocus away
om Eu ope, he special summi o he
Eu opean Council on 6 Ma ch 2025
achie ed a consensus on he impe a i e
o alloca e subs an ial esou ces owa ds
u u e in es men s in na ional a med
o ces. Addi ionally, a g owing eadiness o
es ablish coali ions o he willing has
eme ged o add ess he issue o secu ing a
possible “peace” in Uk aine – including
h ough he p o ision o Eu opean secu i y
gua an ees – wi h he aim o emo ing he
blockade op ion om e o playe s such as
he Hunga ian p ime minis e . Howe e ,
he ReA m Eu ope ini ia i e, including he
po en ial excep ions o he deb ules ha e
p o en o be con en ious. Fu he mo e,
he e has been no p og ess on he ins i u-
ional e o m o he CFSP and CSDP, includ-
ing he inc eased use o quali ied majo i y
o ing, he in oduc ion o a Eu opean
Secu i y Council and he communi a isa-
ion o he CFSP/CSDP (see SWP Commen
19/2024). Ins ead, i is easonable o p edic
ha he con lic ing in e es s o membe
s a es will con inue o make his impossi-
ble. E en be o e Russia launched i s wa o
agg ession agains Uk aine, a emp s o
in oduce quali ied majo i y o ing in he
CFSP o o es ablish a Eu opean Secu i y
Council we e unsuccess ul. Rese a ions
abou na ional so e eign y and di e ging
economic in e es s a e also pa ly espon-
sible o he ac ha EU enla gemen has
come o a s ands ill and ha EU sanc ions
agains Russia ha e no been e ec i ely
implemen ed.
Secu i isa ion o
EU ex e nal ac ion
In o de o con ain he p oblem o incom-
pa ible in e es s be ween membe s a es, a
p ocess o secu i isa ion has de eloped in
he EU’s ex e nal ac ion (Ti le V, T ea y on
Eu opean Union) since he beginning o he
wa in Uk aine, whe ein he solu ion o
s uc u al p oblems in his policy a ea is
simul aneously excluded.
The e m “secu i isa ion” was coined in
he 1990s by academics om he so-called
Copenhagen School. Acco ding o his heo-
e ical amewo k, he p ima y objec i e o
s a e ac ion is o legi imise mili a y policy
measu es ha , unde no mal ci cums anc-
es, would no be en o ceable. The success
o his endea ou , as pos ula ed by his
heo y, depends on he e ec i e p esen a-
ion o “ aming” o issues as po en ial
h ea s o he s a e’s own popula ion.
Applying his app oach o cu en EU
policy, i is e iden ha he CFSP – along
wi h he o he a eas o ex e nal ac ion
( ade, associa ion and de elopmen policy),
which a e he exclusi e o sha ed compe-
ence bo h o he EU and i s membe s a es
– is being o ien a ed owa ds a mamen s
and de ence policy h ough he in oduc ion
o new inancial ins umen s. Consequen -
ly, he CFSP is o a ce ain ex en pe mea ed
by i s secu i y and de ence policy compo-
nen , he CSDP. Addi ionally, ma e s such
as pa ne ship and sec o al ag eemen s,
which we e o me ly ega ded as a he
echnoc a ic and apoli ical, a e now be-
coming a ocal poin o Eu ope’s asse i e
secu i y and de ence policy. This p ocess o
secu i ising o eign policy enables EU ins i-
u ions, pa icula ly he Eu opean Commis-
sion, o gain access o new policy a eas
(de ence indus y) and o s imula e o he
SWP Commen 17
Ap il 2025
3
policy a eas (enla gemen , sanc ions). In he
domain o mig a ion, EU ins i u ions a e
adap ing hei policies so ha hey align
wi h hose o he membe s a es h ough a
p ocess o policy aming, in he hopes o
aligning exis ing ules wi h he p o ec ion
o EU e i o y. Finally, he o eign economic
policy dimension o he EU’s ex e nal ac-
ion is unde going a ecalib a ion owa ds
he goals o de- isking, iend-sho ing and
de-coupling. In he con ex o powe poli -
ics, he Commission appea s o be pa icu-
la ly well-posi ioned o bene i om hese
ends, gi en he ex ension o in e nal
ma ke ules o he p ocu emen o de ence
equipmen . The Commission’s po en ial
expansion o i s ole in de ence policy by
in ol ing p i a e companies and secu i y
ac o s in he poli ical p ocess a he EU
le el could also se e o s eng hen i s
nego ia ing posi ion is-à- is membe s a es
in he con ex o join a mamen s coope a-
ion.
A he same ime, he o e a ching in e-
g a ion end o secu i isa ion is eaching
i s limi s in a eas whe e he EU-27 is poli i-
cally di ided and no in a posi ion o ac
cohe en ly owa ds hi d coun ies in e ms
o s a egy and o eign ade.
Sanc ions o a new quali y
Since he beginning o he ull-scale in-
asion o Uk aine by Russia, he EU has
implemen ed an unpa alleled sanc ions
egime agains Moscow. Expanding on he
es ic ions ini ia ed in 2014 as pa o he
annexa ion o C imea, he EU has adop ed
16 sanc ions packages o da e, a ge ing
o e 1,800 indi iduals and mo e han 500
o ganisa ions. The measu es encompass
a el bans, he eezing o asse s, and he
denial o access o inancial and economic
esou ces. In esponse o he dea h o
Aleksei Na alnyi, he heads o Russian
p ison acili ies and high- anking Minis y
o Jus ice o icials ha e also been a ge ed.
Howe e , he expansion o he Eu opean
sanc ions egime has no been limi ed o
Russia. In Janua y 2024, he Council o he
EU (Council) adop ed a decision o impose
sanc ions agains all suppo e s o Hamas
and Pales inian Islamic Jihad, hus supple-
men ing he di ec measu es aken agains
bo h e o is o ganisa ions om he p e-
ious yea . A e mon hs o nego ia ions,
which we e ini ially blocked by Ge many
and o he s, he EU o eign minis e s also
ag eed on sanc ions agains adical Is aeli
se le s in he Wes Bank in Ma ch 2024.
Fu he sanc ions we e imposed on I an,
pa icula ly in he con ex o he a ack on
Is ael in Ap il 2024 and he ongoing supply
o weapons o Russia, as well as agains
Sy ia. Exis ing es ic ions we e ex ended
and expanded agains Venezuela, he Demo-
c a ic Republic o Congo (DRC), Bela us
and Myanma .
Alongside he inc ease in he numbe o
sanc ions, he EU is also imp o ing he
e ec i eness o i s sanc ions. Wi h ega d o
Russia, his was pa icula ly e iden in he
Council’s decision in May 2024 o use he
in e es income om he ozen asse s o
he Russian cen al bank o mili a y equip-
men and he econs uc ion o Uk aine. In
he same mon h, he EU expanded he
scope o i s sanc ions. They now also co e
mili a y suppo o Russia’s wa o agg es-
sion h ough d ones and missiles as well as
he expo o he necessa y componen s.
These decisions a e p ima ily aimed a I an,
which was subjec o u he es ic ions a
he same ime. In Ap il 2024, he Council
and Pa liamen also ag eed on he in oduc-
ion o c iminal o ences o co esponding
iola ions agains he con inued ci cum en-
ion o sanc ions imposed on Russia. In
u u e, no only indi iduals bu also com-
panies can be penalised o ci cum en ing
sanc ions. This ein o ces he imp ession o
a end owa ds he s eng hening o Eu o-
pean sanc ions ins umen s in e ms o secu-
i y policy. This is cha ac e ised in pa icu-
la by he eplacemen o adi ional sanc-
ions agains human igh s iola ions wi h
coe ci e measu es agains s a e ac o s.
SWP Commen 17
Ap il 2025
4
Secu i isa ion o hi d coun y
ag eemen s
Fo se e al yea s, he EU has been using
ag eemen s wi h hi d coun ies no only
o manage mig a ion and secu i y, bu also
o inc ease he secu i y o i s esou ces.
In he a ea o mig a ion and secu i y, he
EU signed a pa ne ship ag eemen wi h
Albania in Sep embe 2023, p o iding o
enhanced ope a ional coope a ion in he
igh agains c oss-bo de c ime and i egu-
la mig a ion. Simila ag eemen s had p e-
iously been signed wi h Se bia ( enewed in
June 2024), he Republic o Moldo a, Mon e-
neg o and No h Macedonia. The se en h
and eigh h dono con e ences on he u u e
o Sy ia and he egion in June 2023 and
May 2024 we e s ongly in luenced by
mig a ion policy objec i es, wi h Tu key,
Lebanon, Jo dan and I aq ecei ing inan-
cial suppo o hei willingness o hos
e ugees.
In addi ion o he Middle Eas , A ica has
been he ocus o Eu ope’s mig a ion and
secu i y e o s. In July 2023, he EU signed
an economic and mig a ion ag eemen wi h
Tunisia. Simila ag eemen s wi h Egyp and
Mau i ania ollowed in Ma ch 2024. Mig a-
ion managemen is also included in he
manda es o EU missions and ope a ions.
Ag eemen s o his e ec ha e been con-
cluded wi h he espec i e pa ne s a es.
The EU has p o ided se e al million eu os
h ough he Eu opean Peace Facili y (EPF)
o mili a y aining in Benin, Ghana, Cam-
e oon, Somalia, Cô e d’I oi e and he A i-
can Union. A he same ime, he Council
ex ended he manda es o se e al EU ain-
ing missions, including in Mozambique and
Libya. Memo anda o unde s anding will be
concluded wi h he hi d coun ies con-
ce ned o implemen hese manda es, all o
which ha e a secu i y ocus. The EU Secu i y
and De ence Ini ia i e in he Gul o Guinea
ocuses on aining soldie s and police
o ice s om he ou li o al s a es o coun-
e e o is h ea s. The ini ial decision o
Augus 2023 only co e ed Ghana and Benin.
Howe e , in Sep embe 2023, he mission
was ex ended o Cô e d’I oi e and Togo.
P io i ising esou ce secu i y
The g owing impo ance o esou ce secu-
i y is u he e idence o he secu i isa ion
o he EU’s ex e nal ade. In May 2024, he
C i ical Raw Ma e ials Ac en e ed in o
o ce – accompanied by bila e al ag ee-
men s – se ing pa ame e s o he ex ac-
ion, p ocessing and ecycling o c i ical
aw ma e ials in he EU. In July 2023, he
Council au ho ised he Commission o open
nego ia ions wi h he Uni ed S a es on an
ag eemen ega ding c i ical mine als sup-
ply chains. In Feb ua y 2024, he EU and
Rwanda signed an ag eemen on secu ing
such supply chains. This was ollowed a
mon h la e by an ag eemen wi h Angola
o p omo e sus ainable in es men . Also in
Ma ch 2024, he Council app o ed a bila -
e al ade ag eemen wi h Chile, which
should gi e he EU be e access o aw ma e-
ials such as li hium, coppe and hyd ogen.
Finally, in May 2024, he EU and Aus alia
signed a memo andum o unde s anding o
coope a e on c i ical and s a egic ma e i-
als. A simila pa ne ship wi h Uzbekis an
was signed sho ly a e wa ds. These coun-
y-speci ic ag eemen s we e amed by a
No embe 2023 egula ion o p o ec he
EU om economic coe cion by hi d coun-
ies. The nume ous pa ne ship, ade and
aw ma e ials ag eemen s as well as he
de- isking and iend-sho ing e o s show
ha he lowes common denomina o o a
p ima ily no m-o ien a ed Eu opean o -
eign policy is he p ese a ion o he EU’s
own economic and secu i y in e es s.
De- isking is-à- is China?
The EU’s ade dependence on China is
pa icula ly p onounced in he a ea o
g een echnologies. The EU-Cen al Asia
minis e ial mee ing in Oc obe 2023 and
he conclusion o a s a egic pa ne ship
wi h Japan in Ap il 2024 e lec di e si ica-
ion e o s, bu hey a e o e shadowed by
he geopoli ical impo ance o he EU’s
China policy. The de- isking s a egy o
China, adop ed in June 2023, has emained
la gely wi hou subs ance. This is also e i-
SWP Commen 17
Ap il 2025
5
den om a lis published in Oc obe 2023
ha de ails c i ical echnologies which a e
no o be ans e ed o Beijing: he b e i y
o he lis sugges s ha i is a lowes com-
mon denomina o , lea ing he EU incapa-
ble o pu suing s a egic isk minimisa ion.
The comple e absence o ans o ma ional
echnologies om he lis shows ha
Eu ope will no be able o ealis ically e-
duce i s impo dependence in his sec o .
The consequences o his es ic ion on
he EU’s ex e nal ade a e coming o a head.
The EU is caugh be ween a Uni ed S a es
ha inc easingly insis s on au onomy in he
a ea o g een ans o ma ion and a China
on which i is highly dependen economi-
cally. Whe eas Washing on has imposed
massi e puni i e a i s on Chinese elec ic
ehicles, sola cells and semiconduc o s, he
Eu opean Commission has decided on mod-
e a e p o isional a i inc eases, despi e an
in es iga ion ha ound signi ican ma ke
dis o ions due o Chinese subsidies. Whe e
he de- isking eaches i s limi s is in he dis-
ag eemen s be ween membe s a es: Whe e-
as F ance was in a ou o puni i e a i s,
inc easingly c i ical oices we e hea d in
Ge many ha exp essed ea s o a ade wa .
The EU is di ided on a s a egic app oach o
China (pa ne , compe i o , i al).
Global Ga eway
Beyond bila e al ini ia i es, he EU is deep-
ening egional economic coope a ion.
Gi en he ongoing wa in Uk aine – bu
especially he con lic be ween he Uni ed
S a es and China – he Council epea edly
s esses he need o s eng hen in e na ion-
al pa ne ships, no ably h ough he Global
Ga eway S a egy (GGS) and he “Team
Eu ope” app oach. The GGS is widely seen
as Eu ope’s esponse o China’s Bel and
Road Ini ia i e. In he pe iod 2021–2027,
he ini ia i e aims o inance in as uc u e
and sus ainabili y p ojec s in pa ne coun-
ies wi h a o al olume o up o €300 bil-
lion. The i s Global Ga eway Fo um ook
place in Oc obe 2023, in which inancing
commi men s o mo e han €3 billion we e
made. A he same ime, he EU signed
commodi y ag eemen s wi h he DRC and
Zambia, as well as a join ag eemen wi h
he Uni ed S a es, Angola, he DRC and
Zambia o e i e he Lobi o Co ido , which
will anspo c i ical commodi ies om he
DRC o A ica’s wes coas . Also in he con-
ex o he GGS, he EU and he A ican
De elopmen Bank signed a coope a ion
ag eemen in Janua y 2024.
Thus, wo conclusions can be d awn
om he EU’s pa ne ship, ade and aw
ma e ials ag eemen s. Fi s ly, i is e iden
ha , in ela ion o A ica, he Middle Eas
and also Uk aine, a secu i isa ion o he
ag eemen s can be obse ed. Secondly,
nume ous aspec s o he ag eemen s ela e
o he secu i y o he EU and i s membe
s a es. In con as , i is e iden ha he
Eu opean Commission’s de- isking app oach
owa ds China is being unde mined by he
di e ging in e es s o membe s a es.
New inancial ins umen s o
ea ming he membe s a es…
The numbe o inancial ins umen s in he
EU’s secu i y and de ence policy has also
inc eased since Donald T ump’s i s e m
in o ice. P obably he mos impo an pilla
o his de elopmen so a is he Eu opean
De ence Fund (EDF), which was in oduced
in 2021 and has a budge o a ound €8 bil-
lion ( he Commission ini ially p oposed
€13 billion). The EDF unds collabo a i e
esea ch on de ence equipmen and co-
inances i s de elopmen . P io o his, he
EU had launched he P epa a o y Ac ion on
De ence Resea ch (PADR) and he Eu opean
De ence Indus ial De elopmen P og amme
(EDIDP). PADR was launched o he pe iod
2017–2019, while he EDIDP was launched
o he pe iod 2019–2020. Al hough he
EDF and i s p edecesso s only unded ac i i-
ies ela ed o he esea ch and de elop-
men phase o de ence equipmen , Russia’s
ull-scale in asion immedia ely changed he
ocus o he EU’s de ence unding ins u-
men s. The Eu opean De ence Indus y Re-
in o cemen h ough common P ocu emen
Ac (EDIRPA), c ea ed in 2023, aims o p o-
SWP Commen 17
Ap il 2025
6
mo e he join p ocu emen o equipmen
by membe s a es h ough a ge ed incen-
i es. As such, i is in ended o complemen
he EDF. EDIRPA has a budge o €310 mil-
lion o i s asks – aken om 2023 and
2024 budge su pluses – which is well
below he €500 million en isaged by he
Commission. This is due o he inc eased
unding equi emen s o he Ac in Sup-
po o Ammuni ion P oduc ion (ASAP),
which aims o inc ease ammuni ion p o-
duc ion capaci y in he EU-27. ASAP ocuses
on ebuilding membe s a es’ s ockpiles,
which ha e been deple ed as a esul o
supplying Uk aine wi h la ge calib e am-
muni ion and missiles. ASAP cu en ly has
€500 million a ailable om hese budge
su pluses o his pu pose.
Finally, a he special summi o he
Eu opean Council in Ma ch 2025, i was
ag eed o adap he Eu opean In es men
Bank’s (EIB) lending c i e ia o p e iously
excluded ac i i ies in he de ence sec o and
o inc ease he olume o inancing a ail-
able. This is in ended o acili a e close co-
ope a ion be ween he Bank and he Eu o-
pean De ence Agency (EDA). The inancial
commi men s will be accompanied by he
EDIRPA Regula ion om Oc obe 2023 and
he ex ension in May 2024 o he EDA’s
powe s in he a ea o de ence p ocu emen .
In Ma ch 2024, he Commission also p e-
sen ed a p oposal o a egula ion on he
Eu opean De ence Indus y P og amme
(EDIP). The ini ia i e is linked o a und o
€1.5 billion o he emainde o he cu en
mul iannual inancial amewo k, which
should help o consolida e he sho - e m
ins umen s EDIRPA and ASAP un il 2027.
The EDIP is s ill unde nego ia ion be ween
he Commission and he membe s a es,
and i emains o be seen o wha ex en
hese undamen al shi s in he Eu opean
secu i y o de can accele a e his p ocess.
… and o he mili a y aining o
hi d coun ies
The ex a-budge a y EPF has become ano he
co ne s one in he inancing o Eu opean
secu i y. The EPF was se up o inance he
join cos s o EU mili a y ope a ions ( eplac-
ing he A hena mechanism); o suppo he
mili a y capabili ies o hi d coun ies o
in e na ional and egional o ganisa ions;
o o co e he cos s o explici ly mili a y
aspec s o peace suppo ope a ions con-
duc ed by a hi d coun y o a egional o
in e na ional o ganisa ion.
The unds a ailable o he EPF o he
pe iod 2021–2027 we e ini ially capped a
€5.69 billion, bu we e inc eased in se e al
s eps o €17 billion as a esul o Russia’s
wa o agg ession agains Uk aine. In Ma ch
2024, he Council decided o u he inc ease
he EPF by a o al o €5 billion in suppo
o Kyi .
Beyond mili a y assis ance, he EU has
se up a sepa a e Uk aine acili y unde he
EPF ha came in o o ce in Ma ch 2024 and
will p o ide he coun y on he banks o
he Dniepe wi h up o €50 billion o e-
cons uc ion and mode nisa ion o e he
nex ou yea s. In No embe 2023, membe
s a es had al eady ag eed o p o ide €194
million o he Eu opean Union Assis ance
Mission o Uk aine (EUMAM). Finally, he
EU also ex ended i s mission o e o m
Uk aine’s secu i y sec o un il 2027. In his
way, B ussels is inc easingly building a sec-
ond pilla o suppo o Uk aine ha goes
beyond di ec mili a y assis ance and sup-
po s he coun y’s EU membe ship p os-
pec a e a possible end o he wa . In June
2024, he membe s a es opened accession
nego ia ions wi h Uk aine and Moldo a.
These a ious ac i i ies clea ly show ha
he membe s a es and he Commission a e
qui e willing o c ea e ins umen s o he
di ec and indi ec inancing o a mamen s
and de ence p ojec s.
Despi e his p og ess, he e is s ill a lack
o se ious and e ec i e ini ia i es o add ess
he s uc u al sho comings o Eu opean
o eign, secu i y and de ence policy. The
Eu opean de ence sec o emains highly
agmen ed, wi h duplica ed mili a y
capabili ies o la ge membe s a es and a
lack o e ec i e cen al coo dina ion. The
Commission’s ReA m Eu ope ini ia i e o
Ma ch 2025, which includes a €150 billion
SWP Commen 17
Ap il 2025
7
loan o mobilise addi ional de ence spend-
ing, is also unlikely o help o e come he
agmen a ion o he de ence sec o . I
emains o be seen o wha ex en he
announced adjus men o he S abili y and
G ow h Pac ’s na ional escape clause – o
a undamen al e ision o he pac – can
mobilise he a ge ed €650 billion in addi-
ional na ional de ence spending.
Ou comes and op ions o
Eu opeanisa ion
A close look a he p ocess o secu i isa ion
he EU’s ex e nal ac ion p o ides se e al
insigh s in o Eu ope’s capaci y o ac in
o eign and secu i y policy. Fi s , secu i isa-
ion is a delibe a e “policy” o EU ins i u-
ions, which iden i y a eas whe e hey a e
inc easingly e-o ien a ing o e ocusing
hei ex e nal ac ion acco ding o s a egic
secu i y in e es s. One example is he GGS,
which can be seen as an EU in as uc u e
policy coun e o ensi e o China’s Bel and
Road Ini ia i e.
Second, in i s ex e nal ela ions, he EU
is consciously seeking o ans e in eg a-
ion in one a ea (e.g. he single ma ke ) o
o he a eas (e.g. aw ma e ials and en i on-
men al policy). One example is he ag ee-
men wi h Se bia on li hium mining, which
is in ended o se e as a building block o
he echnological and en i onmen al ans-
o ma ion o he in e nal ma ke .
Thi d, p i a e and public ac o s a e
wo king closely wi h he Eu opean Com-
mission o align p ojec s, unding o in es -
men p og ammes in hi d coun ies wi h
secu e supply chains and he EU’s esou ce
secu i y (e.g. he GGS).
The p ocess o secu i isa ion may be
jus i ied in he con ex o Russia’s wa o
agg ession agains Uk aine. Ye , i has no
sol ed he co e p oblem o he EU’s (in)abil-
i y o ac in o eign and secu i y policy. On
he con a y, he EU’s oom o manoeu e
in o eign and secu i y policy is-à- is he
Uni ed S a es has been u he educed. The
bo om line is ha he secu i isa ion o he
ansa lan ic ela ionship, as ou lined abo e,
will a ou ansac ionalism in o eign and
secu i y policy. The secu i isa ion – and
hus he na owing o he EU’s o eign poli-
cy amewo k – will no con ibu e owa ds
s eng hening Eu ope’s abili y o ac .
The EU’s only emaining oppo uni y o
asse i sel in he new geopoli ical e a o
he T ump adminis a ion is h ough ins i-
u ional e o m. To his end, i has wo op-
ions (see SWP Commen 2/2019): 1) a un-
damen al s uc u al e o m o Eu opean
o eign and secu i y policy, including he
in oduc ion o quali ied majo i y o ing
and he p o ision o massi e inancial
esou ces om di e si ied sou ces (EU bud-
ge , join bo owing, changes o he EIB
amewo k). This is because “s a egic depen-
dency managemen ” in o eign and secu i y
policy and g ea e esilience o he EU in
he sense o de- isking can only be achie ed
h ough a communi ised o eign policy. I
he EU also wan s o coun e he US chal-
lenge o mul ila e alism, he Eu opeans
would be well ad ised o choose he pa h o
ha d balancing is-à- is he Uni ed S a es.
The EU is seen as a mul ila e al o sup ana-
ional p ojec ha mus p o e i sel in
imes o c isis i i is o se e as a model o
o he egions. I i ails o do so, 2) a Eu o-
pean Secu i y Council mus be c ea ed
ou side he EU ea ies – comp ising a
leas Ge many, F ance, Poland and he
Uni ed Kingdom – and in i e o he s a es
on an ad hoc basis acco ding o egional
and hema ic p io i ies. I s main ask will
be o o m in e na ional coali ions o he
willing p epa ed o seek mul ila e al solu-
ions based on sha ed alues.
The EU will no be able o pos pone he
Eu opeanisa ion o he CFSP/CSDP o much
longe , as i has done in ecen yea s (see
SWP Commen 19/2024). The disco d ha
cha ac e ises he EU in e nally is likely o
con inue o mani es i sel in agmen ed
ex e nal ac ion, which Eu ope can no
longe a o d. Fo his eason, communi-
a isa ion and/o he c ea ion o a Eu opean
Secu i y Council a e impo an poli ical
solu ions.
Max Becke is Resea ch Assis an in he EU/Eu ope Resea ch Di ision a SWP. D Anneg e Bendiek and D Ronja Kempin
a e Senio Fellows in he EU/Eu ope Resea ch Di ision.
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Ge man Ins i u e o
In e na ional and
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ISSN (P in ) 1861-1761
ISSN (Online) 2747-5107
DOI: 10.18449/2025C17
(English e sion o
SWP-Ak uell 11/2025)
