Michulek, Jakub; Gajano a, Lubica; K ižano á, Anna; Blazek, Roman
A icle
Why do companies cook he books? Empi ical s udy o he
mo i es o c ea i e accoun ing o Slo ak companies
Adminis a i e Sciences
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Michulek, Jakub; Gajano a, Lubica; K ižano á, Anna; Blazek, Roman (2024) :
Why do companies cook he books? Empi ical s udy o he mo i es o c ea i e accoun ing o Slo ak
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Ci a ion: Michulek, Jakub, Lubica
Gajano a, Anna K izano a, and
Roman Blazek. 2024. Why Do
Companies Cook he Books?
Empi ical S udy o he Mo i es o
C ea i e Accoun ing o Slo ak
Companies. Adminis a i e Sciences 14:
158. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci14070158
Recei ed: 1 June 2024
Re ised: 16 July 2024
Accep ed: 18 July 2024
Published: 22 July 2024
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adminis a i e
sciences
A icle
Why Do Companies Cook he Books? Empi ical S udy o he
Mo i es o C ea i e Accoun ing o Slo ak Companies
Jakub Michulek *, Lubica Gajano a, Anna K izano a and Roman Blazek
Facul y o Ope a ion and Economics o T anspo and Communica ions, Uni e si y o Zilina, Uni e zi na 1,
010 26 Zilina, Slo akia; [email p o ec ed] (L.G.); [email p o ec ed] (A.K.);
[email p o ec ed] (R.B.)
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : S udies on c ea i e accoun ing da e back o he la e pa o he 20 h cen u y. C ea i e
accoun ing is s ill a big challenge in inancial accoun ing. The p oblem o inancial s a emen
manipula ion migh be in es iga ed, o ins ance, om an accoun ing, legal, e hical, o psychological
pe spec i e. This esea ch aims o iden i y he main mo i es o he use o c ea i e accoun ing and
o ind ou whe he co po a e cul u e has an impac on he mo i es leading o he use o c ea i e
accoun ing. Da a collec ion ook place om 18 No embe 2023 o 18 Decembe 2022. In he esea ch,
we used Pea son’s
χ2
es o de e mine he dependence o he s udied a iables in con ingency ables.
Subsequen ly, co espondence analysis was used. The ype o co po a e cul u e does no ha e an
impac on he mo i es ha lead o c ea i e accoun ing. I was p o en ha he ype o co po a e
cul u e has an impac on he pe o mance o c ea i e accoun ing ac ions based on he eques o a
senio employee. The uniqueness o he esea ch lies in he in es iga ion o c ea i e accoun ing om
a psychological and manage ial poin o iew in he e i o y o he Slo ak Republic.
Keywo ds: c ea i e accoun ing; mo i es o c ea i e accoun ing; employee beha io ; co po a e cul u e;
sus ainable de elopmen
1. In oduc ion
Accoun ing can be de ined as he mos undamen al ool used o in o m company
s akeholde s. Howe e , businesses a e some imes eluc an o epo he esul s o ope -
a ions ealis ically (Aygun 2013). Imp o emen in a company’s compe i i eness in bo h
domes ic and in e na ional ma ke s equi es p ecise and eliable s a emen s (Hýblo áe al.
2022). Accoun ing can be conside ed a mi o o all business ac i i ies ca ied ou by
companies and hei employees. The esul ing o m o accoun ing s a emen s is in luenced
by he di e en mo i es, in e es s, and goals o accoun an s, co po a e managemen , and
company owne s (D abko a and Pech 2022).
C ea i e accoun ing has been s udied since he second hal o he las cen u y. How-
e e , i achie ed i s g ea es boom in scien i ic ci cles in he pe iod be o e he inancial c isis
in 2007. The esul was a eassessmen o accoun ing, bu also o he egula o y appa a us
i sel (Du ana e al. 2022). Acco ding o Hlawiczka e al. (2021), c ea i e accoun ing is a
equen ly used ool in economic c ime. C ea i i y can be pe cei ed as he a o seeking,
adop ing, and c ea ing uncon en ional p ocedu es, new ideas, and o iginal solu ions (Va -
iak and Ga ba o a 2024). Ja ah e al. (2022) unde s and c ea i e accoun ing as he use o
a ailable accoun ing al e na i es o beau i y inancial in o ma ion.
Howe e , he issue o c ea i e accoun ing is no only a p oblem a he co po a e le el.
A he na ional le el, Go o and Yamamo o (2023) no e ha EU na ions who joined he
Economic and Mone a y Union (EMU) used c ea i e accoun ing. A he subna ional le el,
he mayo o Kadoma, Japan, acknowledged ha he ci y had concealed he gene al accoun
de ici om hei nego ia ion coun e pa ’s ci izens by using c ea i e accoun ing be o e
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 158. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14070158 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 158 2 o 16
hei me ge nego ia ions. Go e nmen s ha e been known o use c ea i e accoun ing, as
demons a ed by hese nume ous ins ances, i espec i e o hei size.
Reasons may include he imp o emen o p o i abili y o he inancial si ua ion, o
he achie emen o own goals. Olojede and E in (2021) claim ha i he basic ep ession o
e ealing inco ec inancial epo ing ailed in a company, he whole si ua ion ended up
being a big ailu e o he company. C ea i e accoun ing occu s when manage s use hei
knowledge and knowledge o he ules o manipula ion o da a p esen ed in he company’s
inancial s a emen s wi hou ollowing he ules (Dias e al. 2016).
As a esul , c ea i e accoun ing exis s no because he con ingency is disclosed in he
no es a he han in he s a emen o inancial posi ion, bu because o an en i y’s judgmen
and a gumen s used o jus i y he likelihood o a possible obliga ion p esen ed ou o
o he liabili ies. The e ec may be compa able o concealing ce ain inancing h ough
o -balance-shee inancing p ocesses (Lopes and Reis 2019).
This may esul in an inaccu a e po ayal o a business’s inancial pe o mance,
leading o judgmen s being made based on incomple e in o ma ion. To s op hese kinds
o abuses, ex e nal audi o s a e essen ial in spo ing and disclosing ins ances o c ea i e
accoun ing (Ozcelik 2020). Su icien esou ces and ime a e necessa y o audi o s o ca y
ou a comp ehensi e audi and educe he possibili y o missing inno a i e accoun ing
echniques (Al Shan i e al. 2024).
Manage s pu sue inno a i e accoun ing o a a ie y o easons. The ‘posi i e accoun -
ing heo y’ adi ion jus i ies c ea i e accoun ing by a guing ha i con adic s mains eam
e hics, is ele an o he US wi h a well-de eloped s ock ma ke and a ocus on de ailed
accoun ing egula ions a he han b oad p inciples, and is less p e alen in o he coun-
ies. Accoun an s who accep he e hical challenge posed by c ea i e accoun ing mus be
cognizan o he po en ial o misuse o accoun ing policy choices as well as ansac ion
manipula ion (Ama e al. 1999).
Tobi e al. (2016) s a e ha in o de o gua an ee accu a e inancial epo ing and
lowe he isk o c ea i e accoun ing, companies can implemen e icien in e nal con ols
in addi ion o wo king wi h ex e nal audi o s. Addi ionally, egula o s a e essen ial in
keeping an eye on and en o cing accoun ing egula ions o make su e businesses ollow
GAAP. IA is hough o be an essen ial pa o pu ing accoun ing p ocedu es in o place,
which will help lessen he e ec s o c ea i e accoun ing (Ja ah e al. 2022).
As pa o esea ch de o ed o he c ea i e accoun an , esea che s ocus mo e on
he causes, models e ealing c ea i e accoun ing, o he e hical side o he in es iga ed
issue. O e all, he e is a lack o esea ch dealing wi h he psychological aspec o c ea i e
accoun ing and he ac o s ha lead o such ac i i ies. As pa o ou esea ch, we ocused
on he in luence o co po a e cul u e on he mo i es o c ea i e accoun ing and, a he same
ime, whe he he ypes o co po a e cul u e ha e an impac on he execu ion o c ea i e
accoun ing on he o de s o a senio wo ke in companies ope a ing in he e i o y o he
Slo ak Republic. Wi h his scien i ic a icle, we y o ill he gap in scien i ic knowledge
de o ed o business ac o s a ec ing he pe o mance o c ea i e accoun ing ac i i ies.
The aim o his esea ch is o iden i y he main mo i es o he use o c ea i e accoun -
ing and o ind ou whe he co po a e cul u e has an impac on he mo i es leading o he
use o c ea i e accoun ing.
The a icle consis s o six sec ions. The in oduc ion se es o in oduce he eade
o he esea ch ques ion. In he li e a u e e iew, we p o ide insigh in o he heo e ical
s a ing poin s and iews o a ious au ho s dealing wi h he issue o c ea i e accoun ing
and co po a e cul u e. The in o ma ion p esen ed in his sec ion c ea es a heo e ical basis
o es ablishing hypo heses. Me hodology cla i ies he me hod o da a collec ion, he
me hods used, and he indi idual s eps o me hodical esea ch. The esul s sec ion in o ms
us abou he scien i ic esul s o he su ey. In he discussion, we compa e he esul s o he
scien i ic con ibu ion wi h he esul s o o he s udies. The mos impo an in o ma ion,
limi a ions, and u u e esea ch a e summa ized in he las sec ion, called he conclusion.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 158 3 o 16
2. Li e a u e Re iew
Acco ding o Rahman e al. (2023), he applica ion o sophis ica ed accoun ing knowl-
edge and p ac ices ha a e pe mi ed by cu en laws and egula ions is known as c ea i e
accoun ing. Managemen o en changes accoun ing epo s by u ilizing s ong c ea i e
accoun ing li e acy. These echniques a e commonly e e ed o as agg essi e accoun ing,
ea nings managemen , o c ea i e accoun ing. C ea i e accoun ing bypasses he spi i o
he ules o s anda d accoun ing p ocedu es and, a he same ime, pe mu es accoun ing
p ac ice (Olojede and E in 2021). I is challenging o in es o s o unde s and inno a i e
accoun ing me hods. As a esul , e en i hei businesses we e inancially sound, co po a-
ions like En on, Wo ld.com, and A hu Ande son ailed because o inno a i e accoun ing
echniques. Fu he mo e, esea che s ha e iden i ied se e al addi ional causes o hese
collapses, such as inadequa e inancial epo ing, imp ope use o inancial da a, a lack
o co po a e e hics, a company’s ocus on he u u e wi hou adding alue, and subpa
co po a e go e nance p ocedu es (Rahman e al. 2023).
Companies need o adap o he conside able changes in s akeholde p essu e and
in o ma ion needs in ecen yea s. Imp o ed epo ing quali y is ueled by he necessi y
o gi e s akeholde s anspa ency (Abed e al. 2022a). Bhasin (2015) he e o e emphasizes
ha inno a ion is an essen ial pa o c ea i e accoun ing p ac ices. Blazek e al. (2020)
s a e ha i companies engaged in such beha io , i was necessa y o cons an ly hide hese
p ac ices. In he a icle’s quan i a i e po ion, Kallan a y e al. (2024) ound ha in insic
objec i i y and he kind o owne ship businesses a e he wo mos impo an elemen s
ha in luence he de elopmen o c ea i e accoun ing in TSE en e p ises. When de ining
c ea i e accoun ing, au ho s ypically dis inguish be ween wo p ac ices: aud in ended
o p esen an en i y in a mo e a o able ligh and changing he alue o goods by aking
ad an age o accoun ing s anda ds ha may no be a ge ed (Hýblo áe al. 2022).
Indi idual gain in luences he con ol o manipula ion o inancial eco ds, and ea n-
ings a e simply manipula ed o po ay a mo e a ac i e pic u e o he o ganiza ion. This
is especially e iden when inancial eco ds a e handled une hically, ou side o legal s uc-
u es. To law ully con ol e enues, c ea i e managemen uses a a ie y o p ocesses
and s a egies. Examples include p ope y alua ion, manipula ion o epo ed sales
and e enues, in en ional accoun ing e o s, ea nings quali y, and ea nings managemen
(Ko áˇco áe al. 2022).
Economic c ime is linked o c ea i e accoun ing, which is induced by, o example,
ax op imiza ion (Lu y 2019). Economic c ime can be iewed as a dis inc ype o c ime
wi h an expanding end. Se e al global polls e eal signi ican co po a e losses owing
o economic c ime. We li e in an ad anced age, which b ings a ious echnological and
in o ma ional ad an ages ha help o a oid de ec ion o economic aud mo e e ec i ely.
This encou ages nume ous businesses a ound he wo ld o commi aud, which has a
nega i e impac on he whole business clima e. The se ing is hen used by dishones
en ep eneu s, such as cle e accoun an s, manage s, and business owne s who seek
weal h. Such inno a i e accoun ing e o s and aud ha e majo ami ica ions o business
managemen . To coun e ac he use o c ea i e accoun ing, i is c ucial o iden i y no
only he ex e nal a iables ha d i e o ganiza ions o use i bu also he in e nal ones,
which a e jus as impo an o unde s anding he en i e beha io ela ed o he phenomena
(Hlawiczka e al. 2021).
Blazek e al. (2023a) add ess he impo ance o co po a e go e nance in keeping
c ea i e accoun ing o a minimum. The au ho s discuss he e hical consequences o pe -
o ming mac o- o mic o-manipula ion (a he le el o egula o y agencies o he s a e)
a he i m le el. Acco ding o he au ho s, c ea i e accoun ing echniques a e e hically
epulsi e and a e no ai o s akeholde s, o hey a e an unjus exe cise o powe wi h he
pu pose o unde mining egula o s’ accoun ing au ho i y. Fou essen ial componen s o
c ea i e accoun ing we e iden i ied by Abed e al. (2022b): owne ship s uc u e, in e nal
con ol, e hical conside a ions, and disclosu e quali y.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 158 4 o 16
Acco ding o Gup a and Kuma (2020), while c ea i e accoun ing is legal and accep -
able a ound he wo ld, i opens up gaps in he ac s and ules go e ning he p epa a ion
o inancial accoun s, ul ima ely leading o inancial c imes and ha ming he economy as
a whole.
Remena ic e al. (2018) iden i ied pe sonal gain, benchma king, a ac ing in es o s,
inc easing, o main aining he le el o capi al, gaining ime o se le deb s, o o e coming
analys s’ es ima es o he company’s u u e pe o mance as he main mo i es o c ea i e
accoun ing. Acco ding o Smailo ic e al. (2020), he mo i es o using c ea i e accoun ing
a e di e en . They include mo i es anging om he need o a oid paying axes, o ensu e
mo e p o i able business sales, o gain a be e posi ion wi h c edi o s and in es o s, o o
ealize bonuses and manage ial p i ileges.
A combina ion o lax moni o ing, lax laws, incen i e s uc u es, and exo bi an op
managemen compensa ion has esul ed in oppo unis ic beha io ha misleads he public,
sha eholde s, and in es o s by p omising he c ea ion o alse weal h h ough high- isk
in es men s. Fu he mo e, ecen empi ical esea ch has e ealed ha aud and scandals
a e caused by “une hical beha io , agency p oblems, and unp o essional a i udes.” In he
con ex o agency p oblems, CEOs and senio managemen could use “c ea i e accoun ing”
p ac ices o ensu e ha highe p io i y deb is issued and di idends a e inc eased; o
emba k on a highe isk p ojec o highe weal h c ea ion; o educe p uden in es ing o
show highe p o i s and please sha eholde s by paying highe di idends; o accep p ojec s
and in es men s exceeding he e ec i e size o he o ganiza ion; o a combina ion o any o
all o hese. Indi iduals wi h agg essi e and oppo unis ic ea ning beha io may engage in
any o hese ac ions, which a e e med une hical accoun ac i i y (Poli is 2015).
Howe e , hese ac i i ies con adic he concep o sus ainable de elopmen (SD).
Acco ding o Agbedahin (2019), sus ainable de elopmen can be de ined as “de elopmen
ha mee s cu en needs wi hou jeopa dizing u u e gene a ions’ abili y o mee hei own
needs”. Simul aneously, SD enables easonable measu es owa d en i onmen al in eg i y,
economic sus ainabili y, and a decen socie y o cu en and u u e gene a ions, while
p o ec ing cul u al di e si y. F om his, i can be concluded ha he ac i i ies o c ea i e
accoun ing a e in con lic no only wi h e hics bu also wi h heal hy economic iabili y and
a jus socie y, and hus con adic he wo basic pilla s, economic and social, o SD.
Guo’s (2022) s udy is use ul o go e nmen s encou aging p i a e businesses o ake
social esponsibili y by de eloping compe en successo s o long- e m economic de el-
opmen . The consequences o poo accoun ing p ac ices indica e ha igh e con ol o
accoun ing conduc is equi ed in ela ion o managemen succession. I also makes sense
o p i a e en ep eneu s, as he nega i e impac o poo accoun ing echniques on en-
e p ises’ long- e m inancial success sugges s ha ounde s should use mo e accep able
me hods o assis hei g andchild en inhe i he amily business smoo hly, a he han
lowe ing e u ns. Mu a e al. (2021) ound ha successo s’ emo ional in elligence in luences
hei ela ionship managemen skills. As a esul , successo s canno comple ely inhe i and
capi alize on specialized asse s, e en i hey assume con olling posi ions in o ganiza ions,
posing challenges o he long- e m de elopmen o amily businesses. Chebbi (2024), Le
and Doan (2024), Ama na e al. (2024), Zhao and Zhao (2023), Salihi e al. (2023), G imaldi
e al. (2020), and T an e al. (2016), among o he s, ha e all looked in o he ela ionship
be ween SD and un ai accoun ing p ac ices.
Nume ous elemen s, including job secu i y, ma ke and analys expec a ions, no m
compliance, e icien inancial a iable managemen , and handling o acquisi ion and
me ge - ela ed conce ns, can os e c ea i e accoun ing echniques. These easons may
also include asse misapp op ia ion and aud concealmen . Companies should se up
us wo hy in e nal con ol mechanisms, mo al s anda ds, and open inancial epo ing o
s op hese beha io s (Dixi and Shukla 2023). Al Shan i e al. (2024) men ioned ha , mo e
c ucially, manage s equen ly pu pose ully al e he inancial s a emen wi h app o al
om a highe au ho i y o ou pe o m i als in he ma ke . Acco ding o Hýblo áe al.
(2022), he p ima y a eas ha a e modi ied in inancial s a emen s a e he o e alua ion o
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 158 5 o 16
asse s and e enues, he unde alua ion o liabili ies and expenses, he ailu e o u ilize
allowances and p o isions, and he non-compliance wi h he acc ual p inciple.
The signi icance o o ganiza ional clima e and cul u e is in hei abili y o p omo e
job sa is ac ion, in eg i y in p oduc ion, and app op ia e p oduc i i y managemen (Vi ¯
dak
e al. 2023). Li e al. (2023) con i m ha he indi idual psychological componen o powe
dis ance disposi ion is s eng hened by ma ke and hie a chical cul u es, is in e p e ed as
obedience o con o mi y o he pa ies, and ini ia es immo al p o-o ganiza ional beha io .
Albah i e al. (2023) s a e ha o p ope ly handle da a a ia ions, i is necessa y o conside
he di e en o ganiza ional cul u e cha ac e is ics ha a ec success, assign signi icance
weigh s o each cha ac e is ic, and acknowledge ha di e en o ganiza ional cul u es may
excel in di e en a eas.
Se ice decision-make s indica ed a blended and equen ly eac i e app oach o
employing e idence, wi h he ype and sou ce o e idence employed depending on he opic
a hand, acco ding o Calnan and McHugh (2023). The e a e se e al le els a which ba ie s
and acili a o s o he use o esea ch can be ound: pe sonal ( ime); o ganiza ional (cul u e,
access o esea ch, esou ces, and skills); esea ch (quali y, ele ance); and social, poli ical,
and economic ( unding, poli ical will, ex e nal connec ions wi h uni e si ies). Pa icipan s
sugges ed syn hesizing key esea ch messages, bols e ing connec ions wi h ins i u ions,
and encou aging mo e embedded esea ch as ways o imp o e e idence-in o med decision-
making. Sanka (1988) s a es ha mapping he alues and e hical p esump ions ha make
up he dynamic componen s o an o ganiza ional cul u e is necessa y o e ec i e s a egic
managemen o ha cul u e. Consequen ly, ac ics o p ese ing, enhancing, and al e ing
cul u e mus cen e on he o ganiza ion’s alue sys em. We can assess he dynamics o
alues in co po a e cul u e by using a amewo k ha is based on ou knowledge o alues
and how hey ela e o o he aspec s o an indi idual’s psychological sys em, such as belie s,
goals, a i udes, e hics, and beha io . Values embedded in he o ganiza ional cul u e impac
how ci cums ances and issues a e pe cei ed, how decisions a e made h oughou he en i e
p ocess, and how e hical beha io in decision-making is limi ed. The e hical p emises used
in decision-making a e aken om he hie a chy o alues.
Adamiko a and Co ejo a (2021) poin ou ha i a company applies de ices ha a e
in iola ion o he law, his leads o c iminal ac i i y. Legal unce ain ies can be exploi ed
by accoun ing manage s o p esen he company’s inancial s a us in a way ha aligns
wi h hei p e e ences, e en while c ea i e accoun ing p ocedu es a e no always ega ded
unlaw ul o in iola ion o he law (Ko áˇco áe al. 2022). Consequen ly, he idea o c ea i e
accoun ing is connec ed o bo h gene al e hics and accoun ing e hics no ms (Fa uq 2014).
The e hics o accoun ing in o ma ion manipula ion we e discussed, o example, by an
Helden e al. (2023).
Acco ding o Tassadaq and Malik (2015), he e is e idence in he li e a u e ha sugges s
ha he p ima y cause o une hical se ings in o ganiza ions is he inclina ion o ce ain
manage s o p io i ize sho - e m ad an ages. This, in u n, encou ages bad inancial
epo ing. Acco ding o Skoda and Vyklyuk (2018), manage s’ a i udes we e he main
cause o c ea i e accoun ing. Thei s udy sugges ed ha he manage s’ mo al conduc had
a big impac on he calibe o inancial epo ing. Choi and Pae (2011) and Akenbo and
Tennyson (2014) s a ed ha co po a e and manage ial e hics ha e an impac on he calibe
o inancial epo ing.
Following ha , al e na i e hypo heses we e es ablished using he ollowing language:
H1. The ype o co po a e cul u e has an impac on he mo i es ha lead o c ea i e accoun ing.
H2. The ype o co po a e cul u e has an impac on he pe o mance o c ea i e accoun ing ac ions
based on he eques o a senio employee.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 158 6 o 16
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
This esea ch aims o iden i y he main mo i es o he use o c ea i e accoun ing and
o ind ou whe he co po a e cul u e has an impac on he mo i es leading o he use o
c ea i e accoun ing.
Da a o he esea ch we e collec ed h ough an online Google Fo ms ques ionnai e.
The ques ionnai e was in ended o employees o he economic o accoun ing depa men s
o companies ope a ing in he e i o y o he Slo ak Republic, be ween he ages o 18
and 64, which ep esen s he wo king-age popula ion o he Slo ak Republic. Companies
om all 23 a eas o SK NACE we e app oached, while he ques ionnai e was illed ou
by companies om 18 indus ies. Da a collec ion ook place om 18 Decembe 2023 o 18
Janua y 2024.
The numbe o inhabi an s be ween he ages o 18 and 64 was de e mined om he
websi e o he 2021 Census o Popula ion, Homes, and Apa men s, www.sci anie.sk. A e
supplemen a ion, we had a sample size o 386 esponden s. The da a we e subsequen ly
p ocessed using wo p og ams, MS Excel and IBM SPSS S a is ics 25. As pa o he esea ch,
we wo ked wi h con ingency ables, Pea son’s
χ2
es , and C ame ’s V coe icien , and
i dependence was con i med, we used co espondence analysis. Dependence be ween
quali a i e ea u es was exp essed by associa ion and con ingency. The basis o examining
he dependence o independence o wo quali a i e cha ac e is ics is o de e mine he
equency o all combina ions o alues ha bo h a iables acqui e. The mos equen ly
used es o con ingency ables is Pea son’s
χ2
es . This es was un wi h a signi icance
le el o 0.05.
A c ucial ool o accu a ely e alua ing s udy indings is s a is ical es ing. The ob-
jec i e o he esea ch, he hypo hesis, and he da a all a ec how he s a is ical es is
de e mined (Tu han 2020). The obse ed and expec ed cell alues o a con ingency a-
ble a e compa ed using Pea son’s chi-squa e es . To ind e idence ha he dis ibu ion
o occu ences o one a iable ac oss le els o ano he is di e en om wha would be
p edic ed by chance, an independence es is mos equen ly employed. A able o com-
pu e p og am’s chi-squa ed p obabili y o a gi en alue is compa ed o he Pea son
es s a is ic, which is compu ed as ollows: i s , he expec ed alues a e calcula ed o
each cell o he able based on he obse ed alues, assuming ha he wo a iables a e
independen ; second, he obse ed minus he expec ed alues a e squa ed and di ided by
he expec ed alues o each squa e and summed ac oss he squa es; and hi d, he Pea son
es s a is ic is compu ed. A wide ange o da a exp essed in con ingency ables can be
subjec ed o Pea son’s chi-squa e es ; howe e , he es equi es ha he da a be:
(1) a
simple andom sample, (2) la ge enough o p o ide su icien p edic ed cell coun s, and
(3) independen o one ano he (Hess and Hess 2017). Acco ding o Camilli and Hopkins
(1978), he eason o using a chi-squa e es is ha he es inds i he e is any co ela ion
be ween non-nume ical a iables.
A e es ing o es ablished hypo heses, C ame ’s Vwas used i he dependence
was con i med.
V=sx2
n·min{ −1; s−1}(1)
whe e x
2
is he es s a is ic om Pea son
χ2
es , nis he numbe o o al obse a ions, is
he numbe o ows, and sis he numbe o columns (Blazek e al. 2023b).
C=sx2
n+x2(2)
The alue o C ame ’s Vde e mines he s eng h o dependence. The s eng h o
dependence acco ding o he alue o C ame ’s Vis shown in Table 1.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 158 7 o 16
Table 1. The alue o C ame’s V.
Value o Lowe Limi Value o Uppe Limi S eng h o Dependence
0.0< ≤0.3 Weak dependence
0.3< ≤0.8 Medium dependence
0.8< ≤1.0 S ong dependence
Sou ce: Own p ocessing.
Fou undamen al issues a e esol ed h ough co espondence analysis. In o he
wo ds, how do he a ious le els o he column a iable’s ca ego ies o he ow a iable
compa e and con as o one ano he ? How do he a ious a ian s o he ow a iable
a ec he simila i ies and di e ences be ween he ca ego ies o he column a iable? Wha
is he ela ionship be ween he ow and column ca ego ies? The inal que y is can we
g aphically ep esen his ela ionship in a smalle -dimensional space?
Maje o a (2020) s a es ha he ollowing s eps should be ollowed o calcula e he
co espondence echnique and indica e i wi h symbols: The -membe ed ec o o ow
loads is ep esen ed by he symbol , he s-membe ed ec o o column loads by he symbol
c, and he ela ionships be ween hem a e desc ibed as demons a ed by Equa ions (3) and
(4). I we designa e he ma ix o ow p o iles by he symbol Rand he ma ix o column
p o iles by he symbol C:
R=D−1
P=
T
1
T
2
.
.
T
(3)
C=D−1
cPT=c1c2. . cs(4)
whe e ec o elemen s a e ound on he diagonal o
D−1
and ec o celemen s a e
ound on he diagonal o
D−1
c
. This o m (Fo mula (5)) can hen be used o c ea e he
co espondence ma ix.
P
cT1=
p11 p12 . . . p1s 1
p21 p22
.
.
..
.
.
p 1
c1
p 2
c2
. . . p2s 2
· · · .
.
..
.
.
. . .
. . .
p s
cs
s
1
(5)
The ollowing ela ions apply o he ec o o ow loads and o he ec o o column
loads cas Fo mula (6).
=
s
∑
j=1
p+j·cjc=
∑
i=1
pi+· i(6)
A co espondence map is p oduced by g aphing he dependence s uc u e o wo
disc e e a iables. I displays h ee undamen al geome ic ideas. The p o ile p o ides
in o ma ion on he loca ion’s coo dina es (posi ions). Dis ance be ween poin s indica es
hei deg ee o p oximi y, whe eas mass indica es he weigh ha has been asc ibed o each
poin (Blazek e al. 2023b).
4. Resul s
The minimum sample o he esea ch was se a 386 esponden s. In o al, we collec ed
396 esponses om employees o Slo ak companies aged 18 and o e . Figu e 1shows he
numbe o esponden s by egion. The la ges numbe o esponden s came om he Zilina
egion, 75, which ep esen s 18.94%. The B a isla a egion had he second highes numbe ,
74 (18.69%). A o al o 48 esponden s came om he T na a and Ni a egions, which
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 158 8 o 16
ep esen s 12.12%. The T enˇcín egion had he smalles ep esen a ion wi h 34 esponden s,
which ep esen s 8.59%.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 16
4. Resul s
The minimum sample o he esea ch was se a 386 esponden s. In o al, we col-
lec ed 396 esponses om employees o Slo ak companies aged 18 and o e . Figu e 1
shows he numbe o esponden s by egion. The la ges numbe o esponden s came
om he Zilina egion, 75, which ep esen s 18.94%. The B a isla a egion had he second
highes numbe , 74 (18.69%). A o al o 48 esponden s came om he T na a and Ni a
egions, which ep esen s 12.12%. The T enčín egion had he smalles ep esen a ion wi h
34 esponden s, which ep esen s 8.59%.
Figu e 1. Mul iplici y o esponden s acco ding o egion. Sou ce: Own p ocessing
The i s hypo hesis was es ablished as ollows: he ype o co po a e cul u e has an
impac on he mo i es ha lead o c ea i e accoun ing. Fo his eason, i is necessa y o
look a he equency o indi idual mo i es om he poin o iew o he ype o co po a e
cul u e. As seen in Table 2, one mo i e p e ails in all ypes o cul u es, namely inc easing
he compe i i eness o he company.
Table 2. Mul iplici y o mo i es o c ea i e accoun ing acco ding o company cul u e.
C oss ab
Which o he Following Mo i es Would Lead You o Use C ea i e Accoun ing? To al
A ac ing
In es o s
Bea ing Analys s’
Es ima es o he
Company’s Fu u e
Pe o mance
Ge ing Time
o Se le Deb s
Inc easing o
Main aining
Capi al Le els
Inc easing
Pe sonal
P o i
Inc easing he
Compe i i eness
o he Company
Adhoc acy 10 9 10 8 7 16 60
Clan 11 16 20 16 26 35 124
Hie a chy 25 13 15 26 14 32 125
Ma ke 12 12 15 17 13 18 87
To al 58 50 60 67 60 101 396
Sou ce: Own p ocessing.
The esul o Pea son’s χ2 eached a alue o 0.356 (see in Table 3), which is a alue
g ea e han he le el o signi icance α. Fo his eason, we mus ejec he al e na i e hy-
po hesis H1, which means ha he ype o co po a e cul u e has an impac on he mo i es
ha lead o c ea i e accoun ing. Fo his eason, i does no make sense o examine he
s eng h o he dependence, as i does no exis , and a he same ime, he condi ion o
conduc ing a co espondence analysis is no me .
Figu e 1. Mul iplici y o esponden s acco ding o egion. Sou ce: Own p ocessing.
The i s hypo hesis was es ablished as ollows: he ype o co po a e cul u e has an
impac on he mo i es ha lead o c ea i e accoun ing. Fo his eason, i is necessa y o
look a he equency o indi idual mo i es om he poin o iew o he ype o co po a e
cul u e. As seen in Table 2, one mo i e p e ails in all ypes o cul u es, namely inc easing
he compe i i eness o he company.
Table 2. Mul iplici y o mo i es o c ea i e accoun ing acco ding o company cul u e.
C oss ab
Which o he Following Mo i es Would Lead You o Use C ea i e Accoun ing?
To al
A ac ing
In es o s
Bea ing Analys s’ Es ima es
o he Company’s Fu u e
Pe o mance
Ge ing Time
o Se le Deb s
Inc easing o
Main aining
Capi al Le els
Inc easing
Pe sonal P o i
Inc easing he
Compe i i eness
o he Company
Adhoc acy
10 9 10 8 7 16 60
Clan 11 16 20 16 26 35 124
Hie a chy
25 13 15 26 14 32 125
Ma ke 12 12 15 17 13 18 87
To al 58 50 60 67 60 101 396
Sou ce: Own p ocessing.
The esul o Pea son’s
χ2
eached a alue o 0.356 (see in Table 3), which is a alue
g ea e han he le el o signi icance
α
. Fo his eason, we mus ejec he al e na i e
hypo hesis H1, which means ha he ype o co po a e cul u e has an impac on he
mo i es ha lead o c ea i e accoun ing. Fo his eason, i does no make sense o examine
he s eng h o he dependence, as i does no exis , and a he same ime, he condi ion o
conduc ing a co espondence analysis is no me .
Table 3. Chi-squa e es o H1.
Chi-Squa e Tes s
Value d Asymp o ic Signi icance (2-Sided)
Pea son Chi-Squa e 16.407 a 15 0.356
Likelihood Ra io 16.641 15 0.341
No. o Valid Cases 396
a. The e a e 0 cells (0.0%) ha ha e an expec ed coun o less han 5. The minimum expec ed coun is 7.58. Sou ce:
Own p ocessing.
I we look a ques ion “I you ecei ed an o de om a supe io wo ke , would you
make an adjus men o he inancial s a emen s?” om he poin o iew o co po a e
cul u e, in he cul u e o adhoc acy, 29 employees would pe o m c ea i e accoun ing
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