Lau s, Daniel; Melnychuk, Te yana; Schul z, Ca s en
A icle — Published Ve sion
E ec s o p io knowledge and collabo a ions on R&D
pe o mance in imes o u gency: he case o COVID‐19
accine de elopmen
R&D Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Lau s, Daniel; Melnychuk, Te yana; Schul z, Ca s en (2024) : E ec s o p io
knowledge and collabo a ions on R&D pe o mance in imes o u gency: he case o COVID‐19
accine de elopmen , R&D Managemen , ISSN 1467-9310, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 54, Iss. 5, pp.
968-992,
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E ec s o p io knowledge
and collabo a ions on R&D
pe o mance in imes o u gency:
he case o COVID- 19 accine
de elopmen
Daniel Lau s , Te yana Melnychuk and
Ca s en Schul z
Technology Managemen Resea ch G oup, Kiel Ins i u e o Responsible Inno a ion,Kiel Uni e si y,
Wes ing 425, Kiel, 24105, Ge many. [email p o ec ed], [email p o ec ed], schul z@
bwl.uni-kiel.de
Inno a ion usually equi es ime- consuming explo a o y app oaches. Howe e , ex e nal
shocks and ela ed c ises, such as he COVID- 19 pandemic, lead o se e e ime p essu es,
which equi e sho - e m R&D esul s. We in es iga e how o ganiza ions’ p io collabo a-
ion and exis ing knowledge no only helped hem cope wi h he c isis bu also a ec ed he
accine’s de elopmen pe o mance. Speci ically, we in es iga e he R&D ou comes o 386
o ganiza ions in ol ed in he COVID- 19 accine’s de elopmen wi hin he i s 18 mon hs
a e he pandemic’s ou b eak. The esul s e eal ha unde u gency, o ganiza ions wi h
p io scien i ic collabo a ions and echnological knowledge exhibi a highe R&D pe o -
mance. Fu he mo e, a b oad ne wo k o di e se collabo a o s s eng hened his ela ion-
ship, he eby calling o mo e in e disciplina y R&D ac i i ies. We he e o e ex end he
li e a u e on inno a ion speed and s eng hen long- e m R&D ou comes’ ole in o gani-
za ions wi h a b oad exis ing knowledge base and collabo a ion ne wo ks. We do so by
speci ically suppo ing such o ganiza ions’ abili y o in eg a e hei p e ious R&D’s and
collabo a ions’ knowledge o achie e apid inno a i e ou comes unde u gency.
1. In oduc ion
C ises, such as he COVID- 19 pandemic, con-
on he medical indus y wi h he need o
accele a e medical ea men s’ and accines’ de-
elopmen . The e was oughly a yea be ween he
pandemic’s ou b eak and he s a o mass accina-
ion (Food and D ug Adminis a ion,2020). Ne e
be o e had he wo ld wi nessed as many medical
app o als in such a sho ime. All he success-
ully au ho ized COVID- 19 accines in he Uni ed
S a es, such as he P ize /Bion ech accina ion,
we e he esul o in e - o ganiza ional collabo a-
ions (Milken Ins i u e, 2022). Whe eas inno a-
ion usually equi es ime- consuming explo a o y
app oaches, u gen imes induce o ganiza ions o
p omp ly u ilize hei exis ing esou ces o imme-
dia e ac ion. In his s udy, we combine li e a u e
© 2024 The Au ho s. R&D Managemen published by RADMA and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Knowledge eu iliza ion in open inno a ion
R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024 969
om wo decisi e esou ces ha ensu e a compe -
i i e ad an age: ime and knowledge. Based on in-
no a ion speed’s and he knowledge- based iew’s
(KBV) li e a u e, we, he e o e, in es iga e o gani-
za ions’ equi ed in e nal and ex e nal knowledge,
and R&D pe o mance e ec , using he accine de-
elopmen du ing he COVID- 19 pandemic as an
example.
Inno a ion managemen li e a u e is ich in qual-
i a i e compa isons o leading i ms’ de eloped
echnologies (Cal o Fe nández and Zhu, 2021),
o ganiza ional cha ac e is ics, collabo a ion
(Be ello e al.,2022; Geu s e al.,2022; Pa ucco
e al., 2022), and unding ac i i y (Kiszewski
e al.,2021; Ve micelli e al.,2021) ega ding he
COVID- 19 accine’s de elopmen . This esea ch
inds ha coo dina ing collabo a ion ini ia i es’
knowledge and exchanging esou ces inc ease hei
lea ning po en ial and accele a e hei inno a ion
p ocess in imes o c isis. In addi ion, o he s ud-
ies on he COVID- 19 accine’s de elopmen ocus
on he success ul accele a ion ac o s (De endi
e al.,2022; Gnekpe e al.,2023). Coope (2021)
discusses he COVID- 19 pandemic’s lessons
lea ned ega ding accele a ing he inno a ion p o-
cess. He sugges s ha new- p oduc p ojec s should
be adequa ely esou ced using ocused p ojec
eams, e ec i e po olio managemen , digi al
ools’ u iliza ion, and lean and agile de elopmen
o emo e was e and ine iciencies. Ne e heless,
he exis ing li e a u e mainly comp ises case s ud-
ies, which means hei indings a e ha dly gene al-
izable. In addi ion, e o s o accele a e inno a ion
speed lack a pe spec i e on o ganiza ions’ knowl-
edge base and collabo a ion expe ience.
In his empi ical quan i a i e s udy, we conside
o ganiza ions’ p io ac i i y ega ding hei cu en
R&D pe o mance unde u gency. We discuss he
p io in e nal and ex e nal knowledge ha is ele an
o he pha maceu ical p oduc de elopmen ’s suc-
cess. By doing so, ou s udy con ibu es o he inno-
a ion managemen li e a u e ha connec s he ocal
o ganiza ion’s acqui ed knowledge wi hin i s spe-
ci ic collabo a ing en i onmen when he e is a lack
o ime o do so. We ind ha knowledge e ained
om p io R&D expe iences is a speci ically impo -
an in e nal esou ce o u ilizing new knowledge.
Fu he mo e, p io scien i ic and echnological col-
labo a ion ne wo ks a e c i ical a such ime, since
new o mal and in o mal ies canno be de eloped as
quickly. T ansdisciplina y collabo a ions wi h pa -
ne s om di e en ins i u ion ypes become pa icu-
la ly impo an i o ganiza ions ha e su icien p io
scien i ic and echnological knowledge. Ou s udy
he e o e suppo s he discussion on R&D ac i i ies’
long- e m e ec s.
This s udy is s uc u ed as ollows: We i s dis-
cuss p io li e a u e on inno a ion speed du ing c i-
ses and highligh he impo ance o o ganiza ions’
p e iously acqui ed knowledge and collabo a ion.
The ea e , we cha ac e ize he esea ch- in ensi e
pha maceu ical indus y and he COVID- 19 pandem-
ic’s speci ic case. Wi h e idence om he li e a u e
and quali a i e insigh s in o success ul COVID- 19
accine p ojec s, we de i e ou hypo heses, which
we es wi h logis ic eg ession models om 386
o ganiza ions ac i e in COVID- 19 R&D. Finally, we
discuss ou indings and shed ligh on hei heo e i-
cal and p ac ical implica ions.
2. Theo e ical backg ound
In dynamic, high- echnology indus ies, such as he
pha maceu ical indus y, o ganiza ions ace changing
en i onmen s wi h in ense compe i ion and pe pe -
ually changing echnologies (Deeds e al.,2000) as
well as ma ke needs (And ews and Fa is, 1972;
B em and Voig ,2009). No el ci cums ances c ea e
a new ma ke need o encou age as p oduc solu-
ions (B yan e al.,2020). Resou ces mus be espe-
cially apidly ac i a ed unde u gency o espond
o new demands o ans o m knowledge in o inno-
a i e p oduc s’ echnological imp o emen s. To
do so, o ganiza ions equi e dynamic capabili ies
ha can ex end o modi y hei exis ing esou ces
(Win e , 2003; Dyduch e al., 2021). Among o h-
e s, esou ce econ igu a ion depends on c ea ing
alliances, on he abili y o con inuously ans o m
knowledge in o new p oduc s, and on he abili y
o e ec i ely abso b, mas e , and imp o e exis ing
echnologies. As such, di e ences in esou ces and
capabili ies esul in o ganiza ions’ di e ging inno-
a ion speed (Ba ney,1991; Teece e al.,1997; Chen
e al., 2010; Ellwood e al., 2017; Coope , 2021).
In his sec ion, we in oduce u gency as a igge
o inno a ion and elabo a e on he ele ance o an
o ganiza ion’s exis ing inno a ion abili ies ega d-
ing g ounding R&D apidly in an o ganiza ion’s
dynamic capabili ies, pa icula ly abou i s abso p-
i e capaci y.
2.1. U gency as an R&D d i e o
immedia e esou ce u iliza ion
New p oduc de elopmen speed ela es o new
p oduc success (Chen e al.,2012). We de ine inno-
a ion speed as he ime be ween an inno a ion’s
© 2024 The Au ho s. R&D Managemen published by RADMA and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Daniel Lau s, Te yana Melnychuk and Ca s en Schul z
970 R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024
ini ial igge and a new p oduc ’s comme cializa-
ion in he ma ke (Kessle and Chak aba i,1996).
Inno a ion speed is ecognized as c ea ing and
sus aining a compe i i e ad an age (Kessle and
Chak aba i,1996; Chen e al.,2010; Canku a an
e al., 2013; Ellwood e al., 2017). Kessle and
Chak aba i (1996) men ioned a ious ac o s
ha in luence inno a ion speed. They sugges ed
inc easing inno a ion speed h ough he ex e -
nal sou cing o speci ic asks o consciously limi
in e nal asks. Among o he an eceden s, a me a-
analysis by Chen e al.(2010) demons a ed empi -
ically ha c oss- unc ional eams’ use and ex e nal
pa ne s’ in ol emen in a new p oduc ini ia i e
enables accele a ed inno a ion (Chen e al.,2010).
In addi ion, Ellwood e al. (2017) cla i ied ha
mechanisms unde lying managemen in e en ions
p omo e inno a ion speed.
Ex e nal c ises need coo dina ed and collec ed
e o s o enable apid R&D (Chesb ough, 2020).
Time p essu e does no in i sel o e new abili ies,
bu u ges o ganiza ions o u ilize hei exis ing inno-
a ion capabili ies o accele a e he inno a ion p o-
cess. An unexpec ed ex e nal en i onmen al as well
as a social o economic shock could igge a change
in o ganiza ions’ inno a i e beha io by gi ing i
a solu ion- o ien ed ocus o immedia ely mobilize
exis ing esou ces (Sal a o e al., 2020; Aa s ad
and K i as ein, 2021; Soluk, 2022). Consequen ly,
u gency unco e s he di e ences in o ganiza ions’
inno a ion abili ies.
2.2. Knowledge as a undamen al R&D
inno a ion esou ce
Pe manen he e ogeneous s a egic inno a ion
esou ces allow an o ganiza ion o achie e and sus-
ain i s compe i i e ad an age (Ba ney,1991; Teece
e al., 1997). An o ganiza ion’s knowledge and
expe ience g ow wi h knowledge euse. Th ough
ecombina ion, exis ing knowledge is applied o new
ou comes (Kogu and Zande , 1992). Ne e heless,
knowledge as a c ucial inno a ion esou ce in
dynamic indus ies (G an , 1996b; McMillan and
Hamil on, 2000; Ro hae mel and Hess, 2007) is
unlikely o eside wi hin a single o ganiza ion,
he eby equi ing o mal and in o mal exchanges
wi h ex e nal pa ne s (Powell e al., 1996).
Knowledge in eg a ion, applica ion, and ecombi-
na ion yield o ganiza ional alue c ea ion (Cohen
and Le in hal,1990; G an ,1996a). Newly c ea ed
o acqui ed knowledge is e ained using o ganiza-
ional ou ines, which make i a ailable o exploi a-
ion in u u e esea ch (P abhu e al.,2005; Ma sh
and S ock,2006). In e - o ganiza ional collabo a ion
enables join knowledge in eg a ion o co- de elop
echnologies and o exploi inno a ion (Kogu and
Zande , 1992; G an , 1996b; Chesb ough, 2003).
Unde u gency, o ganiza ions’ knowledge u iliza ion
dynamics change as ime o knowledge acquisi-
ion and he o ma ion o new alliances is missing
(Reale,2021).
2.3. Knowledge exchange as an R&D
d i e
An o ganiza ion’s knowledge base is buil on
complemen a y p io scien i ic and echnologi-
cal knowledge om in e nal and ex e nal sou ces
as con ibu ed by i s indi iduals, o ganiza ional
lea ning, and p e ious R&D expe iences (A go e
and Mi on- Spek o , 2011). Scien i ic knowledge
desc ibes he undamen al science and unde s and-
ing o a esea ch a ea. I is o ien ed owa d heo-
e ical cons uc s’ un olding (Fab izio,2009; Wa s
and Hamil on, 2013). Technological knowledge
enables p ac ical solu ions, echniques, and con-
c e e applica ions (Choi,2019). Despi e scien i ic
knowledge’s well- known impo ance as a sou ce o
an o ganiza ion’s R&D in he bio echnological and
pha maceu ical indus y (Kuo e al., 2019), i ms
end o ins ead ocus on gene a ing echnological
knowledge. Con e sely, public esea ch ins i u-
ions ocus on basic science a he han on com-
me cial usage (McMillan and Hamil on, 2000),
he eby complemen ing indus y as sou ces o
scien i ic knowledge (Fab izio, 2009; Melnychuk
e al.,2021).
In e nal knowledge is ound wi hin he o ga-
niza ion’s R&D p ocess and/o eme ges om i s
expe iences (Denicolai e al., 2014). O ganiza ional
abso p i e capaci y is a c ucial ac o o exploi ing
in e nal knowledge e ec i ely and could be de eloped
by means o in e nal basic esea ch (Fab izio,2009).
On he o he hand, abso p i e capaci y is de ined as
a i m’s abili y o ecognize, ans o m, and exploi
ex e nal knowledge (Cohen and Le in hal, 1990).
By u ilizing an o ganiza ional lea ning lens and a
knowledge- based iew, esea ch unde lines abso p-
i e capaci y’s ole as he o ganiza ion’s capabili y o
econ igu e i s knowledge ounda ion, and, he e o e,
enhancing i s sus ainable compe i i e ad an age (Lane
e al.,2006). Collabo a ion wi h ex e nal pa ne s p o-
ides an o ganiza ion wi h access o new, dispe sed
ex e nal knowledge (G igo iou and Ro hae mel,2017),
he eby enhancing i s pe o mance and esilience (Ahn
e al.,2019). Speci ically, collabo a ion wi h pa ne s
beyond an o ganiza ion’s alue chain and in e na ional
© 2024 The Au ho s. R&D Managemen published by RADMA and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Knowledge eu iliza ion in open inno a ion
R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024 971
pa ne s has he s onges impac on i s pe o mance,
as his collabo a ion inc eases he chances o acqui -
ing newe knowledge o iden i y new oppo uni ies o
achie e sus ainable g ow h (Ahn e al.,2018). Di e se
uni e si y- indus y collabo a ions enable knowledge
ans e s, which inc ease inno a i eness (Melnychuk
e al.,2021). Knowledge exchange depends la gely on
he ype o ins i u ion.
O ganiza ions engaging in exploi ing in e nal
and ex e nal knowledge sou ces imp o e hei
inno a ion capabili ies (Kogu and Zande , 1992;
Chesb ough,2003; Cassiman and Veugele s,2006;
Melnychuk e al., 2021). Re ained knowledge
om p io R&D expe iences could be combined
wi h newly acqui ed o c ea ed knowledge o new
p oduc de elopmen (Ma sh and S ock, 2006).
In dynamic ma ke s, b oad knowledge inc eases
he lexibili y o exploi exis ing esou ces
(G an ,1996a) and o build, in eg a e, ans o m,
and mobilize in e nal and ex e nal compe ences
(Teece e al.,1997, 2016). Consequen ly, abso p-
i e capaci y is a decisi e o ganiza ional capabili y
o ans e ing knowledge om ex e nal sou ces,
especially om uni e si ies and public esea ch
ins i u es (Melnychuk e al.,2021). P io collabo a-
ions migh suppo o ganiza ional agili y, since he
knowledge and hands- on expe iences gained om
such collabo a ions could be easily ans e ed
and deployed o cu en alue- c ea ing inno a ion
ac i i ies (Teece e al.,2016).
3. Hypo heses
We analyze he e ec s o o ganiza ions’ p io
knowledge and collabo a ion on hei R&D pe o -
mance. R&D pe o mance is a c i ical de e minan
o an o ganiza ion’s p oduc i i y and compe i i e
ad an age, which accele a e he inno a ion p ocess
(We ne and Soude , 2016). We de ine an o gani-
za ion’s R&D pe o mance as he ex en o which
achie ed R&D ac i i ies a e ele an o b inging
a conc e e esea ch idea close o being applied as
a po en ial ma ke exploi a ion p oduc . The mo e
an o ganiza ion’s p oduc inno a ion has ad anced
wi hin he p ocess, he highe he likelihood ha i
will each he ma ke p omp ly.
3.1. P io in e nal knowledge and R&D
pe o mance esou ces
O ganiza ions bene i om le e aging in e nal
knowledge o inno a ion pe o mance (Leiponen
and Hel a ,2010; Zhou and Li,2012), while in e -
nal esea ch is a ele an sou ce o new solu ions
(Fab izio, 2009). Unde u gency, o ganiza ions
ely e en mo e on hei exis ing knowledge base.
I i exis s and is su icien , o ganiza ions u ilize
p io knowledge a he han in es ing in hei
ex e nal acquisi ions o conduc R&D ac i i ies
(Ceccagnoli e al.,2010; Cane and Tyle ,2015).
Fu he mo e, he R&D e iciency inc eases wi h
expe ience (Yelle, 1979). This migh also acili-
a e o ganiza ions’ abili y o lea n om ailu es o
inc ease hei R&D quali y (Khanna e al.,2016).
The likelihood ha o ganiza ions will ela e o new
knowledge is highe i hey ha e a b oad exis ing
knowledge base, because his would allow hem
o be e e alua e and u ilize po en ial esou ces
(Cassiman and Veugele s,2006). A b oad knowl-
edge base is a p e equisi e o abso p i e capac-
i y ha o e s mo e oppo uni ies o immedia ely
ecombine knowledge. Indi iduals who epea edly
use hei es ablished, speci ic scien i ic knowledge
de elop ou ines and imp o e hei abili y o apply
hei knowledge in ela ed, u u e R&D p ojec s
(Kuo e al.,2019).
In he pha maceu ical indus y, accumu-
la ed p io scien i ic knowledge speci ically
enhances R&D (Ka ila and Ahuja, 2002; Ma sh
and S ock,2006). The speci ic knowledge wi hin
he he apeu ic a ea p o ides a basic and a un-
damen al unde s anding du ing he esea ch s age
(Xu,2015; Kuo e al.,2019). Wi hin he pha ma-
ceu ical indus y, bio echnology i ms speci ically
p o i om scien i ic knowledge’s exploi a ion o
basic esea ch o de elop b eak h ough inno a ions
(Della Mal a e al.,2015).
Hypo hesis H1 An o ganiza ion’s p io scien i ic
knowledge is posi i ely associa ed wi h i s R&D
pe o mance.
P io echnological knowledge is ano he
impo an in e nal esou ce ha c ea ed he o ga-
niza ional abili y o exploi knowledge o new
echnical applica ions. Pha maceu ical i ms wi h
an applied science ounda ion ha e mo e new p od-
uc in oduc ions, sugges ing ha solu ions- based
app oaches a e indica i e o an inno a i e ou pu
(Wa s and Hamil on, 2013). Technological and
p oduc - ma ke expe iences in he pha maceu i-
cal indus y lead o success ul new p oduc in o-
duc ions (Ne ka and Robe s, 2004). Mo eo e ,
p io echnological knowledge helps o ganiza-
ions o access esou ces o u u e R&D as e
(Fab izio, 2009). Consequen ly, he abso p i e
capaci y o o ganiza ions wi h a g ea deal o p io
applied knowledge is highe and hey a e able o
p o ide he pha maceu ical indus y wi h quicke
© 2024 The Au ho s. R&D Managemen published by RADMA and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Daniel Lau s, Te yana Melnychuk and Ca s en Schul z
972 R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024
solu ions (Fe nald e al.,2017). In espec o ac-
cine and d ug de elopmen , p io knowledge could
also speci ically eside wi hin discon inued R&D
p ojec s and migh e en sho en new ea men o
accine’s de elopmen p ocess (Ha ison, 2016).
R&D eams could also e- assess he use o exis ing
d ug candida es unsui able o p e ious indica ions
(Khanna,2012). These d ug candida es ha e o en
al eady success ully passed se e al de elopmen
p ocess s ages and exhibi app op ia e clinical
p o iles allowing hem o en e he p eclinical and
he clinical ials di ec ly, he eby dec easing he
de elopmen cos s, isks, and ime conside ably
(Ashbu n and Tho ,2004). O ganiza ions owning
such d ug candida es ha e ad an ages, since hey
could eac success ully o u gen inno a ion needs
(Jin and Wong,2014).
Hypo hesis H2 An o ganiza ion’s p io echno-
logical knowledge is posi i ely associa ed wi h i s
R&D pe o mance.
3.2. P io ex e nal knowledge and R&D
pe o mance esou ces
Ex e nal knowledge complemen s an o ganiza-
ion’s knowledge base o inc ease i s inno a i e
pe o mance (Caloghi ou e al., 2004; Lau sen
and Sal e , 2006). This applies speci ically when
an o ganiza ion’s in e nal knowledge base and
R&D capabili ies a e insu icien o gene a e new
knowledge, bu he o ganiza ion does ha e comple-
men a y esou ces and skills, which shi he ocus
o ex e nal knowledge acquisi ion (Ceccagnoli
e al.,2010; Cane and Tyle ,2015). Unde u gency,
he e is no ime o o m new pa ne ships bu he
exis ing ne wo ks do p o ide access o mul iple
sou ces’ ex e nal knowledge (Quin ana- Ga cía and
Bena ides- Velasco,2004; Fab izio,2009). Exis ing
ne wo ks acili a e in e - o ganiza ional exchanges,
he eby s imula ing new R&D collabo a ion.
O ganiza ions could he e o e build on o mal
collabo a ion guidelines’, p ocedu es’, and p oj-
ec adminis a ions’ p ocesses es ablished du ing
speci ic p e ious collabo a ions. Consequen ly, he
quali y o he ela ionship be ween o ganiza ions,
which ha e p e iously wo ked oge he , is highe
(Inkpen and Tsang,2005).
G oundb eaking inno a ions equen ly equi e
basic esea ch collabo a ion (Dismukes e al.,2005),
pa icula ly in he pha maceu ical indus y
(Mans ield,1995). Scien i ic collabo a ion, such as
he uni e si y- indus y collabo a ion ega ding p e-
clinical esea ch, imp o es o ganiza ions’ equi ed
abso p i e capaci y o hei inno a ion pe o -
mance (Bane jee and Siebe , 2017; Melnychuk
e al.,2021). A la ge ne wo k o indi idual scien-
is s om di e en esea ch ins i u ions p o ides
access o a mo e sophis ica ed scien i ic knowledge
base. Consequen ly, p e ious connec ions o scien-
is s enable an o ganiza ion o apidly ac i a e he
exis ing ies in o de o access he basic science.
Hypo hesis H3 An o ganiza ion’s p io scien i ic
collabo a ion is posi i ely associa ed wi h i s R&D
pe o mance.
O ganiza ions ha ha e p e iously collabo a ed
on in en ion ac i i ies, ha e join IPRs, ha e de el-
oped legal ies, and exhibi mu ual espec and us
ha hey could ans e o hei join u u e ac i i ies
(Inkpen and Tsang, 2005). The oles played in he
p ocess o disco e ing d ugs a e, o example, clea e
be ween echnology- d i en bio ech companies and
big pha ma companies ha inc easingly in eg a e ne -
wo ks (Ra ols e al.,2014). Di ec collabo a ion bene-
i s inno a i e pe o mance (Ahuja,2000), while join
p ojec s on ac ual accine candida es enable he mos
di ec exchange o applied echnological de elopmen .
Hypo hesis H4 An o ganiza ion’s p io echno-
logical collabo a ion is posi i ely associa ed wi h i s
R&D pe o mance.
3.3. A collabo a ion ne wo k b ead h and
R&D pe o mance
When o ganiza ions whose ins i u ion ypes and
knowledge base di e , coope a e on esea ch p oj-
ec s and alliances, his allows hem o access com-
plemen a y knowledge and echnologies, which
a e impo an sou ces o inno a i e pe o mance
(Lau sen and Sal e , 2006; Cassiman e al., 2008;
Xu e al.,2013; Fe nald e al.,2017; G igo iou and
Ro hae mel, 2017). Public ins i u ions p e e o
ocus on he ea ly esea ch phases (de V ueh and
C ommelin, 2017), while bio echnological en e-
p eneu s choose o concen a e on he ea ly de el-
opmen s ages (Ha enaa and Hiscocks,2012), and
la ge pha maceu ical i ms p e e o ocus on he
la e- s age de elopmen as hey a e expe ienced in
manu ac u ing, dis ibu ion, and ma ke ing (Hoang
and Ro hae mel, 2010). Fu he mo e, esea ch
ins i u es’ and indus y’s esou ces complemen
one ano he , pa icula ly wi hin he pha maceu ical
indus y (Melnychuk e al.,2021). Consequen ly, a
di e se se ing o di e en o ganiza ional ypes is
equi ed o de elop new d ug candida es.
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Hypo hesis H5 A collabo a ion ne wo k b ead h
is posi i ely associa ed wi h R&D pe o mance.
3.4. In e ac ion e ec s o collabo a ion
ne wo k b ead h
A di e se ne wo k allows access o i s mul iple
con ibu o s’ mo e he e ogenous knowledge and
esou ces, while also o e ing mo e oppo uni ies o
ecombine knowledge in o de o enhance he inno-
a i e pe o mance (Zheng,2010; Xu e al.,2019).
A b oad collabo a ion ne wo k o e s mo e pe spec-
i es on ecombining he exis ing scien i ic knowl-
edge base, he eby enabling he R&D pe o mance.
In b oad collabo a ion ne wo ks, each con ibu ing
o ganiza ion plays a e y speci ic ole, which no
o he o ganiza ion can play. Consequen ly, o ga-
niza ions bene i om s ong and es ablished pa -
ne ships, since acqui ing and sha ing knowledge
ecip ocally, lead o alue c ea ion (Del Giudice and
Maggioni,2014; Dayan e al.,2017). Speci ically, a
su icien ly high le els o abso p i e capaci y, R&D
e o s’ and un ela ed ex e nal knowledge’s igh
in eg a ion enables pha maceu ical i ms o exploi
knowledge (Fe nald e al.,2017). A pha maceu ical
company’s ex e nal sou cing s a egy depends on
i s in e nal knowledge base (Gnekpe e al.,2023).
On he one hand, an exchange wi h di e se pa ne s
equi es ne wo k o ganiza ions o al eady ha e a
su icien knowledge base on which o build. On he
o he hand, a ne wo k o ganiza ion wi h p io knowl-
edge could be e exploi i s collabo a ion pa ne s’
inpu s o i s own ad an age, i hese pa ne s could
ely on he public’s and p i a e ac o s’ suppo .
Hypo hesis H6a An o ganiza ion’s collabo a ion
ne wo k b ead h in e ac s posi i ely wi h i s p io
scien i ic knowledge in e ms o i s e ec on he
R&D pe o mance.
Hypo hesis H6b An o ganiza ion’s collabo a ion
ne wo k b ead h in e ac s posi i ely wi h i s p io
echnological knowledge in e ms o i s e ec on he
R&D pe o mance.
4. Me hodology
The me hodology sec ion comp ises a desc ip ion
o he COVID- 19 accine de elopmen case and o
he da a collec ion on hose o ganiza ions ac i e in
he COVID- 19 R&D in e ms o hei accine candi-
da es, scien i ic publica ions, and pa en s.
4.1. Case desc ip ion
The pha maceu ical indus y is well- sui ed o
s udy o ganiza ional knowledge- ela ed di e -
ences, wi h he co ona i us ou b eak speci ically
o e ing an oppo uni y o analyze esou ce u ili-
za ion unde u gency. The i s accine candida es
ha he EU and USA au ho ized, demons a ed
he in ol ed o ganiza ions’ s ong abili ies o
espond quickly o u gen inno a ion needs, while
o he R&D p ojec s ailed o do so. Gene ally,
he pha maceu ical indus y’s R&D p ocesses
a e ime- and cos - in ensi e and ha e a high ail-
u e a e (Danzon e al., 2005). The ade g oup
Pha maceu ical Resea ch and Manu ac u e s o
Ame ica es ima es ha one ea men s’ de elop-
men akes 10 o 15 yea s, wi h he inal cos s a e -
aging o USD 2.6 billion (DiMasi e al.,2016).
The de elopmen o a new accine o comba he
global heal h h ea o COVID- 19 was expec ed
o ake a minimum o 12 o 18 mon hs (Billing on
e al.,2020). Consequen ly, d ug R&D p ocesses
had o be accele a ed o eac o he pandemic.
The con en ional new d ug de elopmen p o-
cess om disco e y o app o al and i s e en ual
ma ke launch, is comp ised o i mly designa ed
s ages (see Suppo ing In o ma ionS1), which
inc ease he cos s and ime equi ed o de elop a
new d ug (Buonansegna e al.,2014). Du ing he
basic esea ch s age, be ween 5,000 and 10,000
compounds a e es ed, wi h app oxima ely 250
en e ing he p eclinical es ing, and only be ween
one o i e candida es e en ually p oceeding
o human clinical ials (Khanna e al., 2016).
The ailu e isk dec eases om he ea ly- s age
o he la e- s age R&D, while he cos s inc ease
(Bane jee and Siebe ,2017).
4.2. Resou ce exchanges o comba he
COVID- 19 pandemic
The COVID- 19 pandemic, which a ec ed human
heal h, public li e, and he global economy,
ecei ed global a en ion. The u gen need o
ea men s and accines o p e en he sp ead o
he co ona i us SARS- CoV- 2 led o an R&D ace
o new d ugs. The co ona i us ou b eak s imu-
la ed o ganiza ions o mobilize hei esou ces
o allow hei R&D ac i i ies o p og ess apidly
in o de o cope wi h he pandemic’s challenges.
Al eady sho ly a e he i us’ ou b eak, he e
was a call o open science o allow he apid
disclosu e o new esea ch esul s (Homolak
e al., 2020). Owing o he esea ch ac i i ies’
high impac on he global business and socie y,
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Daniel Lau s, Te yana Melnychuk and Ca s en Schul z
974 R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024
da a and in o ma ion had ne e be o e been so
well- documen ed and so ho oughly sha ed.
Nume ous public and p i a e esea ch o gani-
za ions, agencies, and i ms we e engaged in
collabo a ion ac i i ies and allowed hei capa-
bili ies and esou ces o be di ec ly compa ed,
he eby o e ing a sui able basis o ou da a anal-
ysis. Fou candida e accines – P ize , Mode na,
As aZeneca, and Johnson & Johnson – ecei ed
EU- au ho iza ion du ing he pandemic’s i s
18 mon hs (Milken Ins i u e, 2022). We ha e
obse ed pa allels in he collabo a ion ne wo ks
(Table1 and Suppo ing In o ma ionS2).
O ganiza ions played indi idual oles in he
alue co- c ea ion p ocess (Figu e1) o each o
he p ojec s and exchanged esou ces o gain a
compe i i e ad an age. Uni e si ies and o he
esea ch ins i u es we e mainly in ol ed in he
basic science o in he applied esea ch and aimed
a a ull comp ehension o he i us and po en ial
ea men s. Fo he o - p o i o ganiza ions, he
inno a ion’s comme cial exploi a ion was c ucial.
They he e o e pa icipa ed in he manu ac u ing
and upscaling. Ex e nal se ice p o ide s sup-
po ed he collabo a ion by specialized indi idual
asks, such as da a managemen . Highly special-
ized bio ech companies we e o en engaged in
he de elopmen , which bigge indus ial playe s
suppo ed. Finally, socie y played a ole in he
accine de elopmen , mainly ia hei a ious
go e nmen s. Go e nmen al bodies suppo ed
R&D h ough hei esea ch unding p og ams and
dec eased he egula o y ba ie s in o de o accel-
e a e he p og ams’ p ocesses, o example, du ing
he accine au ho iza ion. The USA go e nmen ,
o ins ance, in es ed USD 337 million in mRNA
esea ch and de elopmen du ing he p e- pandemic
pe iod, which had an immedia e impac on he
mos impo an in en ions ela ed o he mRNA
COVID- 19 accines (Lalani e al.,2023). Du ing
he pandemic, he US go e nmen in es ed a ound
USD 2.37 billion in mRNA COVID- 19 accine
esea ch and de elopmen , including ca. USD 2.26
billion spen on clinical ials (Lalani e al.,2023).
Some companies also ecei ed subs an ial go e n-
men al inancial suppo . Acco ding o he s udy
by Lalani e al. (2023), Mode na ob ained USD
10.8 billion, bu 81% o his g an was spen on
supplying he accine. Simila ly, he P ize and
BioNTech alliance ecei ed USD 20.4 billion,
which was also spen on supplying he accine
(Lalani e al.,2023). Consequen ly, public und-
ing con ibu ed g ea ly o he COVID- 19 accine’s
apid de elopmen .
4.3. Da ase and sou ces
We iden i ied and analyzed o ganiza ions epo ing
ac i i y ega ding he COVID- 19 accine de el-
opmen wi hin he i s 18 mon hs a e he ini ial
ou b eak (un il June 2021) in o de o ake in o
accoun hose ac o s in ol ed apidly in he accine
R&D agains SARS- CoV- 2’s (Mulla d, 2020). Ou
sou ces included di e en da abases and o ganiza-
ions’ websi es, media p ess eleases, and annual
epo s. We ob ained scien i ic publica ion da a
om he Cla i a e Web o Science Pla o m (WoS).
Fu he mo e, we e ie ed pa en da a om he
Eu opean Pa en O ice’s (EPO) Wo ldwide Pa en
S a is ical Da abase (PATSTAT).
We de i ed a lis o 386 ac i e o ganiza ions om
he ‘COVID- 19 T acke ’ da abase ha he Milken
Ins i u e(2022) o e ed, eco ding 265 ac i e R&D
accine p ojec s. Va ious o ganiza ions we e lis ed as
he de elope s o mos o he p ojec s. Duplica es,
spelling di e ences, and miscellaneous cases we e
manually emo ed om he lis o o ganiza ions and
sub- depa men s wi hin an o ganiza ion we e clus-
e ed (e.g., he ‘Vaccine & Immuno he apy Cen e
a MGH’ was assigned o he highe o de en i y,
which in his case, was he ‘Massachuse s Gene al
Hospi al’). We did no assign uni e si y hospi als o
he a ilia ed uni e si y, because hey ollow di e en
ins i u ional logics.
We c ea ed a da ase o all he publica ions and
pa en applica ions, including he bibliog aphic
me a da a om he iden i ied 386 o ganiza ions.
Addi ionally, o measu e all p io knowledge, we
iden i ied all he publica ions o each o ganiza ion
ela ed o COVID- 19 o SARS- CoV- 2 by means
o a keywo d sea ch, which esul ed in a o al o
863 publica ions du ing he pe iod o 2015–2019.
We ex ac ed o e 95,000 scien i ic publica ions
om he WoS da abase on he ele an pa hogens,
in ec ious diseases, and accines ela ed o no el
co ona i us esea ch du ing he inqui y pe iod o
ou da ase ’s 386 o ganiza ions. These pa hogen
and disease- ele an publica ions cons i u ed he
ounda ion o he o ganiza ions’ basic esea ch
knowledge. Likewise, we collec ed 4000 pa en s
on simila pa hogens, in ec ious diseases, and
accines du ing 2015–2019, which o med he
echnological basis o he la e COVID- 19- ela ed
R&D. The applied sea ch e ms buil on he ec-
ommenda ion by Cha i é Uni e si ä smedizin
Be lin (2021). These sea ch e ms a e p o ided
in he Suppo ing In o ma ion(S3). We ob ained
addi ional da a by using publicly a ailable business
in o ma ion om ‘Bloombe g’ and o ganiza ions’
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Knowledge eu iliza ion in open inno a ion
R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024 975
websi es o annual epo s. In he absence o da a
om he p e iously men ioned sou ces, we unde -
ook a web- sea ch o publicly a ailable websi es
and pla o ms, such as LinkedIn, o supplemen
missing in o ma ion. Ou ese a ch amewo k is
displayed in Figu e2.
Table 1. Success ully au ho ized COVID- 19 accine candida es
Vaccine candida e’s collabo a o s Summa y
Toziname an: P ize –BioNTech COVID- 19 accine
11.12.2020 (FDA au ho iza ion), 4 collabo a o s
BioNTech (Bio echnology)
P ize (Pha ma i m)
Fosun Pha ma (Pha ma i m)
Ren schle Biopha ma (Se ice p o ide )
The “P ize accine” (Toziname an) was he i s
COVID- 19 accine o ecei e EU Eme gency Use
Au ho iza ion in Decembe 2020 and ull Food and
D ug Adminis a ion app o al o people aged 16 and
olde in Augus 2021. Ea ly de elopmen pa ne s
we e he Ge man, highly specialized, medium- sized
bio echnology company BioNTech, a pionee in mRNA
ea men s, and he di e si ied US pha ma gian P ize ,
which was speci ically conce ned wi h clinical ials,
logis ics, manu ac u ing and, p o iding addi ional und-
ing. La e pa ne s, like Ren schle Biopha ma, which
imp o ed he subs ance pu i ica ion o Fosun Pha ma,
which p o ided access o he Chinese ma ke , sup-
po ed he manu ac u ing p ocess
Elasome an: mode na COVID- 19 accine
18.12.2020 (FDA au ho iza ion), 10 collabo a o s
Mode na (Bio echnology)
Na ional Ins i u e o Alle gy and In ec ious Diseases
(NIAID) (Na ional body)
Biomedical Ad anced Resea ch and De elopmen
Au ho i y (BARDA) (Na ional body)
Medida a (Se ice p o ide )
BIOQUAL (Bio echnology)
Lonza (Bio echnology)
Ca alen , Ro i, Bax e BioPha ma Solu ions, Sano i
(Pha ma i ms)
Fo he “Mode na accine” (Elasome an) The Milken
Ins i u e’s COVID- 19 acke lis ed en collabo a-
ion pa ne s in espec o he “Mode na accine”
(Elasome an). This ne wo k, led by he US mRNA
ea men expe company ModeRNA, had a s ong
na ional concen a ion du ing he de elopmen phase.
Go e nmen al R&D ins i u ions, such as he Na ional
Ins i u e o Alle gy, he In ec ious Diseases, and he
Biomedical Ad anced Resea ch and De elopmen
Au ho i y, suppo ed ModeRNA. Addi ional ne wo k
pa ne s con ibu ed se ices, like so wa e solu ions,
du ing Mediada a’s clinical ials and BIOQUAL’s
in i o es ing. In e na ional bio ech and pha ma com-
panies, like he US Ca alen , F ench Sano i, Spanish
Ro i, and he Swiss Lonza, suppo ed he manu ac u -
ing p ocess
Ox o d–As aZeneca COVID- 19 accine
30.12.2020 (UK au ho iza ion), 14 collabo a o s
Uni e si y o Ox o d (Resea ch Ins i u ion)
As aZeneca (Pha ma i m)
Ad en S l, IQVIA, Pall Li e Sciences (Se ice p o ide s)
Vaccines Manu ac u ing and Inno a ion Cen e (Resea ch
ins i u ion)
Se um Ins i u e, India (Bio echnology)
Vacci ech (Bio echnology)
Ox o d Biomedica, Cob a Biologics, HalixBV, Ca alen ,
CSL, Me ck KGaA (Pha ma i ms)
A Eu opean domina ed eam o 14 collabo a o s co-
de eloped he “Ox o d- As aZeneca accine.” The
eam had al eady in ol ed ac o s, such as a medium-
scale p oduc ion acili y, du ing he accine’s ea ly
de elopmen , and he IQVIA- anking among he lead-
ing heal hca e da a science companies, o accele a e
i s clinical ials. The manu ac u ing si es we e sp ead
a ound he globe
Janssen COVID- 19 accine
27.02.2021 (UK au ho iza ion), 8 collabo a o s
Janssen Pha maceu ical Companies (Pha ma i m)
Be h Is ael Deaconess Medical Cen e (Resea ch hospi al)
Eme gen BioSolu ions (Bio echnology)
Biological E (Bio echnology)
G and Ri e Asep ic Manu ac u ing (GRAM), Ca alen ,
Sano i, Me ck (Pha ma i ms)
The “Johnson & Johnson accine” was he ou h
candida e o which ha he Eu opean Medicines
Agency g an ed a condi ional ma ke ing au ho iza ion
in Ma ch 2021. In addi ion o addi ional unde s and
la e manu ac u es, he Johnson & Johnson subsidia y,
Janssen Pha maceu icals, and he Be h Is ael Deaconess
Medical Cen e (BIDMC), a Ha a d Medical School
eaching hospi al, d o e he accine’s de elopmen . The
collabo a ion pa ne s buil he accine’s de elopmen
on p e ious accine esea ch aimed a comba ing o he
pa hogens, such as HIV and Zika. The inal accine
was based on he same echnology used o make he
ecen Johnson & Johnson Ebola accine (Cha e jee,
2021)
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Daniel Lau s, Te yana Melnychuk and Ca s en Schul z
982 R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024
knowledge, p io echnological collabo a ion, and
he collabo a ion ne wo k b ead h. The p eclin-
ical s age was a e e ence ca ego y. The esul s
showed some di e ences be ween he p eclinical
s age and he o he R&D pe o mance s ages. In
addi ion, we included R&D expendi u es o con ol
o he abso p i e capaci y. Owing o he a ailable
R&D expendi u e da a’s sca ci y, he da ase con-
ained only 83 obse a ions. Fu he mo e, due o
he d as ically educed da ase , only he collabo-
a ion ne wo k b ead h’s e ec s we e signi ican .
We mo eo e an an addi ional analysis o con ol
o COVID- 19 p ojec s’ ecei ed unding. The
esul s emained simila o he main esul s. We
u he mo e es ed he possible in e ac ion e ec s
o he collabo a ion ne wo k b ead h and he p io
scien i ic/ echnological collabo a ion on R&D
pe o mance.
6. Discussion
By suppo ing all he hypo heses, excep H1,
he s udy e ealed he ele an o ganiza ions’
knowledge- ela ed capabili ies in espec o apid
R&D pe o mance in he pha maceu ical indus-
y unde u gency. The p io knowledge base is
pa ially decisi e o u ilizing knowledge unde
u gency. We did no ind any e idence ha p io
scien i ic knowledge has a posi i e e ec on R&D
pe o mance. This con adic s ea lie pha ma-
ceu ical indus y s udies unde no mal condi ions
(Fab izio,2009; Kuo e al.,2019). Xu e al.(2013)
ound an in e ed U- shaped ela ionship be ween
in e nal p io knowledge and inno a i e pe o -
mance in a pha maceu ical i m se ing. In line
wi h Ma ch (1991), hei indings indica ed ha ,
speci ically, in- dep h p io knowledge hinde s
i ms om gene a ing new knowledge h ough
high- isk expe imen a ion and explo a ion. Fi ms
wi h in- dep h knowledge, enhance exis ing ech-
nologies a he han neglec ing mechanisms used
o in eg a e no el me hods. Fu he mo e, p io sci-
en i ic knowledge could be mo e bene icial du ing
he ea lies R&D s age (compa e Figu e3), he eby
e lec ing i s unc ion o enhancing o ganiza ions’
abso p i e capaci y o os e applied knowledge’s
assimila ion and exploi a ion in he la e de elop-
men s ages.
P io echnological knowledge’s posi i e e ec
suppo s he inding ha e ained knowledge om
p io R&D expe iences is an impo an in e nal
esou ce o knowledge c ea ion and ecombina ion,
and is also ans e ed o ela ed u u e R&D p oj-
ec s (Ma sh and S ock,2006; Kuo e al., 2019). A
Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8
PTK × CNB 4P 501.40
(0.00)***
369.58 (0.00)***
AIC 987.37 989.19 979.63 986.69 951.85 952.23 948.79 955.53
Log likelihood −476.69 −476.59 −471.81 −475.35 −454.92 −448.12 −446.40 −445.76
LRT Base 0.18 9.75** 2.68 43.53*** 57.14*** 60.58*** 61.85***
No e: n = 386; p opo ional odds logis ic eg ession; uns anda dized coe icien s; s anda d e o s in pa en heses; p io scien i ic knowledge and p io echnological knowledge we e di ided by 100.
AIC, Akaike in o ma ion c i e ion; CNB, collabo a ion ne wo k b ead h; LRT, likelihood- a io es ; PSK, p io scien i ic knowledge; PTK, p io echnological knowledge.
***p < 0.001;
**p < 0.01;
*p < 0.05;
#p < 0.1.
Table 4. (Con inued)
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R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024 983
b oad echnological knowledge base enhances he
inno a i e pe o mance and o e s mo e oppo uni-
ies o in e nal knowledge ecombina ion (Leiponen
and Hel a ,2010). O ganiza ions bene i om le e -
aging hei in e nal knowledge and, he e o e, need
o ela e o knowledge o p e ious d ug candida es,
Table 5. E ec s o p io scien i ic collabo a ion on R&D pe o mance (di e en s ages o R&D pe o mance)
Clinical ials
phase 1
Clinical ials
phase 2
Clinical ials
phase 3 Au ho iza ion
βSE βSE βSE βSE
(In e cep ) −2.70 0.62*** −1.50 0.50** −2.45 0.59*** −3.91 0.74***
Numbe o accine R&D
p ojec s
0.70 0.51 0.51 0.45 1.20 0.46** 0.57 0.51
Vaccine ypes compe ence −0.23 0.48 −0.07 0.43 −0.57 0.51 −0.05 0.59
O ganiza ion size (unde 500) 0.35 0.88 0.49 0.67 2.69 0.61*** 0.64 1.34
O ganiza ion size (unde 5000) 0.72 0.58 0.80 0.45#2.31 0.49*** 1.89 0.66**
O ganiza ion size (o e 5000) −0.14 0.75 0.89 0.55 2.57 0.63*** 2.91 0.81***
O ganiza ion size (o he s) −1.31 1.32 −1.64 1.56 −1.54 1.38 −13.80 0.00***
O ganiza ion p o i ype
(non- p o i )
0.98 1.34 0.83 1.21 −0.49 1.38 −1.15 1.47
Ins i u ion ype: Pha ma 0.76 0.64 −0.10 0.51 −0.04 0.52 0.61 0.70
Ins i u ion ype: Resea ch −1.45 1.44 −2.21 1.28#−2.10 1.47 −3.72 1.85*
Ins i u ion ype: Hospi al 0.24 1.45 −2.88 1.59#−2.17 1.53 −1.87 1.74
Ins i u ion ype: Go e nmen al
ins i u ion
1.73 1.83 0.02 1.84 2.79 1.85 2.67 2.22
Ins i u ion ype: Se ices −0.42 1.33 −0.38 0.89 −0.83 0.98 1.22 1.01
Resea ch collabo a ion 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 −0.04 0.04 −0.04 0.06
Di ec e ec s
P io scien i ic collabo a ion 0.88 0.43*0.53 0.37 −0.49 0.54 2.63 0.56***
The mul inomial logis ic eg ession’s e e ence ca ego y is “p eclinical s age”; uns anda dized coe icien s; s anda d e o s; n = 393. A
model wi h con ol a iables only has an Akaike in o ma ion c i e ion (AIC) o 1,015.65; a model wi h p io scien i ic collabo a ion as an
independen a iable has an AIC o 990.63.
***p < 0.001;
**p < 0.01;
*p < 0.05;
#p < 0.1.
Figu e 3. In e ac ion e ec s o he collabo a ion ne wo k b ead h and o ganiza ions’ p io scien i ic knowledge on R&D pe o mance.
© 2024 The Au ho s. R&D Managemen published by RADMA and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Daniel Lau s, Te yana Melnychuk and Ca s en Schul z
984 R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024
o o o he in ec ious diseases’ exis ing pa en s
(Ha ison,2016). O ganiza ions wi h expe ience o
o he , newly eme ged diseases migh ha e de el-
oped aluable knowledge ha migh ha e inc eased
hei abili y o espond apidly o he cu en pan-
demic and o de elop po en ial d ug candida es. The
mo e knowledge an o ganiza ion has o conc e e
d ug de elopmen in ela ed diseases, he highe i s
chances o eaching and comple ing a de elopmen
s age, including he au ho iza ion s age (Cockbu n
and Hende son,2001).
The need o de elop COVID- 19 accine candi-
da es apidly mean ha he lacking compe encies
could no only be de eloped in e nally, bu also
needed o be accessed ex e nally. Du ing u gency,
he p io collabo a ion ne wo k was c i ical, since
new o mal and in o mal ies could no be de el-
oped p omp ly. Bo h hei p io scien i ic and ech-
nological collabo a ion inc eased he o ganiza ions’
R&D pe o mance. This obse a ion s eng hens
he ele ance o p ope embeddedness in an exis -
ing ne wo k, and suppo s he discussion on R&D
ac i i ies’ long- e m e ec . The o ma ion o ne -
wo ks is a long- e m in es men , while he capa-
bili y o o m ne wo ks and alliances e icien ly
is based on expe ience (Ki chho e al., 2020).
Owing o he u gen need o an e icien esponse,
o ganiza ions should a he collabo a e wi h pa -
ne s hey know and us (Gilsing e al., 2008;
F y e al., 2020). A la ge ne wo k o e s access
o mo e esou ces, while p e ious collabo a ions
ensu e ha new R&D p ojec s will connec quickly.
Scien i ic collabo a ion’s posi i e ole is in line
wi h he obse a ion ha pha maceu ical i ms,
which ailed o de elop in e nal esou ces, could
p o i om alliances wi hin he pha maceu ical
indus y (Fe nald e al., 2017). Toge he wi h he
inding ha in e nal scien i ic knowledge does no
necessa ily p omo e R&D pe o mance, p io col-
labo a ion is highly aluable o i ms endea o ing
o access collabo a ion pa ne s’ deep knowledge.
The indings e eal ha a collabo a ion ne wo k
b ead h has a posi i e e ec on R&D pe o mance.
Resea ch- o ien ed o ganiza ions explo e new
app oaches, echniques, and me hods, bu ely on
ex e nal suppo o es and e i y hei usabili y.
Incumben i ms speci ically ha e la ge p oduc
po olios and s ong down- s eam esou ces o
clinical es ing, p oduc ion, and sales. In collab-
o a ion p ojec s, incumben s and bio echnolog-
ical s a - ups, o ins ance, ecombine unlinked
knowledge and esou ces e ec i ely. This need o
di e se ne wo ks also includes collabo a ions wi h
uni e si ies (Dong and McCa hy, 2019). Public
esea ch ins i u ions mos ly conduc undamen al
esea ch, such as chemical s uc u e iden i ica-
ion, ansmission, and eplica ion mechanisms.
In he pha maceu ical indus y, public esea ch
ins i u ions and hospi als deli e scien i ic knowl-
edge (Cassiman e al.,2008; Fab izio,2009) and
ocus on he ea ly de elopmen phases (de V ueh
and C ommelin, 2017). Con e sely, pha maceu-
ical i ms ake on coo dina ion and manage-
men unc ions in espec o ea ly de elopmen
(Kai in,2010; Ra ols e al.,2014), only becoming
ac i e in espec o la e- s age de elopmen , manu-
ac u ing, dis ibu ion, and ma ke ing (Hoang and
Ro hae mel,2010).
Collabo a ions wi h pa ne s om di e en
ins i u ion ypes a e pa icula ly impo an i
Figu e 4. In e ac ion e ec s o he collabo a ion ne wo k b ead h and o ganiza ions’ p io echnological knowledge on R&D pe o mance.
© 2024 The Au ho s. R&D Managemen published by RADMA and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Knowledge eu iliza ion in open inno a ion
R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024 985
o ganiza ions ha e su icien p io scien i ic and
echnological knowledge. Ou esul s show ha ,
in he ea ly de elopmen s age, o ganiza ions wi h
a high le el o p io basic scien i ic knowledge
could le e age his i hey we e o ocus on col-
labo a ion wi h one o wo ins i u ionally di e en
pa ne s. In gene al, in he ea ly de elopmen s age
(e.g., a d ug and accine disco e y s age), basic
esea ch knowledge is o g ea e signi icance han
applied knowledge embedded in pa en s (S e ens
e al.,2011). In his ea ly s age, o ganiza ions wi h
a low le el o p io echnological knowledge ben-
e i mo e i hey collabo a e wi h ewe pa ne s
om di e en ins i u ion ypes. In an ea ly R&D
s age, collabo a ions wi h a ew, ins i u ionally
di e en , pa ne s allow o ganiza ions o acqui e
complemen a y ex e nal knowledge mo e e i-
cien ly, since he ansac ion cos s o ins i u ion-
ally simila pa ne s a e low (B uneel e al.,2010).
Ou indings also e eal ha , in he la e de elop-
men s ages, i is c ucial o collabo a e wi h mo e
pa ne s om di e en ins i u ion ypes, since each
o hem con ibu es hei own, speci ic scien i ic
knowledge, p oduc de elopmen knowledge, and
expe ience (Schuhmache e al., 2016), he eby
os e ing he success ul comple ion o he la e
de elopmen s age.
The esea ch se ing, da a measu emen , and in e -
p e a ion o he s udy ha e limi a ions. In e ms o he
COVID- 19 pandemic’s esea ch se ing, he a he
p ecompe i i e R&D, i s , limi s he esea ch ind-
ings’ ans e abili y and gene alizabili y. Second,
esea ch p ojec s in explo a i e de elopmen o new
ea men s and accines ha e no been di e en ia ed
om a he exploi a i e d ug eposi ioning p ojec s,
which a e expec ed o p oceed as e o hei la e- s age
clinical ials, because hey al eady ha e a p o en and
su icien sa e y p o ile. Finally, a ious o ganiza ions
do no seem o be connec ed o he ne wo k; howe e ,
his seems o be due o he esea ch se ing, because he
ne wo k only displays he connec ions be ween o gani-
za ions wi h accine candida es in p e- clinical o clin-
ical de elopmen . Unconnec ed o ganiza ions could
s ill acqui e he ele an ex e nal knowledge om hei
pa ne s who do no pa icipa e ac i ely in COVID- 19
R&D, and a e he e o e no ep esen ed in he ne wo k.
Rega ding he measu emen , we highligh ed public
ins i u ions and small i ms’ in eg a ion, bu incen i es
o publish esea ch esul s a y be ween o ganiza ions
(Ra ols e al.,2014). Public esea ch ins i u ions ocus
on undamen al knowledge and ha e a b oade esea ch
in e es scope (Cassiman e al., 2008), esul ing in
mo e publica ions compa ed o pha maceu ical i ms.
In addi ion, publica ion quali y was no conside ed in
his s udy, al hough high- quali y publica ions indica e
he gene a ion o mo e ele an new knowledge han
mul iple low- quali y publica ions. Despi e he com-
mon use o pa en s as a p oxy o p io echnological
knowledge, no all R&D ou comes a e pa en able o
hey a e exploi ed in o he ways. The collabo a ion
ne wo k b ead h measu emen ocusses on he di ec
ies be ween o ganiza ions only, while indi ec ies also
o e oppo uni ies o ans e knowledge (Belde bos
e al., 2016). La ge pha maceu ical i ms migh spe-
ci ically choose o access scien i ic knowledge om
uni e si ies, h ough hei connec ions wi h bio ech-
nological i ms. We es ed ou da ase unde he p o-
po ional odds assump ion, which allowed us o apply
a p opo ional odds logis ic eg ession as an empi ical
model o es ing all he hypo heses wi h he excep-
ion o H3. The p opo ional logis ic model’s esul s
in espec o he p eclinical s age di e en i ely om
hose o he o he s ages (see he igu es o he plo ed
di ec e ec s o p io echnological knowledge, p io
echnological collabo a ion, and collabo a ion ne wo k
b ead h in he Suppo ing In o ma ion S5–S7). The
mul inomial logis ic eg ession’s esul s indica e ha
p io scien i ic collabo a ion has di e en e ec s in he
p eclinical s age han in clinical ials’ phase 1 and in
he au ho iza ion s age (see he igu e o p io scien i ic
collabo a ion’s plo ed di ec e ec s in he Suppo ing
In o ma ionS8). Howe e , wi hin his s udy’s scope,
he p eclinical s age only applies in espec o he en i e
accine disco e y, esea ch, and de elopmen p ocess.
Fu u e esea ch should in es iga e he success ac o s
o he p eclinical s age’s knowledge- ela ed and collab-
o a ion ne wo k.
7. Conclusion and con ibu ion
Gi en he Spanish lu, Ebola, Zika, and he Middle
Eas espi a o y synd ome (MERS), SARS- CoV- 2
will no ha e been he las pandemic o h ea en soci-
e y. Inc eased mobili y, u baniza ion, and clima e
change could e en exace ba e i s sp ead (Bloom
e al.,2017). This likelihood highligh s he ele ance
o ou s udy on po en ially apid accine de elop-
men in u u e. Fu he mo e, we sugges ha he
esea ch indings could also be ans e ed o egu-
la pha maceu ical R&D, because he e is a g owing
need o accele a e R&D p oduc i i y.
Ou s udy con ibu es o he inno a ion and
knowledge managemen li e a u e in se e al ways.
Fi s , i ex ends he KBV li e a u e (G an ,1996b)
by sugges ing ha o ganiza ions’ p io domain-
speci ic echnological knowledge is c ucial o
o ganiza ions’ apid knowledge applica ion in
ela ed domains, bu a di e en R&D s ages. Ou
pape con ibu es o open inno a ion esea ch
© 2024 The Au ho s. R&D Managemen published by RADMA and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Daniel Lau s, Te yana Melnychuk and Ca s en Schul z
986 R&D Managemen 54, 5, 2024
(Schuhmache e al., 2018; Ahn e al., 2019;
Pa ucco e al., 2022) by highligh ing p io link-
ages’ and alliance expe iences’ impo ance o
apid knowledge and capabili ies exploi a ion
du ing di e en R&D s ages in domain- speci ic
scien i ic and echnological ne wo ks. Fu he mo e,
by p o iding he empi ical e idence ha o ganiza-
ions could each and comple e R&D pe o mance
s ages apidly i hey we e o o ge alliances wi h
o he ins i u ional ac o s, ou esea ch ex ends
p io li e a u e on ins i u ional bounda y spanning
(Lundbe g,2013) by explica ing he con ibu ions
ha collabo a ions wi h ins i u ionally di e en
pa ne s make in he speci ic bio ech and pha ma-
ceu ical indus y con ex .
Fu he mo e, ou indings sugges ha he
u gen ly buil in e - ins i u ional collabo a ions’
success depends on he le el o o ganiza ions’
p io scien i ic and echnological knowledge in
speci ic ela ed domains. Al hough coo dina ing
collabo a ion ac i i ies and in eg a ing knowledge
om di e en ins i u ional collabo a ion pa ne s
migh be challenging (B uneel e al.,2010; E ans
and Aus in, 2010), ou s udy p o ides empi i-
cal e idence ha o ganiza ions wi h a su icien
knowledge base bene i om collabo a ing wi h
in ui ionally di e se pa ne s in e ms o success-
ul p oduc candida e ansi ions o he nex de el-
opmen s age. This complemen s he li e a u e
sugges ing ha he need o collabo a ion o accel-
e a e inno a ion speed in imes o c ises (Geu s
e al.,2022).
Ou s udy p o ides se e al e idence- based
manage ial implica ions o unde aking R&D in
c i ically u gen scena ios. Du ing imes o c ises,
R&D manage s should emphasize he exploi a ion
o p e iously acqui ed knowledge- ela ed capabil-
i ies. Ou esul s u he imply ha o ganiza ions
p o i om di e se p io knowledge and alliances
in domains ela ed o he cu en u gen issue’s
domain. Findings om and expe ience wi h p e-
ious R&D p ojec s s eng hen an o ganiza ion’s
abili y o unde ake u u e R&D, and allow o gani-
za ions o espond apidly and e icien ly o u gen
R&D issues.
As such, ou s udy sugges s ha o ming s a e-
gic alliances in di e se domains enables o ganiza-
ions o use hei collabo a i e linkages e ec i ely
in scien i ic and echnological ne wo ks o new
and u gen R&D p ojec s. These ne wo ks could
hen exploi knowledge apidly in ela ed domains.
Ou s udy he e o e indica es ha o ganiza ions’
R&D p ojec s and collabo a ion ac i i y ha e a
posi i e, long- e m e ec on R&D pe o mance.
In e nal knowledge enables o ganiza ions o
collabo a e success ully, while ex ending ex e -
nals’ knowledge base could o e he po en ial o
ecombine knowledge o p oduce new inno a ions
(Melnychuk e al., 2021). Manage s should also
op imize hei i m’s ocus on he in e nal basic
esea ch, which should be based on he i m’s
capabili ies, in o de o enhance i s capabili y o
le e age public ins i u ions’ scien i ic knowledge
e icien ly and o b idge o ganiza ional and knowl-
edge di e ences. Fu he mo e, ou s udy ecom-
mends ha R&D manage s should collabo a e wi h
di e en ins i u ional pa ne s, especially du ing
po en ial p oduc s’ la e de elopmen s ages, since
di e en ins i u ional collabo a o s ha e di e se
complemen a y esou ces and capabili ies ha
could be e ec i ely in eg a ed in o speci ic R&D
p ojec s. In conclusion, incumben pha maceu ical
i ms should connec o s a ups, such as bio ech
i ms, and in ol e esea ch ins i u ions in hei
wo k in o de o speed up hei R&D p ocesses
e ec i ely and allow hem o de elop he nex
adical inno a ion, like an e ec i e ea men o
COVID- 19.
Acknowledgmen s
This wo k is suppo ed by unds om he Ge man
Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and Resea ch
(P ojec Q- AKTIV FKZ16PU17013B). Fu he , he
au ho s a e g a e ul o he edi o Albe o Di Minin,
o he associa e edi o Le izia Mo a a, and he wo
anonymous e e ees o he cons uc i e commen s
ha ha e signi ican ly imp o ed he quali y o he
pape . Open Access unding enabled and o ganized
by P ojek DEAL.
Funding in o ma ion
This esea ch has been conduc ed wi h inancial aids
om he Ge man Fede al Minis y o Educa ion and
Rsea ch (BMBF).
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The da a ha suppo s he indings o his s udy a e
a ailable in he supplemen a y ma e ial o his a i-
cle. These da a we e de i ed om he ollowing
esou ces a ailable in he public domain: Web o
Science Da abase (h ps:// www. webo scien ce. com).
EPO Pa s a Pa en Da abase, VERSION 2.7.4
(h ps:// da a. epo. o g/ expe - se i ces/ index. h ml).
Milken Ins . COVID- 19 T ea men & Vaccine T acke
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Daniel Lau s (M.Sc.) is a esea ch associa e and
PhD s uden a he Technology Managemen
Resea ch G oup a Kiel Uni e si y’s Ins i u e o
Responsible Inno a ion, Ge many. He ecei ed
his M.Sc. in business chemis y s udying a Kiel
Uni e si y, Ge many, and Ci y Uni e si y, Hong
Kong. His esea ch concen a es on inno a ion
managemen wi h a ocus on he managemen o
in e disciplina y R&D collabo a ions and knowl-
edge ans e . Fu he esea ch in e es s include he
managemen o adical inno a ions and uni e si y-
indus y collabo a ions. A Kiel Science Hub, he
wo ks in he ield o s a egic ne wo k managemen
and da a managemen .
Te yana Melnychuk (M.Sc.) is a esea ch associ-
a e and PhD s uden a he Technology Managemen
Resea ch G oup a Kiel Uni e si y’s Ins i u e o
Responsible Inno a ion, Ge many. She holds a M.Sc.
in business chemis y om Kiel Uni e si y. He e-
sea ch in e es s co e open inno a ion and ne wo k
managemen wi h a ocus on knowledge manage-
men . He esea ch is published in he Jou nal o
P oduc Inno a ion Managemen .
