E moshina, Ksenia; Musiani, F ancesca
A icle
Sa e spaces by design? Fede a ed socio echnical
a chi ec u es in con en mode a ion
In e ne Policy Re iew
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y (HIIG), Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: E moshina, Ksenia; Musiani, F ancesca (2025) : Sa e spaces by design?
Fede a ed socio echnical a chi ec u es in con en mode a ion, In e ne Policy Re iew, ISSN
2197-6775, Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y, Be lin, Vol. 14, Iss. 1, pp.
1-26,
h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.1827
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Volume 14 |
Sa e spaces by design? Fede a ed socio-
echnical a chi ec u es in con en
mode a ion
Ksenia E moshina Na ional Cen e o Scien i ic Resea ch (CNRS)
F ancesca Musiani Na ional Cen e o Scien i ic Resea ch (CNRS)
anc[email p o ec ed]
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.1827
Published: 31 Ma ch 2025
Recei ed: 18 Ma ch 2024 Accep ed: 21 Oc obe 2024
Funding: The au ho s g a e ully acknowledge he pas suppo o he Eu opean
p ojec NEXTLEAP (nex leap.eu, 2016-2018) i s , hen o he ResisTIC p ojec
( esis ic. , 2018-2022), unded by he F ench Na ional Agency o Resea ch (ANR), and
he cu en suppo o he ANR p ojec DIGISOV (h ps://digiso .o g/, 2024-2027).
Compe ing In e es s: The au ho has decla ed ha no compe ing in e es s exis ha
ha e in luenced he ex .
Licence: This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion 3.0 License (Ge many) which pe mi s un es ic ed use,
dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly
ci ed. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/3.0/de/deed.en
Copy igh emains wi h he au ho (s).
Ci a ion: E moshina, K., & Musiani, F. (2025). Sa e spaces by design? Fede a ed socio-
echnical a chi ec u es in con en mode a ion. In e ne Policy Re iew, 14(1).
h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.1827
Keywo ds: Fede a ion, Con en mode a ion, Censo ship, Go e nance, secu e messaging
Abs ac : Use s o secu e messaging ools, especially in communi ies a uned o he isks o s a e-
based and o he o ms o censo ship, inc easingly hesi a e o delega e hei da a o cen alised
pla o ms, endowed wi h subs an ial powe o il e con en and block use p o iles. This a icle
analyses he ole ha in o ma ional a chi ec u es and in as uc u es in ede a ed social media
pla o ms play in con en mode a ion p ocesses. Alongside p i acy by design, he a icle asks, is i
possible o speak o online “sa e( ) spaces by design”? And wha is he speci ic ole ha human
mode a o s play in ede a ed en i onmen s? The a icle a gues ha ede a ion can pa e he way
o no el p ac ices in con en mode a ion go e nance, me ging communi y o ganising, in o ma ion
dis ibu ion and al e na i e echno-social ins umen s o deal wi h online ha assmen , ha e speech
o disin o ma ion; howe e , his al e na i e also p esen s a numbe o pi alls and po en ial
di icul ies ha we examine o p o ide a comple e pic u e o he po en ial o ede a ed models.
Issue 1
This pape is pa o Con en mode a ion on digi al pla o ms: beyond s a es and i ms, a
special issue o In e ne Policy Re iew gues -edi ed by Romain Badoua d and Anne Bellon.
In oduc ion
Edwa d Snowden’s 2013 e ela ions (see Snowden, 2019) ha e been a landma k
e en in he de elopmen o he ield o secu e communica ions. Enc yp ion o
communica ions a a la ge scale and in a usable manne has become a ma e o
public conce n, wi h a new c yp og aphic imagina y aking hold, one which sees
enc yp ion as a necessa y p econdi ion o he o ma ion o ne wo ked publics
(Mye s Wes , 2018). Alongside he u ning o enc yp ion in o a ully- ledged poli i-
cal issue, he Snowden e ela ions ha e ca alysed long-s anding deba es wi hin
he ield o secu e messaging p o ocols. Communi ies o c yp og aphy de elope s
(in pa icula , academic and ee so wa e collec i es) ha e enewed hei e o s o
c ea e nex -gene a ion secu e messaging p o ocols in o de o o e come he limi s
o exis ing p o ocols. De elope s and echnologis s wo ldwide ha e a co e com-
mon objec i e o c ea ing ools ha “conceal o eedom” while di e ing in hei
a ge ed use publics, he unde lying alues and business models, and, las bu no
leas , hei echnical a chi ec u es (E moshina & Musiani, 2022).
This expe imen a ion wi h di e en echnical a chi ec u es has a coun e pa in
he g owing mis us exp essed by use s o secu e messaging ools owa ds cen-
alised and p op ie a y messenge s and social media pla o ms (E moshina & Mu-
siani, 2022), and he need o look o al e na i es, bo h socio- echnical and poli i-
cal. This adds o he well-documen ed mis us owa ds ep esen a i e democ a-
cies and c i ique o adi ional o ms o poli ical pa icipa ion (Rosan allon &
Goldhamme , 2008; Benne e al., 2013; Blondiaux, 2017). Fu he mo e, hese wo
le els o dis us , while hey a e g ounded in mos ly sepa a e se s o phenomena,
a e pe cei ed in some coun ies as ela ed, due o he “dange ous liaisons” ha
ha e been documen ed in ecen his o y be ween go e nmen s and companies
(Musiani, 2013), especially when i comes o online su eillance and p i acy
(Snowden, 2019). Indeed, use s become mo e skep ical abou delega ing hei da a
o cen alized pla o ms, endowed, “by design” and “by business model”, wi h sub-
s an ial powe o il e con en and block use p o iles. In addi ion o go e nmen -
imposed in e ne censo ship, pla o m-based and in e media y-based censo ship
(Zucke man, 2010) may a ec a a ie y o use g oups, om hose who could be
classi ied as a - igh o human igh s de ende s, LGBTQI+ ac i is s o e en jou nal-
is s ouching upon con o e sial opics (see DeNa dis & Hackl, 2015).
2 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
In his sea ch o al e na i es, so-called “ ede a ed” a chi ec u es as he basis o
secu e messaging and ne wo king a e cu en ly expe iencing a phase o inc eased
de elopmen and use. They a e p esen ed as al e na i es, on he one hand, o cen-
alized applica ions ha in oduce a ‘single poin o ailu e’ in he ne wo k and
lack in e ope abili y, and on he o he hand, o he pee - o-pee applica ions ha
necessi a e highe le els o engagemen , expe ise and esponsibili y om he
use (and he de ice). Fede a ion is some imes desc ibed as an ambi ious echno-
poli ical p ojec ; ede a ed a chi ec u es open up he ‘co e-se ’ o p o ocol design-
e s and in ol e a new kind o ac o , he sys em adminis a o , esponsible o
main aining he clus e o se e s ha a e necessa y o ede a ed ne wo ks. Fed-
e a ion is belie ed o help alle ia ing he e y high deg ee o pe sonal esponsibil-
i y held by a cen alised se ice p o ide , while a he same ime dis ibu ing his
esponsibili y and he “means o compu ing”1-- he ma e ial and logis ical e-
sou ces needed by he sys em -- wi h di e en possible deg ees o engagemen ,
a ou ing he eedom o use s o choose be ween di e en solu ions and se e s
acco ding o hei pa icula needs and se s o alues.
Ra he han ocusing on he mo e “ adi ional” online con en go e nance ques ion
o whe he censo ing some o hese use s is legi ima e o no , ou pape ocuses
on how speci ic choices in he c ea ion and deploymen o in o ma ional a chi ec-
u es and in as uc u es o ede a ed social media pla o ms co-shape echnical
a o dances ha in o m con en mode a ion p ocesses. Alongside p i acy by de-
sign (see Ca oukian, 2012), can we speak o online “sa e spaces by design” o de-
sc ibe socio- echnical a angemen s enabling a sa e con e sa ion online? And
wha is he speci ic ole ha human mode a o s play in ede a ed en i onmen s?
The a icle i s ou lines he heo e ical ounda ions sub ending he a icle as well
as he empi ical ma e ial ha is a i s co e, and he me hodology used o analyse
i . The a icle analyses he Fedi e se as an al e na i e model o con en dis ibu-
ion and mode a ion, desc ibing b ie ly i s ounding p inciples and key p ojec s. I
hen mo es o p o iding an analy ical po ai o h ee case s udies ha a e em-
blema ic o ede a ed a chi ec u e-based p ac ices in con en mode a ion go e -
nance; hese case s udies in oduce elemen s o communi y o ganising, in o ma-
ion dis ibu ion and al e na i e echno-social ins umen s o deal wi h online ha-
assmen , ha e speech o disin o ma ion. In addi ion o he oppo uni ies ha
hese ins umen s p o ide o bo h ins ance adminis a o s and “end use s,” he case
s udies also e eal he po en ial di icul ies en ailed by he deploymen o ede a -
ed models.
1. h ps://www.chaps e hood.com/2019/03/09/decen alize-o -pe ish/
3 E moshina, Musiani
Con ex , heo e ical ounda ions and me hodology
In ou p e ious esea ch ocused on pos -so ie ac i is and jou nalis communi ies
and hei usage o social media, we ha e examined an in e es ing pa e n which
we ha e called “digi al mig a ion”, and ha can be likened o “pla o m swi ching”
as desc ibed in managemen li e a u e (see e.g. Tucke , 2019). A leas wo impo -
an wa es o mig a ion we e iden i ied: Vk.com o Facebook (2011-2012) and
Facebook o Teleg am (2016-2018). Nowadays, due o ecen con o e sies a ound
Teleg am’s po en ial collabo a ion wi h he Russian go e nmen (E moshina & Mu-
siani, 2021) a hi d wa e o mig a ion has been ini ia ed, which in ol es adop ion
o decen alized al e na i es (Ma ix/Elemen , Mas odon, Ple oma, Del a.Cha , e c.).
The con ex o wa in Uk aine and subsequen in o ma ion con ol p ac ices ha e
p o ided u he oppo uni ies o ede a ed open sou ce pla o ms o appea as a
possible al e na i e, o e ing eliabili y and esis ance o censo ship.
In he so-called “Global No h”, a simila mig a ion wa e a ec ed ac i is s ( om
bo h ex emes o he poli ical spec um), ma ginalized popula ions, ech en husi-
as s and jou nalis s swi ching om X/Twi e o decen alized and open sou ce
ools ha cons i u e he Fedi e se, whe e Mas odon is an ou s anding example2.
Now coun ing se e al million ac i e use s, his pla o m p oposes a ede a ed in-
as uc u e o mic oblogging and has been hailed as an example o “democ a ic
digi al commons” (Kwe , 2020).
Adding o he nascen schola ship ha in es iga es he in e play o ede a ed a -
chi ec u es and con en mode a ion go e nance (Hassan, 2021; Gehl & Zulli, 2023;
Rozensh ein, 2023), his a icle a gues ha ede a ion can pa e he way o no el
p ac ices in con en mode a ion go e nance. By me ging communi y o ganising,
in o ma ion dis ibu ion and al e na i e echno-social ins umen s o deal wi h on-
line ha assmen , ha e speech o disin o ma ion, ede a ion o e s a model ha e-
lies on a mul i ude o “sa e spaces”. Howe e , his al e na i e also p esen s a num-
be o pi alls and po en ial di icul ies ha need o be examined o p o ide a
comple e pic u e o he po en ial o ede a ed models.
The e m “sa e space” as opposed o “sa e space” is bo owed om an in e iew
we conduc ed on 19 Ap il 2017, du ing ou ieldwo k wi h a Russian eminis ac-
i is , L. She c i ically assessed he echno-op imis p omise o absolu e sa e y and
2. A e he elec ion o Donald T ump and his inaugu a ion in Janua y 2025, an impo an numbe o
use s belonging o such g oups, as well as esea ch and academia, ha e also mig a ed o Bluesky.
See Mallapa y, S. (2024). ‘A place o joy’: why scien is s a e joining he ush o Bluesky, Na u e, 21
No embe , h ps://www.na u e.com/a icles/d41586-024-03784-6
4 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
p i acy online, a guing ha any online pla o m, e en he mos p i a e, is po en-
ially ulne able o ha e speech, and ha decen aliza ion o e s only pa ial p o-
ec ion agains i .
The no ion o “sa e spaces” has been ecen ly concep ualised in ela ion o bo h
o line and online con ex s ha a e “ amed by a se ies o bounda ies, p inciples
and p ac ices”; he eeling o sa e y is achie ed p ecisely by he ac o olun a y
seg ega ion ha is some imes e en quali ied as “sepa a ism” (Delle , 2019). We a -
gue ha ede a ed pla o ms p o ide a o dances o sel -de ined communi ies o
se up and main ain hei own sa e spaces ha a e uni ed by speci ic se s o al-
ues, opics o in e es o cul u es.
Taking ede a ed a chi ec u es as ou co e analy ical objec , we pay pa icula a -
en ion o hei in e aces and he unde lying p o ocols o hese ools ( o example,
he co e ole played by he Ac i i yPub p o ocol and he in e ope abili y i o e s).
Unde s anding in o ma ion a chi ec u es om a pe spec i e in o med by science
and echnology s udies (STS), om ounda ional con ibu ions o in as uc u e
s udies (S a , 1999) o mo e ecen con ibu ions in so wa e s udies (Fulle , 2008),
we analyse so wa e as co-p oducing pa icula o ms o pa icipa ion. We a gue
ha p o ocol and in e ace p ope ies o hese ede a ed pla o ms can diminish
possibili ies o disin o ma ion, su eillance and online ha assmen , compa ed o
cen alised pla o ms such as X and Facebook. We will ocus on con en mode a-
ion p ac ices embedded in he a chi ec u e o ede a ed ools, bu also show he
limi s o he “sa e space by design” app oach and he decisi e ole o communi y,
poli ics and human agency. The empi ical pa o he a icle is o ganized a ound
h ee case s udies: ede a ed mic oblogging/social ne wo king se ice Mas odon,
ede a ed eal- ime communica ions p o ocol Ma ix.o g, and he con o e sy su -
ounding Me a’s launch o i s mic oblogging pla o m Th eads in May 2023.
Mas odon and Ma ix a e he wo mos widely-used cases o ede a ed applica-
ions ha sha e se e al ea u es, such as hei decen alised a chi ec u e, he pos-
sibili y o sel -hos ing, open sou ce code and in e ope abili y. Mas odon is a social
ne wo k while Ma ix is an end- o-end enc yp ed messaging se ice. Compa ing
hese ools helps us o explo e he e ec s o ede a ion, as a ype o a chi ec u e,
on con en mode a ion p ac ices.
Wi hin his app oach, g ounded in STS and mo e speci ically in in as uc u e s ud-
ies, which allows us o pay pa icula a en ion o he a chi ec u al and in as uc-
u al aspec s o ede a ed pla o ms, his esea ch si ua es i sel in a dialogue wi h
he e y ecen and bu geoning li e a u e ha seeks o examine he ques ions o
5 E moshina, Musiani
con en mode a ion and go e nance o he Fedi e se (Bono e al., 2024); in addi-
ion o he p e iously men ioned wo ks, al eady published in pee - e iewed jou -
nals, we wish o men ion he in e disciplina y wo ks-in-p og ess p esen ed as he
June 2023 “Mas odon Resea ch Symposium” a he Uni e si y o Wa wick3. These
ecen e o s o heo ise he Fedi e se “ om he inside”, by p ac i ione s, ins ance
adminis a o s o ac i e use s, show an ecosys em in- he-making, and an impo -
an deg ee o e lexi i y o he Fedi e se communi ies upon hemsel es, hei
ools and hei p ac ices.
This a icle elies on an online-e hnog aphic s udy o he ede a ed secu e mes-
saging and mic oblogging pla o ms Mas odon and Ma ix, and he ela ed use
communi ies. The s udy has included in e iews wi h use s (20) and de elope s (5)
o ede a ed messaging applica ions and a ollow-up se ies o in e iews wi h he
Fedi e se se e o ins ance adminis a o s (se en in e iews), and pe iods o on-
line e hnog aphy o discussion o a o de elope s and mode a o s o ede a ed
ools (e.g. he Social Web Incuba o Communi y G oup o he W3C4). This esea ch
was ini ially conduc ed in he ame o an H2020 in e disciplina y p ojec on de-
cen alised enc yp ed messaging, NEXTLEAP (“NEXT gene a ion echno-social, Le-
gal Enc yp ion, Access and P i acy”, nex leap.eu, 2016-2018) and has been con in-
ued independen ly by he au ho s since he o icial end o he p ojec (see e.g. E -
moshina & Musiani, 2021 and 2022).
The ise o he Fedi e se wi hin b oade “digi al
mig a ions”
Du ing he abo e-men ioned NEXTLEAP p ojec , we conduc ed a p e ious s udy
(2016-2018) wi h 90+ use s o end- o-end enc yp ed messaging applica ions. In
his s udy (E moshina & Musiani, 2022), we explo ed (besides o he esea ch ques-
ions) he mo i a ions behind use p e e ences o a pa icula secu e messaging
applica ion. In he con ex o a ib a ing ma ke o “p i acy by design” apps, why
do use s us one ool mo e han he o he ? Fo he majo i y o ou use in e ie-
wees, he choice was no based on he c yp og aphic p ope ies o a messenge ;
on he con a y, e en he so-called ech sa y use s (de elope s, c yp og aphe s,
digi al secu i y aine s) o en op ed o a less secu e ool e en hough hey knew
i had secu i y laws (E moshina & Musiani, 2022, pp. 66-88). Fo ins ance, he suc-
3. Mas odon Resea ch Symposium, June 22, 2023, Uni e si y o Wa wick, UK and online h ps://wa -
wick.ac.uk/ ac/c oss_ ac/cdi/news-e en s?newsI em=8a1785d787044e9c0187045657 e000a
4. Websi e o he Social Web Incuba o Communi y G oup o he Wo ld Wide Web Conso ium (W3C),
h ps://www.w3.o g/communi y/socialcg/
6 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
cess o Teleg am in Russia, ha we ho oughly analysed in a dedica ed pape (E -
moshina & Musiani, 2021), had e y li le o do wi h he quali y o he ac ual c yp-
og aphic p o ocols used by Teleg am, which a e la gely c i icised by he secu i y
communi y (e.g. Alb ech e al., 2022). Ins ead, he choice o Teleg am was o
many use s based on he apps’ b anding, i s cha isma ic leade and he ela i e
openness o i s API. This made Teleg am a ac i e o he communi y con ibu o s
o build bo s, c ea e s icke s o de elop independen o ks o he app.
Howe e , ou analysis also showed ha pla o ms and ools ha e popula i y ajec-
o ies: hey expe ience heydays and declines, and use us should no be aken
o g an ed. Se e al wa es o “digi al mig a ions”, as desc ibed abo e – ansi ions
o use s om one pla o m o ano he in eac ion o a speci ic e en , o en echni-
cal o poli ical – ha e aken place since he ea ly 2010s. Thus, Snowden’s e ela-
ions played a c ucial ole in use s’ mig a ion om he unenc yp ed Facebook Mes-
senge o end- o-end enc yp ed ools such as Signal. Con e sely, he unban o he
(end- o-end enc yp ed, bu hea ily c i icised om a echnical s andpoin ) Teleg am
in Russia in June 2020, and he ecen decision by Pa el Du o , i s c ea o , o col-
labo a e wi h se e al go e nmen s o law ul in e cep ion (Ge many, o ins ance)
led o wa es o mig a ion o use s om Teleg am o Ma ix, Del a Cha o Jabbe 5.
O he easons o wa es o digi al mig a ion can be connec ed o changes in he
legisla ion o a coun y o e en shi s in a ool's business model and leade ship.
Fo example, when Pa el Du o , a e a conside able amoun o p essu e om he
au ho i ies, sold he ‘made in Russia’ social ne wo k Vkon ak e o Vk.com o he
Russian oliga ch Alishe Usmano , he pla o m became no only much mo e com-
me cial, bu also open o di ec collabo a ion wi h he police, which led o a mass
mig a ion om Vk o Facebook (see e.g. Bu che , 2014).
I is no ewo hy ha digi al mig a ion is no a linea p ocess; i is no always uni-
la e al and no always exclusi e. A use can be co-p esen in mul iple online
wo lds, and na iga e in a “mul i- ool se ing” as hei online pe sonas and h ea
models a e in insically mul iple (Casilli, 2015; E moshina & Musiani, 2018). Use s
may be p esen on bo h Teleg am and Signal, o on Twi e and Mas odon, and o -
en c oss-pos on se e al pla o ms manually o using au oma ed solu ions (bo s
o b idges), in o de o nego ia e pa s o hei online iden i y as well as mul iply
hei online p esence, and add ess di e en a ge g oups associa ed wi h hose
pla o ms, con ibu ing o se e al dis inc echnocul u es.
5. See e.g. his discussion on he o um o OpenS ee Map F ance: h ps:// o um.opens ee map. / /
passage-de-g oupes- eleg am- e s-signal/25349/5
7 E moshina, Musiani
One o he mos s iking examples o his mig a ion p ocess is linked o he ise o
he Fedi e se, an umb ella concep ha “ e e s collec i ely o he p o ocols,
se e s, and applica ions” (Rozensh ein, 2023) ha enable ede a ed social media.
The backbone o Fedi e se is Ac i i yPub, a p o ocol ha can be used o sha ing
di e en kinds o social media con en , om ex o pho o and ideo, which makes
a ious se ices wi hin Fedi e se in e ope able. Fedi e se o e s al e na i es o he
mos popula social pla o ms: Facebook, Twi e , Ins ag am, You ube, sugges ing
open sou ce and ede a ed equi alen s (e.g. F endica, Ple oma and Mas odon o
social ne wo king and mic oblogging, Pixel ed o image sha ing, Pee ube o
ideo s eaming). All o hese se ices can “ alk o one ano he ”, and po en ially e-
spond o use s’ needs o plu ali y o ools and con en o ms.
In ou p e ious wo k (E moshina & Musiani, 2022, pp. 66-88) we ha e analysed
ede a ion as bo h an in as uc u al and a social expe imen whe e de elope s
seek o achie e a comp omise be ween high le els o secu i y and be e usabili y,
ackling p eoccupa ions ha a e ‘ideological’ and p agma ic a once, e.g. dis ibu -
ing esponsibili ies among s akeholde s, o e ing pa icula e sions o online ee-
dom, o gi ing use s he choice o hei le el o au onomy in he sys em. We ha e
p oposed a amewo k called he “ ou Cs o ede a ion” o sys ema ising and con-
cep ualising ede a ion. The “ ou Cs” include:
1. communi y – (sel )-go e nance and ad ancemen o ede a ed p ojec s
depends on engaging a a ie y o se ice p o ide s and clien s in o
accep ing new open p o ocols o new lib a ies; communica ion and
consensus among a ious p ojec s a e needed;
2. compa ibili y – need o en ol an impo an numbe o de elope s in o de
o implemen and sp ead pa icula solu ions and being able o secu e
use s; his includes he ‘backwa ds compa ibili y’ needed o enable a
ha monious ansi ion om olde o mo e ecen p o ocols wi hou
blocking o boyco ing ‘by design’ some o he clien s;
3. cus omisa ion – possibili y o manage smalle use g oups and localised
implemen a ions, adap ing hem o he needs o speci ic use communi ies
wi hou losing he abili y o in e ac wi h b oade ne wo ks, which
howe e becomes challenging i he e a e ailu es o documen
sys ema ically all he a ious implemen a ions o a gi en p o ocol;
4. ca e – he s abili y o ede a ed ecosys ems depends on he success ul
en olmen o main aine s, which equi es he de elopmen o good
documen a ion and guides wi h ‘bes p ac ices’, and he dissemina ion o
echnical expe ise o u u e sysadmins.
These “ ou Cs” will be e-examined in he conclusions o he a icle in ligh o i s
mo e speci ic ocus on con en mode a ion.
8 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
c ea e an a chi ec u e able o ully ackle he in e ope abili y p oblem. This in e -
ope abili y is mean o become a subs an ial compa a i e ad an age and en oll-
men ac o o use s (Hodgson, 2023; Hend iks, 2020; see e.g. Weinbe ge , 2014
o a ep esen a i e specialised p ess a icle).
The challenges o mode a ion and deba es abou eedom o speech ha e long
been discussed in connec ion o social media pla o ms, de ined as a enas o pub-
lic deba e ha ha e o be egula ed. On he con a y, messaging applica ions we e
a ely discussed as equi ing mode a ion and we e pe cei ed as closed en i on-
men s o silos, whe e communica ions happened in p i a e. In ou s udy we sug-
ges ha some o he mode n messaging applica ions can be conside ed as hy-
b ids be ween social ne wo ks and p i a e communica ion ools, because hey o -
e a ea u e o public g oup cha s o ooms (as in Ma ix/Elemen ), ha can be
sea ched and joined om he ou side.
Teleg am is one example o such a hyb id ool ha uni es ea u es o a messenge
and o a social ne wo k. Howe e , i is cen alised and as such is ou o he scope
o ou s udy which only ocuses on ede a ed applica ions. Ma ix/Elemen is an
in e es ing case o such hyb idi y, as i o e s a de aul public se e (and he e o e,
a deg ee o cen alisa ion), as well as a public lis o ooms and channels ha peo-
ple can eques o join. This exis ence o epe oi es o public ooms and hei po-
en ial disco e abili y by ex e nal use s makes Ma ix a semi-public space and hus
in oduces a demand o mode a ion ha comes up om he use communi y as
well as om he egula o s and app ma ke s. As ou ieldwo k in e iews ha e
helped o illus a e, since i s beginnings, he Ma ix eam, unlike Mas odon’s, did
no ake an explici ly poli ical o ideological s ance, and did no aim a p o iding
so wa e o speci ic audiences wi h a poli ical agenda o engaged in poli ical a e-
nas, such as ac i is s. This posi ion, a kind o ‘libe al plu alism’, is e lec ed in he
e y a chi ec u e as well as he use s o his sys em. F om he poin o iew o he
a chi ec u e, i is a ede a ed sys em ha b idges a g ea a ie y o di e en mes-
saging ools, hus lea ing a ce ain amoun o eedom o use s, allowing hem o
e ain hei usual in e ace, while making i possible o hem o connec wi h o h-
e s. In e ms o use plu alism, Ma ix has a a ie y o ooms add essing a wide a-
ie y o subjec s, om c yp og aphy and open-sou ce, c yp ocu ency and decen-
aliza ion o psychological help, u ies, subcul u es and an communi ies, le -
wing g oups and al - igh Donald T ump suppo e ooms. Two o he main linge -
ing p oblems o Ma ix a e managing spam and main aining a decen alized epu-
a ion sys em -- wo issues ha , acco ding o he Ma ix ounde s, a e s ill open o
esea ch.
15 E moshina, Musiani
Du ing ou in e iew wi h he co- ounde o Ma ix, Ma hew Hodgson, in 2017,
mode a ion and epu a ion sys ems had al eady been discussed as possible chal-
lenges o u u e de elopmen s. Back hen, he posi ion o Ma hew Hodgson was
ha o adical inclusi i y and ee speech. In esponse o ou ques ion abou he
a ge ed use g oups o Ma ix, he said he could no be awa e o all ooms and
se e s wi hin Ma ix since i is a ede a ed and open sou ce ne wo k. And e en
hough he was awa e o “some pizzaga e igh -wing guys using i ” (ci .), he was
agains he idea o a mas e di ec o y o all se e s o o in oduc ion o back-
doo s o any kind:
“We u e ly abho child abuse, e o ism, ascism and simila - and we did no build
Ma ix o enable i . Howe e , ying o mi iga e abuse wi h backdoo s is,
un o una ely, undamen ally lawed” (Ma hew Hodgson, Ma ix co- ounde , in a
Ma ix.o g blog pos , 202017)
Howe e , in 2021, se e al yea s a e ou in e iew wi h Hodgson, Elemen , he
Ma ix clien , was banned by he popula digi al dis ibu ion se ice Google Play
because some “abusi e con en ” had been disco e ed by Google Play bo s. As a
consequence, mode a ion became an u gen issue. As a esponse, Ma ix de el-
oped Mjolni : a suppo bo o bans, edac ions, an i-spam, oom shu down and
o he mode a ion ac i i ies, and a ela i e epu a ion sys em (published as a epu-
a ion eed) ha allows anyone o p oduce subjec i e sco es on use s, se e s,
ooms o messages. The bo Mjolni has o be se up and un on a dedica ed in a-
s uc u e by he se e adminis a o s. I can ban use s, dele e messages and exe-
cu e o he mode a ion ac i i ies depending on he desi able con igu a ion. One
impo an ea u e o Mjolni is o p o ec indi idual mode a o s om e alia ion:
he bans and message dele ion o edi ing a e associa ed o he bo ’s ID and no o
he mode a o s’ IDs, he e o e educing di ec e alia ion agains mode a o s o
hei mode a ion ac ions
Ou analysis shows ha , in his pa icula socio- echnical, e ol ing con ex , Ma ix
has op ed o “p o ocol neu ali y”, i.e., no o implemen any au oma ic mode a-
ion a he p o ocol le el. In he abo e-men ioned blog pos , Ma hew Hodgson e-
ma ks:
17. Hodgson, M. (2020). “Comba ing abuse in Ma ix - wi hou backdoo s”. Ma ix.o g blog,
h ps://ma ix.o g/blog/2020/10/19/comba ing-abuse-in-ma ix-wi hou -backdoo s/
16 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
“The p o ocol’s posi ion in his solu ion should be one o neu ali y: i should no be
deciding wha con en is undesi able o any pa icula en i y, and should ins ead be
empowe ing hose en i ies o make hei own decisions18”.
Ins ead o baking mode a ion in o p o ocols, Ma ix sugges s “mode a ion policy
lis s” o “ban lis s” which a e simple sc ip s s o ed as “ oom s a es” (con igu a ion
iles wi h speci ic se ings ega ding con en policies). These sc ip s can be sha ed
ac oss ooms and se e s.
FIGURE 3: Example o a oom s a e.
This idea o Ma ix’s p o ocol neu ali y echoes well wi h Mas odon’s a i ude o
machine lea ning-based mode a ion, ou lined abo e.
The minimiza ion o he sp ead o disin o ma ion and spam appea s indeed o be
Ma ix/Elemen ’s cu en main goal, o be achie ed by a mix o social and echni-
cal mode a ion by se e o ins ance adminis a o s. The Ma ix eam u ges i s
powe -use s o c ea e hei own se e s a he han depend on he cen al de aul
ins ance ma ix.o g, as he mode a ion on an independen se e can be much be -
e cus omised. The Mjolni bo ’s capaci ies o assis wi h con en mode a ion de-
pend solely on he adminis a o s o a pa icula se e , because he bo is no cen-
ally un by he o icial Ma ix.o g eam bu has o be deployed and un indepen-
den ly. The e o e, mode a ion on Ma ix emains a decen alised p ac ice ha e-
18. Ibid.
17 E moshina, Musiani
lies on bo h communi y p inciples and echnical adjus men s o he exis ing ools.
The Ma ix eam hopes o add ess his p oblem by also deploying a epu a ional
sys em, and seeks a way o use s o il e con en by de eloping a sys em o open
and modulable il e s. As a pa allel p ojec aimed a mi iga ing S a e-based cen-
so ship, and a esponse o he inc eased isk o in e ne shu downs in poli ically
uns able egions, such as Bela us, I an, Ki ghizis an and o he s, Ma ix has e-
leased in 2020 an alpha pee - o-pee e sion o i s so wa e, mean o achie e in-
dependence om In e ne connec ions p o ided by elecom ope a o s, which is
howe e s ill a wo k-in-p og ess.
Case s udy 3: The con o e sy su ounding “Th eads”
In May 2023, Me a launched i s mic oblogging pla o m “Th eads19” in esponse o
wha was, by a , he hea ies c isis o Twi e , ollowing i s acquisi ion by Elon
Musk and i s change o name o “X” ac ed soon a e . In pa allel, he mos impo -
an mig a ion wa e om X o Mas odon in ecen his o y un olded in 2022-2023,
ollowed by ano he wa e o exodus om X o BlueSky in 2024. This unde sco es
again he poin made ea lie on in he a icle, ha social ne wo king and mi-
c oblogging pla o ms expe ience momen s o g ea success and o decline, as
echnical ools and as a enas o public deba e – and use s’ us on and eliance
upon hem should no be aken o g an ed.
19. h ps://www. h eads.ne /; as a pa o he Me a ecosys em, Th eads equi es an Ins ag am accoun
o be ope a ed.
18 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
FIGURE 4: E olu ion o ac i e Mas odon use s ollowing majo e en s in Twi e ’s go e nance a e
Elon Musk’s acquisi ion. Sou ce: Bas ian, 2022.
The p omise o Me a o implemen he Ac i i yPub p o ocol, and umo s abou
backg ound nego ia ions be ween Th eads ep esen a i es and adminis a o s o
popula Fedi e se ins ances, di ided he Mas odon communi y.
The # edipac mo emen was launched, a ound a dedica ed webpage20wi h a
mani es o and a apidly g owing lis o ins ance adminis a o s who signed an
ag eemen no o ede a e wi h ins ances owned by Th eads (as o Ma ch 2024, he
lis includes 682 signa u es o ins ance adminis a o s and he hash ag was used
20. An i-Me a Fedipac (2025). Fedipac .online. h ps:// edipac .online/
19 E moshina, Musiani
by 7.49% o all ac i e Mas odon use s)21.
The au ho o # edipac ini ia i e, use @ an ablack, emphasizes ha he main
eason o he campaign agains Th eads is p ecisely ela ed o i s p oblema ic ap-
p oach o con en mode a ion:
“A he end o he day he whole hing wi h The Pac blocking me a, o me a leas ,
comes down o one ac : hey a e absolu ely NOT going o mode a e hei shi
p ope ly (...) i hey we e any o he ins ance hey’d be de ede a ed immedia ely o
he shi hey' e aided and abbe ed [sic] in and allowed o exis on hei pla o m”.
Because o he e y a chi ec u e o Mas odon and o he Ac i i yPub-based se ices,
ede a ing wi h Th eads would mean ha po en ially ha m ul con en p oduced by
Th eads’ use s would show up in Fedi e se use s’ eeds. Co e indi iduals behind
# edipac assumed ha Th eads was a eal h ea o he Fedi e se’s unique e hics
and could unde mine i s epu a ion as a “sa e space”.
FIGURE 5: Th eads is pe cei ed as a h ea by ulne able g oups. Sou ce: @FediP[email p o ec ed].
(2025). LGBTQIA+ and Tech. h ps:// ech.lgb /@FediPac /111634849265490496
A e Ma k Zucke be g’s announcemen on Janua y 7, 2025 o majo changes in
mode a ion o Me a se ices, he bigges Mas odon ins ance Mas odon.social has
aken a majo decision o de ede a e om Th eads.ne ins ance and block
21. FediDB, Fedi e se Ne wo k S a is ics (2025). Fedidb.o g. h ps:// edidb.o g/cu en -e en s/an i-
me a- edi-pac
20 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
h eads.ne a he DNS le el: “The new Me a policy goes agains much we s and
o and we will no allow o le i spill o e o he Fedi e se”22.
Ou analysis o he # edipac con o e sy has shown ha he e we e h ee main
kinds o eac ions by ins ance adminis a o s, ha we could de ine as echno-op i-
mis ic, p o ec i e and adical.
The i s g oup would desc ibe Th eads’ adop ion o he Ac i i yPub p o ocol as a
ic o y o he FLOSS (F ee Lib e and Open Sou ce So wa e) communi y, ha ing a
posi i e impac on he o e all decen aliza ion and popula iza ion o he Fedi-
e se. Techno-op imis s would de end adical openness as opposed o he walled
ga dens aised by Me a’s p oduc s.
The second, and he mos popula , posi ion can be de ined as p o ec ing he ede -
a ion’s al e na i e po en ial and ision, as i equa es o a “de- ede a ion” wi h any
ins ance owned by Th eads. As he a ious polls launched by Mas odon adminis-
a o s show, his posi ion has be ween 50 and 70% o o es23. The p o ec ionis s
would de end a ce ain ision o he “Mas odon cul u e” and see he # edipac as a
ool o collec i e ac ion agains he ad e sa ial cul u e and alues o a p op ie a y
pla o m.
Finally, he mos adical g oup would go e en u he in he adop ion o he # edi-
pac and sugges ed ex ending he “de- ede a ion” no only o Th eads, bu also o
Mas odon ins ances ha ag eed o ede a e wi h Th eads.
The Th eads con o e sy shows ha he choice o implemen ing he Ac i i yPub
P o ocol has a consequence on he global go e nance and con en mode a ion o
he Fedi e se. Choosing a ede a ed p o ocol en ails (po en ially also nega i e)
consequences o he ede a ion, in e ms o possibly undesi able con en , pos ed
on a pla o m ha is conside ed con o e sial by many ac o s in he communi y,
ge ing elayed by all ins ances in he ede a ed pla o m. Howe e , his mode a-
ion, in which he choice o he p o ocol plays a c ucial ole, aises an impo an
ques ion abou he powe balance be ween ins ance adminis a o s and indi idual
use s and hei igh o access in o ma ion. In esponse o his, Pixel ed (a ede a -
ed equi alen o Ins ag am) has implemen ed an op -in o use s who s ill wish o
22. Pos by @[email p o ec ed], one o he Mas odon.social co e main ain e s, Janua y 8, 2025,
h ps://ms dn.social/@s ux/113793895110300721
23. Jon. Should he Fedi e se welcome i s new su eillance-capi alism o e lo ds? Opinions di e ! The
Nexus o P i acy. (Decembe 31, 2023). h ps://p i acy. henexus. oday/should- he- edi e se-wel-
come-su eillance-capi alism/#polls
21 E moshina, Musiani
see con en published by Th eads use s24. This con o e sy also ques ions
Mas odon’s “echo-chambe ”25e ec , i s dominan poli ical cul u e, de ini ion o
“ ee speech” and aci alues.
While he Ac i i yPub p o ocol enables openness and decen aliza ion, when i is
used as a ool o collec i e go e nance and con en mode a ion, i in oduces an
impo an isk o cen aliza ion and eshapes powe s uc u es wi hin Mas odon
and he Fedi e se as a whole.
Conclusion. The “Fou Cs” o ede a ion mee con en
mode a ion
While ede a ion is likely o pa e he way o no el and po en ially p omising ways
o con en mode a ion, ha me ge aspec s o communi y o ganizing, in o ma ion
dis ibu ion and al e na i e echno-social ins umen s, he e y echnical a chi ec-
u e ha holds p omise can become a weakness o a liabili y in pa icula ci cum-
s ances, such as e-cen aliza ion a ound a small g oup o adminis a o s, acciden -
p one in e aces, and p oblema ic delega ion chains.
In ou p e ious esea ch on ede a ed a chi ec u e pla o ms (E moshina & Mu-
siani, 2022), as well as in he p esen pape , we ha e analysed he shaping o ed-
e a ion in ligh o he ‘ ou Cs o ede a ion’: communi y, cus omisa ion, compa i-
bili y and ca e. In he ollowing pa ag aphs, we e isi hese ou dynamics and as-
pec s in ligh o his pape ’s ocus on con en mode a ion.
In e ms o he i s C, communi y, (sel )-go e nance and ad ancemen o ede a ed
p ojec s implies an impo an communi y-d i en e o and depends on engaging a
a ie y o se ice p o ide s and clien s in o accep ing new open p o ocols o new
lib a ies, ia consensus-building s a egies. Ou esea ch qui e clea ly demon-
s a es he ise o a powe ul and di e se communi y o in e es ed ac o s in ol ed
in he co-p oduc ion o elemen s (p o ocols, packages, lib a ies…) necessa y o p e-
pa e he digi al ecosys em o ede a ed en i onmen s. In hese en i onmen s, he
communi y-d i en e o is aceable in se e al aspec s o he con en mode a ion
p ocesses. Fi s o all, he epu a ion o se e s and ooms is collec i ely buil , and
subjec o con inuous e olu ions; second, codes o conduc a e con inuously and
collec i ely deba ed; hi d, he e ec i eness o he mode a ion is based on he e-
24. pixel ed o icial accoun on Mas odon (@pix[email p o ec ed]). Ma ch 22, 2024
h ps://mas odon.social/@pixel ed/112138026280077088
25. “ he o ma ion o g oups o like-minded use s aming and ein o cing a sha ed na a i e” (Cinelli e
al., 2021).
22 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
sponsi eness o ins ance adminis a o s is-à- is he communi y.
The second C, cus omisa ion, highligh s how ede a ion p oposes o use s he op-
ion o choose among mul iple se ice p o ide s and mig a e om one se e o
ano he wi hou losing hei social g aphs. Fede a ed a chi ec u es make i simple
o cus omise and localise implemen a ions, adap ing hem o he needs o a spe-
ci ic use communi y wi hou losing he abili y o in e ac wi h b oade ne wo ks;
a he same ime, implemen a ions o a ede a ed p o ocol a e ha de o con ol,
and his may c ea e secu i y ulne abili ies ac oss di e en ins ances o clien s. In
e ms o mode a ion, his implies ha mode a ion solu ions a e le on he imple-
men a ion le el; hey do no a ec he p o ocol i sel , as summa ized by he “p o-
ocol neu ali y” label o Ma ix.
We ha e iden i ied compa ibili y and i s challenges as he ‘ hi d C’ o ede a ion;
o example, he need o implemen he so-called ‘backwa ds compa ibili y’ ha
makes a ha monious ansi ion om olde o mo e ecen p o ocols possible, wi h-
ou blocking o boyco ing ‘by design’ some o he clien s. In e ms o mode a ion,
his means ha mode a ion solu ions, as hey a e conduc ed a he implemen a-
ion le el, can be sha ed ac oss ins ances, like oom-s a es.
Finally, ede a ion adds a laye o complexi y in he go e nance secu e messaging
sys ems by in oducing new key playe s, no ably he sys em adminis a o s, e-
sponsible o he main enance and g ow h – he “ca e” (Denis & Pon ille, 2015) –
o ede a ed in as uc u es, ou ou h and inal ‘C’. The s abili y o ede a ed
ecosys ems depends, as well, on he success ul en ollmen o main aine s, ha e-
qui es de elopmen o good documen a ion and guides wi h “bes p ac ices”, dis-
semina ion o echnical expe ise h ough o line educa ional e en s o u u e
sysadmins. As o mode a ion, he “ca e” aspec is made explici by he ac ha
mode a ion solu ions a e implemen ed wi hou ha ming he in as uc u e and he
use , and elimina ing by design he possibili y o backdoo s.
In conclusion, in ede a ed sys ems, no single en i y can be coun ed upon o
main aining he sys em as a unc ioning one, including a he le el o con en
mode a ion go e nance; he necessi y o ‘ca e’ is dis ibu ed ac oss he mul iple
sysadmins and o he ac o s ha manage he di e en ins ances in he ede a ion.
The g ow h o ede a ed pla o ms seems o ma k a u n owa ds communi y-man-
aged ‘sa e spaces’, wi h mo e powe delega ed o human mode a o s. Howe e , we
should keep in mind ha his in oduces new isks o he e-cen aliza ion o pow-
e wi hin ede a ed ne wo ks, equi ing mo e esea ch on he ole o in as uc u e
main aine s, adminis a o s and mode a o s, besides he co e-se o p o ocol de-
23 E moshina, Musiani
signe s – a esea ch agenda ha his pape has s a ed o un old. Fede a ed mes-
senge s ha e many challenges, including spam, epu a ion sys em, as well as dis-
co e abili y o con ac s and con en ha becomes ha de wi hou a cen alized
egis y; howe e , hey a e seen as a p omising al e na i e by hose use s we ha e
called ‘disin o ma ion e ugees’ (E moshina & Musiani, 2022) -- use s who aban-
don cu en ly dominan pla o ms due o hei disillusionmen abou disin o ma-
ion o ha e speech.
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