Vandaele, Ku ; Piasna, Agnieszka; Zwysen, Wou e
Wo king Pape
A e pla o m wo ke s willing o unionize? Explo ing su ey
e idence om 14 Eu opean coun ies
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 106
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Vandaele, Ku ; Piasna, Agnieszka; Zwysen, Wou e (2024) : A e pla o m wo ke s
willing o unionize? Explo ing su ey e idence om 14 Eu opean coun ies, ILO Wo king Pape , No.
106, ISBN 978-92-2-039152-5, In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
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XA e pla o m wo ke s willing o
unionize? Explo ing su ey e idence
om 14 Eu opean coun ies
Au ho s / Ku Vandaele, Agnieszka Piasna, Wou e Zwysen
Feb ua y / 2024
ILO Wo king Pape 106
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01 ILO Wo king Pape 106
Abs ac
Embedded in he pa icula model o wo k o ganiza ion o digi al labou pla o ms, pla o m wo k-
e s ace se e al hu dles discou aging hem om becoming ade union membe s. These ela e
o algo i hmic managemen , egula o y a bi age ega ding he employmen a angemen s and
he p omo ion o an en ep eneu ial o ien a ion among pla o m wo ke s. Ne e heless, based
on da a om a ep esen a i e su ey in 14 Eu opean coun ies, union densi y in he pla o m
economy s ands a 13.4 pe cen . This should be in e p e ed as a kind o “pla o m unionism” ha
exis s by coincidence, howe e , as union membe ship is mos likely oo ed in he labou ma ke
s a us o pla o m wo ke s in he con en ional economy. Compa ed o he gene al popula ion,
pla o m wo ke s ha e s onge p o-union a i udes and a e mo e ecep i e o union membe -
ship. P obably pa ly e lec ing di icul ies in he abili y o unionize, he e is s ill a gap, hough,
be ween a i udes and willingness o unionize: whe eas abou wo- hi ds o pla o m wo ke s
hold posi i e a i udes owa ds unions, only o e a qua e s a e ha hey would like o join a
union. Apa om hose posi i e p o-union a i udes, he p opensi y o unionize also seems o
be de e mined by engagemen in o line ne wo ks ha p omo e a social no m o union mem-
be ship and online pa icipa ion in digi al wo k- ela ed communi ies. While hese indings could
in o m union ec ui men and o ganizing s a egies, i is needless o say ha he he e ogenei y
o he pla o m wo k o ce, s ongly in luenced by he di e en ways in which wo ke s pa icipa e
in he pla o m economy, equi es a he same ime ailo -made s a egies.
Abou he au ho s
Ku Vandaele is Senio Resea che a he Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e (ETUI), B ussels. His
esea ch in e es s include ade union e i aliza ion; he collec i e ac ion epe oi e o wo ke s;
and he pla o m economy and labou .
Agnieszka Piasna is Senio Resea che a he Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e (ETUI), B ussels.
He esea ch in e es s include job quali y, labou ma ke policies and egula ion, digi alisa ion and
gende equali y. She coo dina es esea ch ac i i ies wi hin he amewo k o he ETUI’s In e ne
and Pla o m Wo k Su ey, de elops he Eu opean Job Quali y Index and ca ies ou esea ch
on wo king ime educ ion.
Wou e Zwysen is Senio esea che a he Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e (ETUI), B ussels. He
is a quan i a i e esea che s udying inequali ies in he labou ma ke . He speci ically looks a
he u u e o wo k, mig an and e hnic inequali ies, and wage de elopmen s and gaps.
02 ILO Wo king Pape 106
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
Ac onyms 05
XIn oduc ion 06
X1 Wo ke s’ a ious pa e ns o pa icipa ion in he pla o m economy and
union s a egies 09
X2 Da a and me hods 12
X3 Accoun ing o he he e ogenei y o pla o m wo k 14
X4 Exis ing unioniza ion le els in he pla o m economy 18
X5 D i e s o unioniza ion among pla o m wo ke s 22
X6 Willingness o become union membe s among pla o m wo ke s 25
X7 The ela ionship be ween unioniza ion d i e s and willingness o unionize 29
X8 Discussion, limi a ions and u u e di ec ions 31
XConclusion 33
Re e ences 36
Acknowledgemen s 41
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 106
Lis o Figu es
Figu e 1 – S udying unioniza ion in he pla o m economy 10
Figu e 2: Pla o m wo ke s’ a achmen o he pla o m economy by labou ma ke s a us 15
Figu e 3: Wo ke s’ main labou ma ke s a us by ypes o pla o m wo k 16
Figu e 4 Deg ees o a achmen by ypes o pla o m wo k 17
Figu e 5: Unioniza ion a es among pla o m wo ke s and he gene al popula ion, by indi-
idual cha ac e is ics (%) 18
Figu e 6: Unioniza ion a es among pla o m wo ke s and he gene al popula ion, by labou
ma ke s a us, wo king ime and sec o (%) 20
Figu e 7: Unioniza ion a es among pla o m wo ke s by he e ogenei y o pla o m wo k (%) 21
Figu e 8: A i udes owa ds ade unions among non-union membe s, by he e ogenei y o
pla o m wo k (%) 23
Figu e 9: Engagemen in union- iendly o line social ne wo ks and pa icipa ion in online
wo k- ela ed communi ies among non-union membe s, by he e ogenei y o pla o m
wo k (%) 24
Figu e 10: Compa ing willingness o unionize be ween pla o m wo ke s and he gene al
popula ion, by indi idual cha ac e is ics (%) 25
Figu e 11: Compa ing willingness o unionize be ween pla o m wo ke s and he gene al
popula ion, by labou ma ke s a us, wo king ime and sec o (%) 26
Figu e 12: Willingness o unionize among pla o m wo ke s by he e ogenei y o pla o m
wo k (%) 27
Figu e 13: Di e ences in willingness o unionize be ween pla o m wo ke s and he gene al
popula ion, by he e ogenei y o pla o m wo k 28
Figu e 14: The e ec s o d i e s o unioniza ion on willingness o join a union 29
Figu e 15: The e ec s o d i e s o unioniza ion on willingness o unionize, by he e ogenei-
y o pla o m wo k 30
04 ILO Wo king Pape 106
Lis o Tables
Table 1: Compa ison be ween he gene al popula ion and pla o m wo k o ce 14
Table 2: D i e s o unioniza ion among non-pla o m and pla o m wo ke s 22
05 ILO Wo king Pape 106
Ac onyms
ETUI Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e
EU Eu opean Union
IPWS In e ne and Pla o m Wo k Su ey
12 ILO Wo king Pape 106
X2 Da a and me hods
To analyse he a i udes o pla o m wo ke s owa ds ade unions and hei willingness o un-
ionize, his pape makes use o la ge-N indi idual-le el da a om he In e ne and Pla o m Wo k
Su ey (IPWS) ca ied ou by he Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e (ETUI).50 This is a ep esen a-
i e c oss-na ional, mul i-lingual su ey among a simple andom sample o he wo king age
popula ion be ween 18-65 yea s old, wi h he ieldwo k ha monized and coo dina ed by Ipsos.
In e iews a e conduc ed ia compu e -assis ed elephone in e iewing implying answe op ions
being kep simple and he ques ionnai e easonably compac .
The analysis uses da a pooled om wo su ey wa es, ca ied ou in Sp ing and Au umn 2021,
and including in o al 36,124 esponden s om ou een Eu opean coun ies o which se en
a e in cen al and eas e n Eu ope: Aus ia, Bulga ia, Czechia, Es onia, F ance, Ge many, G eece,
Hunga y, I aly, I eland, Poland, Romania, Slo akia and Spain. The coun y selec ion o e s a good
geog aphical ep esen a ion o Membe S a es o he Eu opean Union (EU), spanning all egions
apa om he No dic coun ies – he la e being ma ked by high union densi y. Mo eo e , he 14
coun ies included in he su ey in ac co e 84 pe cen o he wo king age popula ion in he 27
EU Membe S a es. This, oge he wi h he la ge ep esen a i e andom sample o esponden s,
allows he gene alizing o conclusions o he wo k o ce a EU le el wi h a easonable deg ee o
con idence. This wo king pape adop s a mo e holis ic app oach, howe e , ins ead o highligh -
ing coun y di e ences o simila i ies. Pos -s a i ica ion weigh s ha e been applied in bo h he
desc ip i e analyses and eg ession models.
The su ey con ains a ba e y o ques ions on he p e alence and in ensi y o di e en ypes o
digi ally-media ed wo k.51 Pla o m wo ke s a e hose esponden s who sel - epo ha ing pe -
o med any o he ollowing digi ally-media ed se ices in he pas 12 mon hs, wi h o e all six
ypes o pla o m wo k disce ned on his basis: (1) emo e pla o m wo ke s pe o ming ela i ely
simple mic o- asks; (2) emo e p o essional eelance s pe o ming mo e complex asks such as
g aphic design and mul imedia, sales and ma ke ing suppo , so wa e and web de elopmen ,
w i ing and ansla ion, al hough di e en ia ing be ween eques e - o wo ke -ini ia ed ansac-
ions is no possible; (3) loca ion-based p i a e ide-hailing; (4) loca ion-based app-o ien ed ood
deli e y; (5) o he ypes o loca ion-based se ices ca ied ou in he p i a e sphe e, usually in
clien s’ households, such as ca e, u o ing o handype son wo k; and (6) wo ke s who a e com-
bining mo e han one o he abo e ac i i y ypes, he la e being labelled as “mul iple pla o m
wo k”.52 To alida e hese sel - epo s o digi ally-media ed wo k, esponden s a e also asked o
p o ide he name o he websi e o app hey use. Only when his name ma ches an ac ual on-
line labou pla o m, algo i hmically ma ching wo ke s wi h clien s, collec ing clien a ings and
handling paymen s, a e esponden s classi ied as pla o m wo ke s.
The main ocus o he analysis in his wo king pape is on non-unionized pla o m wo ke s,53
de ined as esponden s who ha e pe o med wo k h ough a digi al labou pla o m in he las
wel e mon hs and who a e no a membe o a ade union. Willingness o unionize is measu ed
by he ques ion “Would you be willing o become a ade union membe in he nea u u e?”, wi h
50 Fo u he de ails, see Piasna e al. (2022).
51 See Piasna e al. (2022).
52 “Mul iple pla o m wo k” is dis inguished he e om he p ac ice o “mul i-apping” o “mul i-homing”, which is de ined as wo king
o wo o mo e di e en compe ing labou pla o ms bu wi hin he same ype o pla o m wo k. “Mul i-apping” o “mul i-homing”
is he e no conside ed a sepa a e ype o pla o m wo k. In o he wo ds, pla o m wo ke s who a e engaged wi h a ious digi al la-
bou pla o ms and pe o ming he same kind o asks such as, o ins ance, ood deli e y, a e a ibu ed o a single ype o pla o m
wo k.
53 Pla o m wo ke s who a e employe s wi h employees a e a p io i excluded om he analysis; hey simply canno be conside ed a
a ge o ec ui men d i es by ade unions and i is also e y doub ul i such pla o m wo ke s would show any in e es in becom-
ing a union membe .
13 ILO Wo king Pape 106
“yes” and “no” as possible esponses.54 The inal sample o he analysis includes 1,961 pla o m
wo ke s o whom 1,698 a e non-unionized; 28.3 pe cen o he la e decla ed ha hey would
like o join a union in he nea u u e. To con ex ualize he indings abou pla o m wo ke s and
o e eal o wha ex en hey migh be dis inc om o he wo ke s, h oughou his wo king pa-
pe hey a e compa ed o he gene al popula ion; hus, wo king age adul s who ha e no wo ked
on digi al labou pla o ms in he pas 12 mon hs.
The indi idual-le el da a om he IPWS p o ide ich in o ma ion on he esponden s, allowing
o compa isons be ween simila wo ke s in he online, pla o m economy and he o line, adi-
ional economy. Apa om se e al sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics o he esponden s, hei
a achmen o and enu e in he pla o m economy and hei labou ma ke s a us a e consid-
e ed. Rega ding he la e , i is assumed ha sel - epo ed s a us mos ly e e s o s a us in he
con en ional economy, al hough his migh be di e en o pla o m wo ke s wi h a s ong a -
achmen o he pla o m economy. O e all, i e possible combina ions o pla o m wo k wi h
“o line” labou ma ke s a uses a e dis inguished: he ac i e, ei he (1) employees (i.e. wage- and
sala y-ea ne s ei he on empo a y o open-ended con ac s), (2) own-accoun wo ke s o he
solo sel -employed and (3) he unemployed; and he inac i e, ei he (4) s uden s o (5) pe sons
economically inac i e because o ca e esponsibili ies o o he easons like pension. The o mal
con ac ual s a us o pla o m wo ke s is-à- is he digi al labou pla o m is no known, howe -
e . This implies ha coun y di e ences in he egula o y o legal amewo k on he employmen
s a us o pla o m wo ke s canno be analysed. Pu di e en ly, only he p obabili y o pla o m
wo ke s becoming unionized is esea ched; hei o mal abili y o become a union membe is
hus no pa o he analysis due o a lack o ele an da a.
54 Those esponden s (n=2,860) who answe ed “I don’ know” o his ques ion a e a ibu ed o he “no” ca ego y, while hose espond-
en s (n=231) who p e e ed no o answe a e excluded om he analysis.
14 ILO Wo king Pape 106
X3 Accoun ing o he he e ogenei y o pla o m
wo k
The wo k o ce in he con en ional economy is no uni o m in i s in e es s and needs. The wo k o ce
in he pla o m economy has equally been ound o be di e se and non-homogenous.55 Accoun ing
o he he e ogenei y o pla o m wo k is he e o e c ucial o ade unions. He e ogenei y migh
e e , o ins ance, o he economic isks o he wo k o he e ec i e job au onomy o e which
asks a e unde aken and how hey a e pe o med. All o his is likely o in luence union s a e-
gies and ac ics o ex ending hei o e o pla o m wo ke s as well as in o ming hei p io i ies
in selec ing a ge g oups and unde s anding hei (di e se) in e es s and needs.
Two majo dis inc ions o conside ing he he e ogenei y o pla o m wo k a e made in he em-
pi ical analysis below: he i s is based on he deg ee o economic dependency o a achmen o
pla o m wo k;56 and he second is connec ed o he ype o asks pe o med in pla o m wo k.
In addi ion, di e ences be ween wo ke s wi h a ious leng hs o enu e in pla o m wo k a e
conside ed. The o e iew below p o ides an o e all pic u e o he he e ogenei y and segmen-
a ion o he wo k o ce in he pla o m economy, wi h a ocus on he links and commonali ies
wi h he con en ional, o line economy.
XTable 1: Compa ison be ween he gene al popula ion and pla o m wo k o ce57
Gene al popula ion (n=31,953) Pla o m wo k o ce (n=1,961)
Employees 61.6% 56.0%
Solo sel -employed 7.8% 15.4%
Unemployed 10.0% 11.2%
S uden s 5.6% 10.8%
Inac i e 14.8% 6.6%
Table 1 p o ides an o e iew o he speci ic inse ion o wo ke s in he pla o m economy based
on hei labou ma ke s a us in he con en ional economy. A compa ison o he labou ma -
ke s a us o pla o m wo ke s wi h ha o he gene al popula ion – ha is, hose who ha e no
wo ked on a pla o m in he las wel e mon hs – e eals ha he wo g oups a e s a is ically
signi ican ly di e en . The o e all sha e o he economically ac i e (i.e. employees, solo sel -em-
ployed and he unemployed) does no di e oo much be ween he wo g oups and is a ound
80 pe cen . Howe e , a much highe p opo ion o pla o m wo ke s a e solo sel -employed,
wi h o e i een pe cen de ining hemsel es as such, al hough he con ac ual s a us – gen-
uine o bogus sel -employed, “independen con ac o ” o o he wise – in he pla o m econo-
my is unknown. In addi ion, mo e han hal o he esponden s engaged in he pla o m econ-
omy a e employees – a di e ence o i e pe cen age poin s om he gene al popula ion. Jus
o e en pe cen o pla o m wo ke s a e ei he unemployed o s uden s, while almos se en
pe cen a e economically inac i e in he adi ional labou ma ke . The pla o m wo k o ce hus
also di e s om he non-pla o m wo k o ce in e ms o he highe p opo ion o s uden s and
55 D ahokoupil and Vandaele (2021); Piasna and D ahokoupil (2021); Wilkinson e al. (2022).
56 See also Piasna and D ahokoupil (2021); Scho e al. (2020).
57 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
15 ILO Wo king Pape 106
he lowe sha e o he economically inac i e.58 These wo g oups adi ionally do no belong o
he wo k o ce in he con en ional economy, whe eas s uden s and he inac i e can be pa o
he pla o m wo k o ce.
Following p e ious s udies,59 a dis inc ion is made be ween wo deg ees o economic a achmen
o pla o m wo k, based on he numbe o wo king hou s and he sha e o pe sonal income de-
i ed om pla o m wo k. A highe le el o a achmen is de ined as spending 20 hou s o mo e
pe week on pla o m wo k o ea ning mo e han 50 pe cen o pe sonal income h ough pla -
o ms.60 This g oup is called “main pla o m wo ke s”, and a li le o e one in ou (27.2%) pla -
o m wo ke s all in o his ca ego y. Pu di e en ly, main pla o m wo ke s accoun o 1.6 pe
cen o he gene al wo king age popula ion, he la e including bo h he wo k o ce (employ-
ees, he solo sel -employed and unemployed) as well as he non-wo k o ce (s uden s and he
economically inac i e). The emaining pla o m wo ke s a e conside ed o be weakly a ached
o pla o m wo k as hey wo k ewe han 20 hou s pe week o ea n less han hal hei income
om pla o m wo k.
XFigu e 2: Pla o m wo ke s’ a achmen o he pla o m economy by labou ma ke s a us61
No e: A achmen is s a is ically signi ican ly di e en ac oss he labou ma ke s a us (p<0.01).
Figu e 2 shows di e ences in he deg ee o economic a achmen o he pla o m economy de-
pending on labou ma ke s a us in he con en ional economy – a a ia ion ha is s a is ically
signi ican . The solo sel -employed, ollowed by he unemployed, a e mos likely o be highly a -
ached o pla o m wo k, wi h 42.5 pe cen and 31.6 pe cen espec i ely being main pla o m
wo ke s. I can only be specula ed why his is he case. One possible eason migh be ha some
solo sel -employed conside wo king ia digi al labou pla o ms as an expansion o hei clien
base. Al e na i ely, hey p esumably engage in pla o m wo k mo e in ensely o compensa e o
hei ela i ely mo e p eca ious posi ion and insu icien incomes, o indeed o ill in income gaps
du ing pe iods o job sea ch and d ops in demand in he adi ional labou ma ke . Con e sely,
he sha es o main pla o m wo ke s a e he lowes among hose economically inac i e in he
con en ional economy (21.7%), hose in dependen employmen (23.4%) and s uden s (24.9%).
58 The labou ma ke s a us o pla o m wo ke s wi h a mig an backg ound is s a is ically signi ican ly di e en (F=3.85, p<0.01): hey
a e mo e o en unemployed and less o en employees. The pe cen age o employees is below i y pe cen .
59 Fo example Pesole e al. (2018); Piasna e al. (2022).
60 The same h esholds a e applied o all ypes o pla o m wo k.
61 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS, Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
16 ILO Wo king Pape 106
Apa om deg ee o a achmen o he pla o m economy, a second ea u e ha di e en ia es
pla o m wo ke s is he ype o pla o m wo k hey do, de ined by ype o asks and o ma o ask
deli e y, wi h a majo dis inc ion being made be ween “geog aphically e he ed” loca ion-based
pla o m wo ke s and online, emo e pla o m wo ke s pe o ming “cloud wo k”.62 Pe haps con-
a y o con en ional wisdom, shaped by i s -hand obse a ion and public deba e, mos o he
pla o m wo k in Eu ope ac ually does no ake place in public se ings, wi h ood deli e y and
ide-hailing being he main examples.63 Con e sely, he la ges g oup o pla o m wo ke s in
he su ey sample a e mic o- aske s (38.4%), ollowed by emo e p o essional pla o m wo k-
e s (15.0%) and hose pe o ming on-loca ion pla o m wo k in p i a e se ings (14.8%). Deli e y
wo k (11.7%) and ide-hailing (7.3%) a e ela i ely less common. Some 12.7% o pla o m wo k-
e s pe o m mo e han one ype o pla o m wo k. In e ms o he spli be ween loca ion-based
and emo e pla o m wo k, mo e wo ke s pe o m emo e wo k (59.4%) han any ype o loca-
ion-based pla o m wo k (40.6%).
XFigu e 3: Wo ke s’ main labou ma ke s a us by ypes o pla o m wo k64
No e: O de ed by sha e o employees. Labou ma ke s a us is s a is ically signi ican ly di e en ac oss pla o m ype (p<0.01).
Figu e 3 illus a es he di e ences be ween pla o m wo ke s doing di e en ypes o pla o m
wo k in e ms o hei main labou ma ke s a us in he con en ional economy. O e all, he e
a e s a is ically signi ican di e ences in s a us be ween he ypes, al hough he e is no clea di-
ision be ween on-loca ion and emo e o ms o ask deli e y. While mos pla o m wo ke s a e
dependen employees in he con en ional economy, hei sha e is he highes among hose do-
ing mo e han one ype o pla o m wo k and among ood deli e y cou ie s, while i is by a he
lowes among ide-hailing d i e s. The e is also conside able a ia ion in he p e alence o he
solo sel -employed, wi h he highes sha e in p i a e ide-hailing ollowed by mul i-pla o m wo k
and emo e p o essional pla o m wo k. S uden s a e especially common in mic o- ask emo e
pla o m wo k, among on-loca ion pla o m wo ke s in he p i a e sphe e and emo e p o es-
sional wo k, while hey a e ela i ely less ac i e in ide-hailing and mul i-pla o m wo k. The un-
employed a e simila ly likely o engage in each o hese ypes o pla o m wo k, wi h on-loca ion
pla o m wo k in he p i a e sphe e being he mos a ac i e o hem. Finally, hose economically
62 D ahokoupil and Vandaele (2021); G aham and Woodcock (2020); Howc o and Be g all-Kå ebo n (2019); ILO (2021); Johnson (2020);
Vallas and Scho (2020); Vandaele (2021).
63 See also Piasna e al. (2022).
64 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS, Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
17 ILO Wo king Pape 106
inac i e in he con en ional economy a e somewha mo e likely o engage in ide-hailing, emo e
mic o- asking and o he ypes o on-loca ion pla o m wo k.
XFigu e 4 Deg ees o a achmen by ypes o pla o m wo k65
No e: Pla o m a achmen is s a is ically signi ican ly di e en ac oss pla o m ype (p<0.01).
P e ious s udies ha e poin ed ou ha pla o m wo k is usually only supplemen a y income,
ye a he same ime ha he algo i hms alloca ing wo k end o a ou wo ke s wi h a highe
deg ee o a achmen o pla o m wo k, hus hose who decla e g ea e a ailabili y and ha e
a g ea e numbe o asks comple ed.66 Figu e 4 shows ha a achmen o pla o m wo k a -
ies conside ably depending on he ype o asks pe o med. Unsu p isingly, hose who wo k on
mul iple pla o ms and pe o m se e al ypes o asks ha e he highes economic a achmen o
pla o m wo k, wi h nea ly hal o hem (45.8%) classi ied as main pla o m wo ke s. Con e sely,
he a achmen o mic o- aske s is by a he weakes , wi h 85.3% o wo ke s conside ing i a
ma ginal commi men which should come as no su p ise gi en he ex emely low a es o pay
in his ype o wo k. Fo all o he ypes o pla o m wo k, he le el o a achmen is ai ly simila ,
wi h a ound one- hi d o esponden s being main pla o m wo ke s.
65 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS, Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
66 Piasna and D ahokoupil (2021); Scho e al. (2020); Shanahan and Smi h (2021).
18 ILO Wo king Pape 106
X4 Exis ing unioniza ion le els in he pla o m
economy
Depending on s a us in he adi ional labou ma ke , wo ke s a e likely o b ing a ce ain de-
g ee o unioniza ion wi h hem in o he pla o m economy. Le els will be ela i ely highe o
employees, albei wi h conside able a ia ion ac oss occupa ions and economic sec o s, han
o g oups who a e empo a ily o comple ely ou side he labou ma ke .67 This sec ion he e-
o e maps and desc ibes exis ing le els o unioniza ion among pla o m wo ke s and compa es
hese le els wi h simila g oups in he con en ional economy.
Two ca ea s a e wa an ed he e. Fi s , i should be emembe ed ha pla o m wo ke s a e de-
ined he e as hose who ha e done asks h ough a digi al labou pla o m a leas once in he
pas wel e mon hs, hus also including occasional pla o m wo ke s. Second, o a oid compa -
ing apples wi h o anges, he calcula ion o union densi y includes non-wo ke s in he con en-
ional economy. This means ha densi y in he con en ional economy is unde es ima ed, as he
non-wo king popula ion (s uden s and he economically inac i e) is usually no included in such
calcula ions. In o he wo ds, union densi y a es in he con en ional economy a e ac ually high-
e han wha is p esen ed he e. As many pla o m wo ke s a e no pa o he wo k o ce in he
adi ional labou ma ke , union densi y is hus cap u ed as he sha e o union membe s in he
o al wo king age popula ion. This allows a mo e meaning ul compa ison o he densi y a es o
pla o m wo ke s and hose who do no engage in pla o m wo k.
XFigu e 5: Unioniza ion a es among pla o m wo ke s and he gene al popula ion, by indi idual cha ac e -
is ics (%)68
No e: Di e ences in unioniza ion be ween pla o m and non-pla o m wo ke s a e s a is ically signi ican (p<0.05) o mig an s
and hose wi h low and high educa ional a ainmen .
67 Whe e in e nal ules o egula ions allow, special ho izon al s uc u es wi hin ade unions a e some imes se up o s uden s, he
unemployed o pensione s, o en wi h educed membe ship a es.
68 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS, Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
19 ILO Wo king Pape 106
In gene al, he p opo ion o pla o m wo ke s who a e union membe s is ema kably simila o
he gene al popula ion in he sample and amoun s o 13.4 pe cen .69 Howe e , a compa ison
o g oups wi h simila sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics e eals some no iceable di e ences –
see Figu e 5. While women a e sligh ly mo e likely o be union membe s among pla o m wo k-
e s han men (14.2% and 12.6%, espec i ely), he e e se is obse ed in he gene al popula ion
(12.9% and 13.9%). The e is li le di e ence among younge wo ke s bu , among hose olde
han 54, unioniza ion is isibly highe among pla o m wo ke s (20.2%) han in he es o he
popula ion (16.0%). Union membe ship among people wi h a mig an backg ound is much mo e
common o hose who wo k on digi al labou pla o ms (16.2%) compa ed o hose who do no
(10.7%). Pla o m wo ke s wi h a highe le el o educa ion a e less likely o be union membe s
(13.1%) han hose wi h a simila le el o educa ion who do no wo k on digi al labou pla o ms
(16.6%); while he opposi e is ound o hose wi h lowe educa ional le els, wi h 16.9 pe cen
o pla o m wo ke s and only 9.4 pe cen o o he s being union membe s.
69 T ade union densi y in he con en ional economy in he su ey sample is 17.7 pe cen i only employees a e aken in o accoun .
20 ILO Wo king Pape 106
XFigu e 6: Unioniza ion a es among pla o m wo ke s and he gene al popula ion, by labou ma ke s a us,
wo king ime and sec o (%)70
No e: Di e ences in unioniza ion be ween pla o m and non-pla o m wo ke s a e s a is ically signi ican (p<0.05) o he solo
sel -employed; he inac i e; ull- ime wo ke s; and in he cons uc ion sec o .
In e ms o labou ma ke s a us, ade union membe ship is ela i ely high among pla o m
wo ke s who a e no employees in hei main paid job – see Figu e 6. Thus, among hose who
ea n om pla o m wo k bu occupy “ma ginal” o “ou side ” posi ions in he adi ional labou
ma ke , such as he solo sel -employed, he unemployed, s uden s o he economically inac i e,
unioniza ion a es su pass by a conside able ma gin – be ween 1.3 and 6.6 pe cen age poin s
– hose o he es o he popula ion. The e e se is obse ed among employees, wi h membe -
ship a es o 16.0 pe cen among pla o m wo ke s and 17.7 pe cen among he es . A pa al-
lel pa e n is ound among hose wi h ull- ime jobs in he con en ional economy, wi h pla o m
wo ke s ha ing lowe unioniza ion a es (13.6%) han o line wo ke s (16.8%). As could be ex-
pec ed, he sec o s wi h he highes sha es o unionized wo ke s in he sample a e manu ac u -
ing and public se ices (i.e. educa ion, heal hca e and public adminis a ion); pla o m wo ke s
wi h jobs in hese sec o s a e mo e likely o be unionized han non-pla o m wo ke s. In o he
indus ies, apa om he esidual ca ego y o “o he se ices”, pla o m wo ke s a e less likely
o be unionized han o line wo ke s.
70 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS, Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
21 ILO Wo king Pape 106
XFigu e 7: Unioniza ion a es among pla o m wo ke s by he e ogenei y o pla o m wo k (%)71
No e: O de ed wi hin ypes o he e ogenei y. Di e ences by pla o m ype a e s a is ically signi ican ly di e en (p<0.05); o he
di e ences a e no .
In de ising ade union s a egies o he pla o m economy, i is key o ecognize and unde -
s and no only he di e ences be ween pla o m wo ke s and hose wo king in he con en ional
economy, al hough he e is a la ge o e lap be ween he wo, bu also he he e ogenei y among
pla o m wo ke s in hei iews on and expe iences wi h ade unions.
Figu e 7 e eals his he e ogenei y in e ms o union membe ship. The e is i ually no a ia ion
in membe ship by le el o pla o m economic a achmen , wi h main pla o m wo ke s and hose
wi h weak a achmen o pla o m wo k s anding a he same unionisa ion le el. Unioniza ion
a es a e lowe among pla o m wo ke s wi h he sho es enu e, o less han one yea , how-
e e . Fu he mo e, while he o e all unioniza ion a e among pla o m wo ke s s ands a 13.4
pe cen , as shown ea lie , i is by a he lowes in ood deli e y, wi h 7.5 pe cen o cou ie s be-
ing union membe s, ollowed by emo e p o essional wo k and ide-hailing, whe e union den-
si y ho e s a ound 10 pe cen . Low unioniza ion a es among ood deli e y cou ie s migh be
su p ising in iew o he high isibili y o bo om-up o ganizing and collec i e ini ia i es,72 bu
his is a leas pa ly due o union membe ship being con ounded in he con en ional and pla -
o m economies. Fu he mo e, mic o- aske s and wo ke s in on-loca ion p i a e wo k show mid-
dle- ange unioniza ion a es, while hose engaging in mul iple ypes o pla o m wo k epo by
a he highes a e o jus o e 20 pe cen .
As in he con en ional economy, all o his sugges s ha he e is s ill conside able scope o un-
ions o se up ini ia i es o o ganize he pla o m wo k o ce, gi en ha 86.6% o e all a e no un-
ionized in he 14 Eu opean coun ies conside ed. The emainde o he analysis will he e o e
ocus on his g oup, wi h he aim o imp o ing unde s anding o hei openness o becoming
union membe s in he u u e and he possible d i e s o such a decision.
71 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS, Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
72 Tassina i and Macca one (2020); Vandaele (2023).
28 ILO Wo king Pape 106
XFigu e 13: Di e ences in willingness o unionize be ween pla o m wo ke s and he gene al popula ion, by
he e ogenei y o pla o m wo k81
No e: Posi i e alues show highe willingness among pla o m wo ke s compa ed o non-pla o m wo ke s. E ec s a e es ima ed
om logis ic eg ession con olling o gende , age, mig an backg ound, educa ion, place o esidence, ade union membe -
ship in he pas and labou ma ke s a us, including union p esence in he wo kplace o hose employed, and including ixed
e ec s. Fou sepa a e models a e es ima ed, di ided by ho izon al lines in he igu e.
Finally, Figu e 13 maps he willingness o join a ade union among wo ke s in he pla o m
economy compa ed o he gene al popula ion, accoun ing o di e ences ha may be linked
o sociodemog aphic p o ile. The la e includes indi idual cha ac e is ics such as gende , age,
educa ional a ainmen , ype o place o esidence and mig an backg ound, as well as labou
ma ke s a us, and in o ma ion on pas union membe ship and he p esence o a union in he
wo kplace. In gene al, he esul s con i m ha pla o m wo ke s a e mo e willing o unionize
han he es o he popula ion – a s a is ically signi ican di e ence o nea ly h ee pe cen age
poin s – once o he di e ences be ween hese g oups a e accoun ed o . Main pla o m wo ke s
do no di e om non-pla o m wo ke s in hei decla ed willingness o unionize, while hose
weakly a ached o pla o m wo k a e signi ican ly mo e likely o join a union al hough he di -
e ences in enu e in pla o m wo k u n ou no o be s a is ically signi ican . When conside ing
di e en ypes o pla o m wo k, p o essional emo e wo ke s s and ou as he only ca ego y
ha is signi ican ly less inclined o unionize, wi h nea ly six pe cen age poin s ewe han he
gene al popula ion exp essing an in en ion o join a union in he nea u u e. Those engaged
in se e al di e en ypes o pla o m wo k a e much mo e likely o unionize han non-pla o m
wo ke s (by o e 11 pe cen age poin s), wi h o he ca ego ies o pla o m wo ke s no signi i-
can ly di e en om he es o he popula ion.
81 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS, Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
29 ILO Wo king Pape 106
X7 The ela ionship be ween unioniza ion d i e s
and willingness o unionize
This sec ion ies oge he he issues discussed in he p e ious wo and examines he impac
o h ee d i e s o unioniza ion on willingness o join a union in he u u e. As a eminde , he
d i e s include: (1) p o-union a i udes; (2) union exposu e in e ms o being embedded in un-
ion- iendly social ne wo ks; and (3) engagemen in digi al, online communi ies. Figu e 14 shows
he o e all ela ionship be ween each o hese h ee d i e s and he sha e o esponden s likely
o unionize in he nea u u e, accoun ing o indi idual di e ences be ween wo ke s in e ms
o hei sociodemog aphic p o ile and labou ma ke s a us.
In he gene al wo king age popula ion, he o e all e ec o each o hese h ee d i e s on willing-
ness o unionize is posi i e and s a is ically signi ican . Fo ins ance, people who exp ess p o-un-
ion a i udes a e nea ly 12 pe cen age poin s mo e likely o unionize. Those embedded in a un-
ion- iendly social ne wo k a e nea ly 10 pe cen age poin s mo e likely, while hose engaged in
online communi ies a e nea ly eigh pe cen age poin s mo e likely o become a union membe .
XFigu e 14: The e ec s o d i e s o unioniza ion on willingness o join a union82
No e: E ec s a e es ima ed om logis ic eg essions con olling o gende , age, mig an backg ound, educa ion, place o esi-
dence, ade union membe ship in he pas and labou ma ke s a us, including union p esence in he wo kplace o hose em-
ployed, and coun y ixed e ec s. Each block sepa a ed by ho izon al lines indica es a sepa a e model.
82 Sou ce: ETUI IPWS, Sp ing and Au umn 2021.
30 ILO Wo king Pape 106
The nex s ep is o es whe he hese h ee d i e s o unioniza ion a e indeed di e en o
pla o m wo ke s. The esul s a e shown below he do ed lines in Figu e 14. They e eal ha
he e ec o p o-union a i udes is much s onge among pla o m wo ke s and is s a is ically
signi ican ly di e en om he e ec among he es o he popula ion. Thus, pla o m wo ke s
who exp ess p o-union a i udes a e also nea ly 18 pe cen age poin s mo e likely o wan o join
a union, compa ed o jus o e 11 pe cen age poin s among he es . The o he wo d i e s o
unioniza ion – union- iendly ne wo k and online communi ies – ha e he same e ec s among
pla o m wo ke s as among he gene al popula ion.
XFigu e 15: The e ec s o d i e s o unioniza ion on willingness o unionize, by he e ogenei y o pla o m
wo k83
No e: E ec s a e es ima ed om logis ic eg essions o pla o m wo ke s con olling o gende , age, mig an backg ound,
educa ion, place o esidence, ade union membe ship in he pas and labou ma ke s a us, including union p esence a he
wo kplace o hose employed, and coun y ixed e ec s. Each block sepa a ed by ho izon al lines indica es a sepa a e model.
The d i e o unioniza ion is in e ac ed wi h pla o m he e ogenei y a iables.
Finally, whe he o no he d i e s o unioniza ion a ec all pla o m wo ke s in a simila way is
examined, wi h he esul s shown in Figu e 15. O e all, p o-union a i udes a e posi i ely associ-
a ed wi h willingness o unionize o all ypes o pla o m wo ke s. Ha ing union- iendly social
ne wo ks is also posi i ely associa ed wi h he likelihood o unionizing o pla o m wo ke s o e -
all. While he di e ences a e no s a is ically signi ican , he e ec seems weake o pla o m
wo ke s engaged in ide-hailing o ood deli e y wo k and s onge o mic o- aske s, on-loca-
ion p i a e wo k and mul iple ypes o pla o m wo k. Engagemen in online communi ies o
discussing wo k- ela ed issues is posi i ely associa ed wi h a willingness o unionize bu seems
o a ec some g oups mo e posi i ely han o he s. I is pa icula ly impo an o pla o m wo k-
e s in ide-hailing, hose ca ying ou emo e p o essional wo k and hose engaged in mul iple
ypes o pla o m wo k. I does no seem o be impo an o on-loca ion wo ke s in he p i a e
sphe e o ood deli e y cou ie s. Online communi ies also appea o be impo an only o pla -
o m wo ke s who ha e been engaged in pla o m wo k o a leas one yea , possibly due o
hei longe exposu e o pla o m o ganiza ional p ac ices.84
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31 ILO Wo king Pape 106
X8 Discussion, limi a ions and u u e di ec ions
To he bes o ou knowledge, his wo king pape is he i s o examine bo h exis ing le els
o unioniza ion among pla o m wo ke s and hei p opensi y o unionize in he u u e om a
comp ehensi e c oss-na ional, quan i a i e pe spec i e. The analysis co e s six ypes o pla -
o m wo k in 14 Eu opean coun ies. In con as o p e ious s udies,84 a i udes owa ds collec-
i e o ganiza ion ia ade union membe ship in he pla o m economy a e explici ly compa ed
wi h he con en ional economy. The indi idual-le el da a allow accoun ing o he ange o indi-
idual and sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics o pla o m wo ke s, as well as he he e ogenei y
o pla o m wo k. Whe e easible and ele an , wo kplace and indus ial cha ac e is ics a e also
conside ed. Despi e hese s eng hs o e ed by a unique, ep esen a i e indi idual-le el da a-
se , he analysis ca ied ou also has a numbe o limi a ions due o which i can he e o e only
be conside ed explo a o y.
To begin wi h, many o he measu es used a e based on dicho omous a iables and single i ems
in he su ey. Fo ins ance, only he embeddedness in and engagemen wi h on- and o line ne -
wo ks pe se a e measu ed, no hei equency and he dynamics o hose con ac s. Follow-up
esea ch could include measu es wi h mo e complex esponse op ions and de i ed om mul i-
ple i ems o allow es ing o he eliabili y and alidi y o he indings. The measu emen con ex
may also ha e had an impac on he esul s as he su ey was conduc ed du ing he Co id-19
pandemic; i is well known, o ins ance, ha ood deli e y cou ie s su e ed om poo wo king
condi ions in his con ex . Ob iously, only a i udes and in en ions o join a ade union we e su -
eyed; no claims could be made abou ac ual beha iou .
Fu he mo e, wi h he da a a hand, i is no possible o de e mine o wha ex en willingness o
unionize is ac ually oo ed in wo k expe iences in he pla o m economy as opposed o he con-
en ional economy o o he ypes o li e expe ience. This issue has been add essed, a leas in
pa , by compa ing pla o m wo ke s wi h simila g oups in he con en ional economy which e-
ealed, among o he hings, ha pla o m wo ke s hold s onge p o-union a i udes and ha e a
ela i ely highe p opensi y o unionize. Mo eo e , assuming ha ade unions a e ac i e in he
pla o m economy, and ha pla o m wo ke s a e awa e o hei igh o unionize, i is no known
which union hey would like o join. The su ey did no di e en ia e be ween g ass oo s unions
and mains eam unions, al hough hei concep ions o membe ship a e likely o di e , wi h g ass-
oo s union membe s ending o be mo e ac i e han in mains eam unions.85 Gene aliza ion
o he indings should also be unde aken wi h cau ion as hey apply p edominan ly o o mal
unionism in he Eu opean con ex whe eas in o mal ypes o wo ke ep esen a ion a e mo e
p e alen in he Global Sou h.86
Possible di e ences in union ac i i y in he pla o m economy be ween coun ies has no been
conside ed he e, such as ou each o pla o m wo ke s, union e o s o mobilize and ec ui
pla o m wo ke s o legal ac ion o eclassi y hei employmen s a us. In his sense, i migh
be use ul o u u e analysis o include in o ma ion on he numbe and ype o ade unions ac-
i e in he pla o m economy and hei ac i i ies o da e. A indi idual le el, he su ey did no
ask abou ins umen al easons o unioniza ion, such as pe cep ions o income om pla o m
wo k and wo king condi ions, e en hough dissa is ac ion wi h hese seems o d i e suppo o
collec i e o ganiza ion in he pla o m economy.87 Simila ly, al hough o line embeddedness in
84 Geye e al. (2023); Newland e al. (2018); Wood e al. (2022).
85 See Joyce and S ua (2021); Vandaele e al. (2019).
86 A zeni (2020).
87 Geye e al. (in p ess); Wood e al. (2022).
32 ILO Wo king Pape 106
union- iendly social ne wo ks and online pa icipa ion in wo k- ela ed communi ies may indi-
ca e pla o m wo ke s’ own po en ial in ol emen in social p o es , his has no been measu ed
di ec ly. The o ganiza ional s a us o hese wo k- ela ed communi ies is also unknown: hey could
simply e e o online pa icipa ion o o sel -o ganized online collec i es. Nei he ha e o he de-
e minan s o unioniza ion, such as he poli ical a i udes o pla o m wo ke s, been included
in he analysis al hough such a link seems o less impo ance in he pla o m economy.88 O he
con ex ual (mac o) a iables ha e also no been accoun ed o , such as he changing egula o y
en i onmen in which digi al labou pla o ms ope a e, as he cos s and bene i s o unioniza ion
may a y be ween di e en ju isdic ions.89 Equally, dispu e esolu ion mechanisms wi hin pla -
o m companies may in luence he decision o unionize.
Finally, one dimension o he he e ogenei y o pla o m wo k ha has ecei ed much less a en-
ion in his s udy a e wo ke s wi h a mig an backg ound, including ci cula o undocumen ed
mig an s, who a e pa icula ly ac i e in he pla o m economy because o he low en y ba ie s
wi h minimal o mal equi emen s and limi ed al e na i e labou ma ke oppo uni ies in he
con en ional economy.90 Some o hem may ha e been less amilia wi h ade unions in hei
home coun y, which may ansla e in o a lesse willingness o unionize in hei cu en coun-
y o esidence, al hough union expe ience is also a unc ion o indi idual biog aphies. E en i
hey a e posi i e owa ds collec i ism, hey ha e been ound o be simply “ oo p essed o ime
and caugh up in hei daily hus le o ee up space in hei heads and agendas o collec i e o -
ganisa ion”.91 This may be a gene al obse a ion: while he o e all majo i y o pla o m wo ke s
a e gene ally posi i e abou unions, a ewe o hem exp ess a willingness o unionize in he
u u e. Thus, simila o indings in he con en ional economy,92 he e is a conside able gap be-
ween p o-union a i udes, unioniza ion le els and ac ual willingness o unionize which migh
be a u he esea ch a enue o be explo ed.
88 Newland e al. (2018).
89 This easoning may apply as well o pa icula pla o ms wi hin he same ype o pla o m wo k.
90 Al en ied (2023); ILO (2021); an Doo n e al. (2022).
91 Van Doo n (2023: 173).
92 Piasna e al. (2022).
33 ILO Wo king Pape 106
XConclusion
Al hough (s ill) limi ed in ela i e e ms, wi h 5.6 pe cen o he wo king age popula ion engaged
in pla o m wo k in Eu ope,93 he pla o m wo k o ce is qui e subs an ial in absolu e e ms and
is g owing apidly. This s udy con ibu es o he unde s anding o unioniza ion in he pla o m
economy, bo h in e ms o membe ship a es among di e en g oups o pla o m wo ke s and
he po en ial o unioniza ion among hose who a e no ye membe s. The indings a e based
on a unique c oss-na ional and compa a i e su ey, dedica ed o he analysis o a ious o ms
o digi ally-media ed wo k and ade union- ela ed beha iou , which allows o an explici link
be ween he pla o m economy and he con en ional economy.
Fou main conclusions can be d awn om he analysis abou he possibili ies o os e associa-
ional powe ia ade unions in he pla o m economy. These conclusions ela e o ade union
membe ship pe se; he a i udes o pla o m wo ke s owa ds unions; ne wo k-like d i e s o
unioniza ion; and he he e ogenei y o he pla o m economy – all o which ha e implica ions o
possible union ec ui men and o ganizing s a egies in he pla o m economy.
Fi s , he pla o m economy is no , by de aul , comple ely ee o ade union membe ship. A
small sha e o pla o m wo ke s a e al eady unionized: he su ey esul s indica e ha union
densi y in he pla o m economy in Eu ope s ands a a (low) le el o a ound 13.4 pe cen . This
pe cen age should no be all ha su p ising. In all likelihood, i is less he esul o any dedica ed
o speci ic union ac i i y in he pla o m economy: i is simply ela ed o he labou ma ke s a us
o pla o m wo ke s oo ed in he con en ional economy. Al eady unionized pla o m wo ke s
la gely ollow unioniza ion pa e ns in he adi ional labou ma ke ha a e speci ic o hei pe -
sonal sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics. Excep ions a e wo ke s aged o e 54, hose wi h lowe
educa ional a ainmen and mig an s, all o whom epo ela i ely highe unioniza ion a es in
he pla o m economy. Wo ke s who ca y ou pla o m wo k a e pa icula ly ac i e in ela i e-
ly well-unionized sec o s o he adi ional economy, such as manu ac u ing and public se ic-
es. In e ms o labou ma ke s a us, union densi y is ela i ely highe among pla o m wo ke s
who a e unemployed, he solo sel -employed and he economically inac i e in he con en ional
economy. All in all, howe e , “pla o m unionism” me ely exis s by coincidence; ha is, h ough
he speci ic inclusion o pla o m wo ke s in ela ion o hei labou ma ke s a us in he con-
en ional economy. This small sha e o pla o m wo ke s who a e al eady unionized could ne -
e heless be an en y poin o union o ganizing s a egies.
Second, he gene ally p o-union a i udes o pla o m wo ke s and hei in en ions o unionize
s and a odds wi h con en ional wisdom abou he pla o m economy. Induced by Cali o nian
ideology,94 his wisdom is o en based on he newspeak o he digi al labou pla o ms hem-
sel es. I ends o po ay his economy as a union- ee zone wi h highly independen , lexible
and au onomous pla o m wo ke s showing li le in e es in unioniza ion o e en being hos ile
owa ds ade unions. Ye , in ac , o e wo- hi ds – 69.2 pe cen – o pla o m wo ke s exp ess
a posi i e a i ude owa ds unions, a pe cen age ha is e en highe han in he gene al popula-
ion. Equally, mo e han one in ou pla o m wo ke s say hey would be willing o join a union
– again a sligh ly highe p opo ion han in he gene al popula ion. Openness o u u e union
membe ship is pa icula ly high among younge pla o m wo ke s, hose wi h a mig an back-
g ound and hose wi h lowe le els o educa ion.
Thi d, he d i e s o unioniza ion a e qui e simila in he con en ional and pla o m economies,
wi h p o-union a i udes alone being a ela i ely mo e impo an d i e o pla o m wo ke s
han o he gene al popula ion, bu i is unknown o wha ex en hose d i e s a e oo ed in he
con en ional economy o he pla o m economy. Ne e heless, ade unions apping in o o line
93 Piasna e al. (2022).
94 S nicek (2017).
34 ILO Wo king Pape 106
p o-union social ne wo ks and online wo k- ela ed communi ies seems o be a ui ul s a e-
gy o unions in he pla o m economy as well. Online communi ies migh hus be a b eeding
g ound o u u e unioniza ion, ac ing as a s epping s one o union membe ship95, and such on-
line communi ies a e hus likely o pose less o a isk o simply eplacing unions.96 The impo ance
o p e-exis ing o - and online ne wo ks calls espec i ely o ne wo ked o ganizing ac ics and
s a egies, and digi al unionism. Tapping in o p e-exis ing ne wo ks is o cou se mo e easible in
he on-loca ion pla o m economy due o he spa ial p oximi y o wo ke s, engaged in physical,
ime- and place-dependen pla o m jobs ha depend on local cus ome s. I emains an empi -
ical ques ion, howe e , o wha ex en such on- and o line ne wo ks a e ma ked by s abili y in
e ms o hei o ganize s, gi en he gene ally high u no e in he pla o m economy.
The e is ne e heless a gap be ween he le el o p o-union a i udes and willingness o unionize.
A much highe p opo ion o pla o m wo ke s hold posi i e a i udes owa ds unions han a e
willing o become membe s. Possible explana ions o his gap could be ela ed o he di e en
inse ion o wo ke s in o he pla o m economy and he deg ee o openness o ade unions
o g oups beyond hei adi ional co e membe s, like hose on wo k a e and he solo sel -em-
ployed. Union membe ship may also be less open o he unemployed, especially as coun ies
in he su ey sample do no ha e unemploymen sys ems in which unions a e in ol ed in hei
adminis a ion. The unemployed who also wo k on pla o ms a e ne e heless mo e likely o
unionize compa ed o hose who do no wo k online. Fu he mo e, while s uden s and he eco-
nomically inac i e a e likely o be sympa he ic o unions, hey may ha e a ewe easons ac u-
ally o join hem as hey a e ou side he adi ional wo k o ce. Also, while some unions in ce ain
occupa ions ha e a adi ion o o ganizing he solo sel -employed, and o he s ha e been ca ch-
ing up by opening up union membe ship and in oducing dedica ed s uc u es o hem, he e
is s ill wo k o be done.97
Fou h, looking mo e closely a he pla o m economy and he he e ogenei y o i s wo k o ce,
di e ences in exis ing union densi y a e small when i comes o he deg ee o a achmen o
pla o m wo k. In gene al, hose who a e mo e economically a ached o pla o m wo k a e
less inclined o join a union, bu hey ep esen a mino i y o all pla o m wo ke s. The majo i y
a e only weakly economically a ached o hei pla o m job, p ima ily elying on o he sou ces
o income, especially hose engaged in mic o- asking, and hey a e ela i i y mo e likely o be
p o-union. Mo eo e , s uden s engaging in pla o m wo k a e demons a ing a g ea e willing-
ness o unionize compa ed o s uden s ou side he pla o m wo k o ce. As his is a young pop-
ula ion ha is ela i ely un amilia wi h ade unions, his is hus an in e es ing a ge g oup o
ou each ac i i ies in he pla o m economy, especially as a i s pe sonal imp ession o unions
seems o be impo an o u u e union membe ship.98
The e a e some di e ences in unioniza ion a es depending on ype o pla o m wo k, anging
om 7.5 pe cen in ood deli e y o he one in i e pla o m wo ke s engaged in mul i- ype pla -
o m wo k. The la e hus seems an a ac i e g oup o b own ield o ganizing s a egies, and
hey accoun o abou 13 pe cen o he pla o m wo k o ce. Mo eo e , no only a e mul iple
pla o m wo ke s he mos unionized o all pla o m wo ke s, bu hey a e also highly depend-
en on hei pla o m jobs and hey a e mo e ecep i e o union membe ship han wo ke s in
o he ypes o pla o m wo k. Toge he wi h ood deli e y cou ie s, who a e he mos s ongly
embedded in union- iendly social ne wo ks, and ide-hailing d i e s, mul iple pla o m wo k-
e s a e also compa a i ely mo e inclined o unionize in he u u e. Ye , pe haps e en mo e han
o he ypes, mul iple pla o m wo ke s may be di icul o in eg a e in o exis ing union s uc-
u es o ep esen a ion; o all pla o m wo ke s, hey may be he mos in need o a dedica ed
union ep esen a ion s uc u e as hei wo k spans mul iple sec o s. Needless o say, some, bu
95 See also Vandaele and Piasna (2023).
96 Visse (2019).
97 Vandaele (2021).
98 Vandaele (2018b).
35 ILO Wo king Pape 106
no all, g ie ances and issues o pla o m wo ke s a e likely o a y be ween di e en ypes o
pla o m wo k.
T ade unions appea o be mainly ac i e in he deli e y and p i a e ide-hailing sec o s. Unions
wi h a adi ion o o ganizing a simila ly p eca ious, ansien o dispe sed wo k o ce, such as
in cleaning o anspo , a e seen as mo e success ul in connec ing wi h pla o m wo ke s and
mobilizing hem.99 Re lec ing again he in e connec ion be ween he con en ional and pla o m
economies, i is in pa icula unions wi h p e ious expe ience in ne wo k-d i en o ganizing ha
a e engaging wi h hose pla o m wo ke s. Al hough deli e y wo k and p i a e ide-hailing a e
he mos isible ypes o pla o m wo k, and he e o e emblema ic o he pla o m economy,
mos pla o m wo k – abou 80 pe cen – does no ake place in public se ings, howe e .
Pla o m wo ke s in he p i a e sphe e a e ela i ely s ongly embedded and engaged in un-
ion- iendly o line social ne wo ks and online digi al communi ies. While mic o- aske s a e he
la ges g oup, on-loca ion pla o m wo k in p i a e se ings and p o essional emo e wo ke s
a e almos o equal size. Pe o ming he mos complex and highly skilled asks in he pla o m
economy, mo e han hal o p o essional emo e wo ke s has employee s a us, bu a la ge sha e
is made up o he solo sel -employed. Remo e p o essional wo ke s di e om o he ypes o
pla o m wo k in ha hey hold ela i ely less p o-union a i udes and a e less likely o unionize
compa ed o he gene al popula ion – hose esul s migh also e lec he inabili y o hose wo k-
e s o unionize ela ed o hei labou ma ke s a us. Ne e heless, ade unions a e no wi hou
inspi a ion, s a egies and ac ics o ec ui ing and o ganizing hem. Tapping in o online, digi al
communi ies o emo e p o essional wo ke s seems mos easible he e, especially as hey a e
among he mos ac i e compa ed o o he ypes o pla o m wo k. Ye , a en ion o o line social
ne wo ks should no be dismissed. Remo e pla o m wo k is no only s ill place-bound and likely
ci y-based100 bu possibly also ma ked by egional specializa ion,101 all o which migh open op-
po uni ies o o line ( ansna ional) union o ganizing ac ics and s a egies.
While some mains eam ade unions ha e opened up membe ship o he solo sel -employed,
102
hei membe ship base is unlikely o be solid among emo e p o essional wo ke s. This is p ob-
ably also ue o g ass oo s unions. Ye he la e ’s engagemen wi h wo ke s in loca ion-based
pla o m wo k and bo om-up ac i ism add o hei legi imacy o speak on behal o and in sol-
ida i y wi h hese wo ke s.103 In con as , he claim o mains eam unions o ep esen wo ke s
in he pla o m economy a e la gely based on hei expe ole and embeddedness in social di-
alogue ins i u ions.104 These claims migh no always e lec he in e es s and needs o pla o m
wo ke s, howe e , which migh s eng hen hei pe cep ions o being less ep esen ed by main-
s eam unions.105 The legi imacy o hei ep esen a i e claims in he pla o m economy could
he e o e be b i le i he membe ship o pla o m wo ke s does no g ow su icien ly.
99 Cini e al. (2022).
100 He e al. (2021).
101 Aleksynska e al. (2021).
102 Vandaele (2021).
103 Cini e al. (2022); Joyce e al. (2022).
104 Simms and Adam (2021); Vandaele (2018a, 2021).
105 See also Jansen and Leh (2022).
36 ILO Wo king Pape 106
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