Rudnik, Alesia
A icle
Machine y o dissen : Explo ing he echno-social p ac ices
o mode n p o es s
In e ne Policy Re iew
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y (HIIG), Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Rudnik, Alesia (2024) : Machine y o dissen : Explo ing he echno-social p ac ices
o mode n p o es s, In e ne Policy Re iew, ISSN 2197-6775, Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o
In e ne and Socie y, Be lin, Vol. 13, Iss. 4, pp. 1-30,
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Volume 13 |
Machine y o dissen : Explo ing he
echno-social p ac ices o mode n p o es s
Alesia Rudnik Ka ls ad Uni e si y [email p o ec ed]
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.4.1816
Published: 25 No embe 2024
Recei ed: 6 Feb ua y 2024 Accep ed: 24 July 2024
Funding: The au ho s did no ecei e any unding o his esea ch.
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ha e in luenced he ex .
Licence: This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
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Copy igh emains wi h he au ho (s).
Ci a ion: Rudnik, A. (2024). Machine y o dissen : Explo ing he echno-social p ac ices
o mode n p o es s. In e ne Policy Re iew, 13(4). h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2024.4.1816
Keywo ds: Science and echnology s udies (STS), Labou , P o es , Bela us
Abs ac : P o es mobilisa ion and coo dina ion equi e compe ences ha ex end beyond poli ical
leade ship and communica ion. Technology, which has become a daily pa o humani y, pushes
p o es leade s o ob ain skills in na iga ing social media o achie e e ec i e communica ion and
leade ship. Labou p ac ices behind p o es mobilisa ion a e g adually complexi ying and equi e a
b oadening o ou unde s anding o human ac ions behind he implemen a ion o echnological
solu ions in he con ex o poli ical p o es s. Focusing on he example o he Bela usian p o es s o
2020, his a icle examines he human and non-human labou behind he p oduc ion o p o es
mobilisa ion con en , p o es coo dina ion, and p o es epo ing. Based on semi-s uc u ed
in e iews wi h 18 esponden s, he pape is he i s o examine he p ac ices and ou ines o
Teleg am channel edi o s and mode a o s, ac i is s, poli icians, and ma ke ing specialis s. The
analysis con ibu es o ou unde s anding o p o es - ela ed labou , which is o en unseen and
di ided be ween humans and echnology, and i s consequences o he p o es mo emen .
Issue 4
In oduc ion
On 25 Augus , he owne o he Teleg am messaging pla o m, Pa el Du o , was a -
es ed by he F ench au ho i ies on accusa ions o lack o mode a ion on he pla -
o m ha p o ides o an uncon olled c iminal usage o he pla o m ac oss he
wo ld (Mackin osh & Ve non, 2024). Al hough Teleg am has aced c i icism ega d-
ing i s secu i y s anda ds o e he las yea s (Do man, 2024), he pla o m’s a o -
dances and s uc u e appealed o many dissiden s in au oc acies (Roge s, 2020;
Akba i & Gabdulhako , 2019). While he pla o m does no p o ide an au oma ic
end- o-end enc yp ion, o se e al yea s i was he only messenge wi h a unc ion
o dele ing p e ious messages on he ecei e ’s and sende ’s sides. Addi ionally,
Teleg am allows o c ea ion o clien s and bo s o he Teleg am channels, ha
a e iendly o use s wi hou de elope s’ compe ences ( on A x & Pa e son, 2023).
Fo many, a combina ion o ea u es o social media and a messaging pla o m
made Teleg am’s in e ace use - iendly (Roge s, 2020). Finally, in 2018 Pa el
Du o publicly s a ed ha he pla o m will no comply wi h he demand o he
Russian go e nmen o sha e he da a and con en o he enc yp ed messages o
Teleg am use s: “P i acy is no o sale, and human igh s should no be comp o-
mised ou o ea o g eed”, w o e Du o on his Teleg am channel on 13 Ap il
(Du o , 2018).
The Bela usian p o es s in 2020 p o ide one ecen example o an e en when
hese a o dances o Teleg am and he s ance o he pla o m’s owne impac ed he
un olding o he p o es episode. In he a e ma h o he igged p esiden ial elec-
ion in Augus 2020, poli ical opposi ion and ci il socie y mobilised Bela usians in
a se ies o la ge-scale p o es mani es a ions (Kazha ski, 2021). A peculia i y o he
p o es s was bo h hei unp eceden ed scale (Onuch & Sasse, 2023) and he s ong
ole o he Teleg am messaging app. Du ing he Bela usian elec o al campaign o
2020, o he i s ime, Teleg am ook on he unc ions o media ion, mobilisa ion,
se ing as a poli ical mo emen ’s main enance pla o m (Wije ma s & Loko ,
2022). Howe e , while Teleg am is o en p esc ibed a key ole in he Bela usian
p o es s’ mobilisa ion, p o es - ela ed asks o opposi ional poli icians, ac i is s,
and owne s o la ge Teleg am channels o en emained unseen.
This s udy iews p o es o ganisa ion as labou , which implies he pe o mance o
asks ela ed o mobilisa ion, ob aining, and sha ing in o ma ion, he coo dina ion
o p o es - ela ed ac ions. Labou as a se o asks cons i u ing wo k ( an de
Zande e al., 2019) is o en di ided be ween humans and nonhumans by means o
delega ion o some o he asks o echnology (Johnson, 1988). Adop ing he lens
o science and echnology s udies (STS), in pa icula , he concep s o labou and
2 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
delega ion, his a icle ollows aces o he p o es o ganise s o pos -elec o al
p o es s in Bela us in 2020. The analysis i s discusses p o es - ela ed labou pe -
o med by p o es leade s and p ac ices o delega ion o p o es - ela ed asks o
echnology. I secondly p esen s a e lec ion on he oppo uni ies and conse-
quences o high eliance on echnological solu ions ha eme ge as humans and
echnology assemble wi hin he socio- echnical ne wo k o poli ical p o es .
Two esea ch ques ions guide he a icle:
1. Wha ype o labou was associa ed wi h p o es o ganisa ion a imes
when echnology became a media ing componen o he p o es ne wo k
in Bela us in 2020, and wha uelled decisions o p o es leade s o
delega e p o es - ela ed asks o echnology?
2. Wha consequences eme ge as a esul o he delega ion o p o es - ela ed
asks o echnology?
Analysis o o he ac o s o he ne wo k, such as o dina y Bela usians pa icipa ing
in p o es s, o he Bela usian au ho i ies, – de e ing and ep essing p o es mo e-
men s – has al eady been published by se e al schola s (Ma eo, 2022; Chuli skaya
& Ma ony e, 2024; G eene, 2022; Onuch & Sasse, 2023; Rudnik, 2024). This pape
is he i s s udy on Bela us o analyse p ac ices o in eg a ion o echnology in o
he labou o p o es coo dina o s, based on analysis o in-dep h in e iews wi h
key ac o s in ol ed in p o es o ganisa ion. By explo ing p o es - ela ed labou
and he di ision o p o es - ela ed asks be ween humans and echnology du ing
he elec o al campaign ha me ged wi h pos -elec o al p o es in Bela us, his a -
icle seeks o con ibu e o a mo e nuanced unde s anding o how human- echnol-
ogy in e ac ions play ou du ing p o es s in au oc a ic s a es. The s udy iden i ies
and c i ically examines au oma ion o p o es labou and o ganisa ion, con ibu -
ing o schola ship on human- echnology ela ion in social mo emen s. The a icle
i s discusses an STS app oach o unde s anding he labou and delega ion ha
eme ge as humans and echnology co-cons uc ela ionships wi hin a p o es ne -
wo k. Secondly, I p esen he a icle’s me hodological app oach o e-assembling
he p o es ne wo k and ollowing he aces o i s ac an s. Thi dly, I discuss he e-
sul s o 18 in e iews wi h Bela usian p o es o ganise s, alluding o he concep s
o labou and delega ion. Finally, I conclude wi h a discussion o consequences o
p o es - ela ed labou ’s delega ion o echnology.
3 Rudnik
Ne wo ks, labou , and delega ion
Knowledge, mo ali y, c a , o ce, sociabili y a e no p ope ies o humans bu o
humans accompanied by hei e inue o delega ed cha ac e s. Since each o
hose delega es ies oge he pa o ou social wo ld, i means ha s udying
social ela ions wi hou he nonhumans is impossible. (Johnson, 1988, p. 310)
STS is among he ields wi h a s ong in e es in examining wha is a s ake when
humans in e ac wi h echnology on a daily basis and he e ec s ha hei mu ual
exis ence p oduces o social and poli ical li e ( an Dijck e al., 2018). A sha ed
iew among STS schola s sugges s ha humans and nonhumans in e ac wi hin
a ious ne wo ks assembled unde pa icula ci cums ances and ha bo h humans
and non-humans possess agency, an abili y o p omo e change in ano he en i y o
a ne wo k in gene al (Sayes, 2014).
S udying social ela ions implies paying close a en ion o humans and nonhu-
mans in e ac ing wi hin ne wo ks. Ne wo ks a e unde s ood as chains o ela ions
ha eme ge as a esul o ac o s’ pe o mances, o ac o s exe cising hei agency
(Ge shon, 2010), and “an ac o is always also a ne wo k” (Ki sch & Mi chell, 2004,
p. 688). In ha sense, ne wo ks a e no s able chains o ac o s and ela ions.
Ra he , i is epea ed pe o mances, pa e ned ac ions, ha g an s abili y o a ne -
wo k (Ge shon, 2010). While, wi hin a ne wo k, mul iple oles a e aken by ac o s,
consciously o unconsciously, mos o a ne wo k’s nodes become media o s – en i-
ies ha con ibu e o po en ial changes in o he ac o s’ beha iou o p ocesses
wi hin ne wo ks (Ge shon, 2010). Examining wha appea s o be an ac o equi es
paying a en ion o whe he an objec o a pe son “makes a pe cep ible di e ence”
(Law & Mol, 2008, p. 58). Adhe ing o his logic, he p o es ne wo k examined in
his s udy is unde s ood as an uns able si ua ional o con ex ual chain in which
he ac o s engaged in p o es o ganisa ion a e seen as ha ing a pe cep ible impac
due o hei con ibu ion o he ne wo k.
Two o he concep s ha in o m his pape and a e closely ela ed o he pe o -
mances o ac o s wi hin ne wo ks a e labou and delega ion. Labou as a concep
appea s h oughou a ious disciplines, om economics o poli ical heo y and STS
(Acemoglu & Res epo, 2019; C aw o d, 2021; La ou & Woolga , 1979). Al hough
he in e es in labou and wo k encompasses a ious aspec s, a common ounda-
ion o unde s anding labou is ha i e e s o “ asks ha cons i u e jobs”, a se o
unc ions, du ies, and asks ha equi e he possession o ce ain skills and, usual-
ly, a wo kspace, whe e labou is pe o med ( an de Zande e al., 2019, p. 47).
4 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
Labou mani es s as ei he manual o cogni i e and consis s o bo h ou ine and
non- ou ine asks, depending on he wo kplace ( an de Zande e al., 2019, p. 54).
Van de Zande e al. analysed he po en ial o “labou subs i u ion” by echnology
and a gued ha , al hough echnologies ha e he po en ial o subs i u ion in a i-
ous ypes o asks, hey emain limi ed in p o iding labou ela ed o “c ea i i y,
p oblem-sol ing and complex communica ion” (2019, p. 66).
Ki sch and Mi chell (2004) poin ou ha , wi h indus ialisa ion and he de elop-
men o echnology, “machines bo h compe e and co-ope a e wi h wo ke s, de-
skilling and cheapening much social labou bu a he same ime maximizing he
e icacy o o he o ms o labou ” (p. 697). C aw o d add esses labou and i s di i-
sion be ween human and nonhuman ac o s, examining he daily wo k o an Ama-
zon ul ilmen cen e. In a con ex whe e labou is sha ed be ween humans and
machines while anspo ing and unpacking goods, humans a e no always he
mos “ aluable o us ed componen s o Amazon’s machine” (C aw o d, 2021, p.
55). Du ing imes o labou au oma ion, humans o en pe o m oles ha gi e he
imp ession o machines doing all he wo k. Addi ionally, human wo ke s ha e o
cons an ly adap o how he machine y wo ks, lea n new du ies, and expand hei
knowledge. As a esul , much labou emains unseen, “downplayed and glossed
o e ” (C aw o d, 2021, p. 66). In iew o a common unde s anding o labou and
ollowing STS’ in e es in he di ision o labou be ween humans and echnology,
his pape ea s labou as a se o asks ela ed o he p o es s in Bela us du ing
he summe o 2020.
Following he aces o ne wo ks, ac o s, and human-ma e ial ela ionships wi hin
hese ne wo ks, schola s such as Mol (1999), C aw o d (2021) and Winne (1980)
ha e u ned o an h opological me hods o obse a ion and he igo ous examina-
ion o wo kspaces, ma e ial in as uc u es, labou , skills, knowledge, da a ica ion,
and au oma ion. Wha C aw o d e e s o as labou au oma ion, some o he schol-
a s de ine as delega ion. Fo La ou , delega ion implies eplacing a human-d i en
p ocess wi h a non-human o ma e ial solu ion ha minimises he e o , wo k, o
labou in ol ed (Johnson, 1988).1 La ou in oduced he concep o delega ion in
he wo k “The Sociology o a Doo -Close ” (Johnson, 1988). Passing om one oom
o ano he equi es a human o go h ough a wall ha sepa a es one space om
ano he . Since blowing a hole in he wall e e y ime ha a human needs o pass o
ano he oom seems imp ac ical, ine ec i e, and de ini ely equi es a lo o physi-
cal e o , humans c ea ed he doo (Johnson, 1988). Fo smoo h closu e and open-
ing, a doo has hinges. La ou sugges s ha he amoun o e o and wo k e-
1. B uno La ou w o e “The Sociology o a Doo -Close ” unde he pseudonym o Jim Johnson.
5 Rudnik
qui ed o pass h ough he wall wi hou a doo wi h he minimal e o i akes o
a e se he wall by pushing a doo handle and opening a doo . The doo as a con-
s uc ion, wi h hinges and a handle, ep esen s a delega ion o labou ha a human
pe o ms o minimise he e o o passing om one oom o ano he . The hinges
also allow he doo o close when people o ge o do so and, in his way, ecei es
he unc ion o delega ion om a doo man, who would o he wise be needed o
close he doo e e y ime passe s-by o ge o do so. The cos o ins alling he
hinges appea s o be much lowe han paying he doo man o his disciplined
wo k (Johnson, 1988). Howe e , no ma e how e ec i e he cons uc ion o a
doo -close is, he e will always be humans whose e o s o open he doo a e in-
su icien : o example, he elde ly o child en. This is when he unc ion o a doo -
holde becomes delega ed o he ca pe , o a chai holding he doo open (John-
son, 1988). The doo now possesses compe ences ha i has ecei ed om a hu-
man, bu in u n i disciplines and au ho ises pa icula beha iou in a human:
gen ly opening some doo s o pulling ha de o open o he s. In La ou ’s unde -
s anding, he con e sion o a signi ican e o o a minimal one ep esen s a case
o delega ion. To ace examples o delega ion o nonhumans, La ou sugges s:
“E e y ime you wan o know wha a nonhuman does, simply imagine wha o he
humans o o he nonhumans would ha e o do we e his cha ac e no p esen ”
(Johnson, 1988, p. 299).
The concep s o labou and delega ion open he way o acing p ac ices o compe-
ence ans e om human ac o s o digi al pla o ms and ma e ial a e ac s in mo-
bilising, coo dina ing, and mani es ing he Bela usian p o es s. The ambi ion o
s udy a social mo emen and p o es s by applying he lens o STS is no no el;
howe e , i s ill appea s o be a he unde explo ed e ain (B eyman e al., 2016).
B eyman e al. encou age in eg a ing social mo emen s in o he loop o STS,
which in u n enables a mo e nuanced unde s anding o con empo a y mo emen s
(2016). STS schola s ha e shown in e es in concep ualising in e ac ions be ween
humans and echnology by explo ing he agency o human and nonhuman ac o s
(B eue e al., 2015), examining he media ing ole and ac o ness o pla o ms as
hey become an elemen o socio echnical ne wo ks (Wije ma s & Loko , 2022; an
Dijck, 2013). Applying he logic o ob aining knowledge h ough an empi ical in-
es iga ion o he labou in ol ed in a p o es ne wo k by ollowing he aces o
bo h he human and nonhuman ac an s ha pe o med he labou (Law, 2010), his
a icle seeks o b oaden ou unde s anding o humans and echnology du ing
imes o p o es , as well as explo ing salien and unno iced p ac ices ha ende
such p o es mobilisa ion and o ganisa ion (Sayes, 2014). This app oach is no only
impo an in ela ion o a deepe unde s anding o he Bela usian up ising o
6 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
2020, bu i is also a con ibu ion o a deepe explo a ion o human- echnology e-
la ions in au oc acies, he in eg a ion o echnology in o p o es mo emen s, as
well as he p oblema isa ion o au oma ion o labou and p ac ices associa ed wi h
social mo emen s.
Me hodology
In his a icle, I aim o ace he labou p ac ices ha we e associa ed wi h p o es
o ganisa ion, as echnology became a media ing componen o he p o es ne -
wo k in Bela us in 2020; and o unde s and how he consequences o delega ion o
p o es - ela ed asks o echnology can be concei ed. Inspi ed by he me hodologi-
cal adi ion o STS desc ibed abo e, I i s de e mined he ac o s in ol ed in he
o ganisa ion o p o es - ela ed ac i i ies by ollowing aces o p o es e en s, so-
cial media oo p in s, and people (Law, 2010). To do so, I d ew upon public sou ces,
such as analy ical epo s and independen media, and in o ma ion p o ided du -
ing he in e iews.
A e mapping ou he ne wo k and iden i ying po en ially a ailable esponden s, I
conduc ed semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h 18 pa icipan s who we e ela ed o he
o ganisa ion, mobilisa ion, and main enance o he p o es mo emen in Bela us.
Following he aim o explo ing p o es - ela ed labou p ac ices, I u ned o he op-
posi ion poli icians and hei eams, ep esen a i es o he elec o al and ci ic ini-
ia i es Holas and Hones People, mode a o s and adminis a o s o Teleg am chan-
nels ha we e popula a he ime. Eigh een esponden s we e in e iewed o his
s udy in Oc obe 2022 and Janua y 2023. The in e iews we e semi-s uc u ed,
asking he esponden s o e lec upon hei asks, ou ines, and wo k asks du ing
he summe o 2020 ela ed o he ac i e phase o he Bela usian poli ical p o es s
in Augus 2020 and he p eceding elec o al campaign in June – July 2020. In addi-
ion, he esponden s we e asked o e lec upon he un olding o he poli ical
campaign, p o es coo dina ion and main enance, secu i y, and sa e y measu es
and isks. Mos in e iews we e held o line in Vilnius and Wa saw, whe e mos e-
sponden s esided a he ime, apa om ou esponden s who p e e ed o alk
online. In e iews las ed be ween 55 and 117 minu es and we e held in he Be-
la usian and Russian languages, in which he au ho is luen . The in e iews we e
ansc ibed in he o iginal language and he quo es p o ided below we e ansla -
ed by he au ho . As he in e iews conce ned he sensi i e opic o poli ical en-
gagemen and as mos esponden s had been a ge ed by he Bela usian au ho i-
ies o pu suing hei poli ical engagemen , he analysis excludes any iden i ying
cha ac e is ics. Addi ionally, he s udy was app o ed by he Swedish E hics Au ho -
7 Rudnik
i y.
Following he unde s anding o labou and delega ion discussed in he p e ious
sec ion, I analysed he in e iew ma e ials by acing all he con eyed and salien
p o es - ela ed asks, analy ically sc u inising hem unde se e al hemes, and e-
lec ing on he delega ion o unc ions o echnology men ioned by he espon-
den s. Hence, wo king wi h he in e iew ma e ials, I d ew upon bo h pa icipan s’
e lec ions o he wo k asks and my own in e p e a ion o salien labou p ac ices
pe o med by he esponden s.
Following he ac o s: socio- echnical ne wo k o he
Bela usian p o es s
Bela us is a consolida ed au oc acy go e ned by one o he longes uling au o-
c a s, Aliaksand Lukashenka (Bosse, 2021). Since 1994, a e Lukashenka won he
only ee and ai elec ion in he coun y (Benne , 2011), wi hin he nex i e
yea s, he coun y saw a d as ic decline in eedom o speech, an inc eased p es-
su e on independen media, human igh s o ganisa ions and opposi ional eli es, as
well as inc easing ies wi h Russia ollowed by Russi ica ion o educa ion and s a e
ins i u ions (Ro do, 2009; Rudnik, 2024). The opposi ion, ep esen ed by he lead-
e s o he Bela usian na ional mo emen , made mul iple a emp s o con es
Lukashenka’s poli ical decisions, such as du ing he 1995 e e endum on g an ing
he Russian language he s a us o he o icial language, and he 1996 e e endum
ha signi ican ly b oadened he p esiden ’s powe s. By he same ime, indepen-
den newspape s and adio s a ions we e shu down o had o adap o he ha sh
sys em o s a e censo ship. In 1999-2000s ou Bela usians, jou nalis Zmice
Za adski, o me minis e o in e nal a ai s Yu y Zakha chanka, opposi ional
poli ician Vik a Hancha , and businessman and opposi ional poli ician Ana ol K a-
souski, disappea ed, o which many public igu es blamed Lukashenka. By he
ime o he Rose and O ange e olu ion, he Bela usian opposi ion was ma gin-
alised due o limi ed access o s a e media, a lack o ins i u ional ep esen a ion,
and a a he na ow poli ical agenda (Rouda, 2009).
Consolida ed a ound se e al leade s, he opposi ion ook a chance o mobilise ci i-
zens o he elec o al campaign in 2006. Pos -elec o al p o es s, ha uni ed abou
20,000 in cen al Minsk, esul ed in a b u al c ackdown: a leas 500 Bela usians
we e de ained, along wi h he wo opposi ional candida es, while he elec ion was
no ecognised as ee and ai by he in e na ional communi y (de Vogel, 2022). In
he 2010 elec ion, he opposi ion mo emen was unable o ag ee on a join candi-
da e, which esul ed in nine al e na i e candida es on he o ing ballo . Jus as in
8 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
Fo execu ing such a load o asks, ideally, we had o ha e a media holding wi h
100 employees. Howe e , due o high secu i y s akes, we we e only abou 10
people. Some o us managed mul iple channels a once. This was also due o
he ac ha Iha Losik, who adminis e ed Bela us Golo nogo Mozga [one o he
la ges Teleg am channels – au ho ] was imp isoned and we had o ake o e so
ha he wo k o he channels didn’ s op. (Edi o o ou Teleg am channels in
2020)
Many Bela usians who joined he elec o al campaigns had a backg ound in ma -
ke ing o IT. Hones People’s leade explained ha he idea o c ea e he ini ia i e
eme ged wi hin he ne wo k o ma ke ing specialis s who belie ed ha hey can
c ea e, main ain, and popula ise a coun y-wide elec ion moni o ing. Simila ly, as
indica ed abo e in he quo e o Holas’ leade , he idea o Holas eme ged wi hin he
Bela usian IT communi y. The majo i y o he elec o al ini ia i es’ co e eam and
housands o olun ee s wo ked o ee, d i en by he idea o a sho and success-
ul campaign. The ep esen a i es o Holas highligh ed ha , besides wo king o
he ini ia i e o ee, he ini ia i e’s leade s in es ed pe sonal money in c ea ing
he al e na i e o ing in as uc u e. Fo he poli icians, p i a e business in es -
men s became ano he way o und hei ac i i ies, al hough mos o hese busi-
nesses p e e ed o emain anonymous due o secu i y isks. Teleg am channels’
edi o s mos ly elied on ad e isemen s and some seed unding om businesses
and mos ly wo ked o e ime, e en when he wo k was paid.
Leade ship and high engagemen o IT and ma ke ing p o essionals wi hin a
p o es ne wo k explains ha a leas hal o he esponden s desc ibed he cam-
paign and p o es o ganisa ion ac i ism as a “wo king case”, ela ing o hei du ies
as a se ice hey p o ided o hei cus ome , he Bela usian socie y. Thus, he e-
sponden s saw hemsel es as ul illing hei wo k du ies, speci ied unc ions and
asks. The elec o al ini ia i es s uc u ed hei wo k by c ea ing depa men s e-
sponsible o communica ion, olun ee ing, he collec ion o signa u es o candi-
da es, he o ganisa ion o elec o al allies, and consul a ions wi h secu i y expe s.
We saw he campaign and o hcoming p o es s as ou wo king case, whe e
socie y is a cus ome . Ou media ma ke doesn’ ha e so many p o essionals,
and he e o e almos e e y alen ed pe son was engaged in some o he
ini ia i es. We had a co e eam o h ee o i e c ea o s, who w o e ex s, a
couple o people who designed. Ou wo k was o ganised in o depa men s, wi h
app oxima ely 10 people managing i a op le el. The ull eam was abou 40
15 Rudnik
people, 100 mo e coo dina o s ac oss he coun y. A i s , we engaged
housands o olun ee s and la e 10,000 we e egis e ed as elec ion obse e s.
We expanded and scaled ou ini ia i e wi h housands o olun ee s ac oss he
coun y who we e in pe manen con ac wi h hei manage s and adminis e ed
egis a ion, educa ion and eedback om he obse e s. (Rep esen a i e o
Hones People ini ia i e)
The asks execu ed by ac i is s, opposi ional poli icians, and edi o s o Teleg am
channels on any gi en day a ied in size and ype, we e o en spon aneous and e-
qui ed skil ul eam membe s who could simul aneously pe o m se e al unc ions:
om pa icipa ing in a discussion on poli ical s a egy o making e i ica ion calls
o membe s o he ini ia i e g oups: “Some o ou days we e chao ic as I would
come o he o ice and ake pa in planning which poli ical messages should be
communica ed by ou poli icians, o ganising he s uc u e o ou olun ee ing ne -
wo k and in he e ening e i ying ini ia i e g oup membe s by phone” (Rep esen-
a i e o he Baba yka eam). This desc ip ion echoes an STS-unde s anding o
how mos o he socio- echnical ne wo ks a e o ganised: wi h chao ical and uns a-
ble ela ions and ole o ne wo k’s membe s (Ge shon, 2010).
In an a emp o eassemble p o es - ela ed labou p ac ices among he espon-
den s, I asked hem o desc ibe hei daily ou ine by p o iding de ails o he asks
and unc ions hey unde ook and hei esponsibili ies. Below, I analyse p o es -
ela ed asks ha illus a e a a ie y o cogni i e, c ea i e, communica i e, and o -
ganisa ional ou ines and ad-hoc du ies pe o med by he esponden s in ela ion
o he p o es s in Bela us du ing he summe o 2020.
P o es - ela ed asks o p o es leade s
The main enance o p o es s and he o ganisa ion o he Bela usian opposi ion
campaign in ol ed nume ous asks ha equi ed leade ship, ma ke ing, and com-
munica ion skills as well as poli ical and s a egic planning. In pa icula , elying
on he in e iew ma e ials, I iden i ied he ollowing asks: acili a ion o p o es -
ela ed communica ion; de elopmen o s a egies and ac ics o mobilisa ion and
coo dina ion; aming o p o es messages and demands; de eloping and manag-
ing ne wo ks o olun ee s; o ganising digi al in as uc u e o al e na i e elec o al
pa icipa ion.
While acili a ing p o es - ela ed communica ion, Teleg am edi o s and mode a o s
we e also collec ing eedback messages om Bela usians on he s ee s. These
16 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
messages we e anonymously sen o he eedback cha bo s, a unc ion a ailable
on Teleg am. The mode a o s hen e i ied he in o ma ion and decided whe he o
sha e he upda es ecei ed o he channels. In his way, a “subs i u ion o labou ”
o collec ing li e-upda es in one window, allowed Teleg am edi o s and mode a-
o s o collec housands o messages and acili a e p o es - ela ed communica ion
ia hei channels ( an de Zande e al., 2019).
I can ha dly emembe how many messages we we e ge ing on he Teleg am
cha bo . Bu I hink i was housands pe 10 minu es. On 9-11 Augus , we had
no e i ica ion a all, we we e basically sha ing e e y hing we ecei ed, e e y 15
seconds we we e ge ing new messages, so i looked like sub i les o a mo ie.
(Edi o o one o he Teleg am channels in 2020)
Wha he esponden abo e calls “sub i les o a mo ie” esona ed wi h how o he
in e iewed edi o s and mode a o s o Teleg am channels iewed hei wo k du -
ing he mos ac i e phase o p o es s, in Augus 2020. In a way, he me apho sig-
ni ies he p ecision o he wo k execu ed by he edi o s. Jus as sub i les should
ma ch he ac ual wo ds spoken in a mo ie, he epo ing by Teleg am channels
needed o ma ch he e en s on he s ee s o Bela usian ci ies, co e ing as many
e en s as possible. While o o dina y Bela usians he expe ience o using eed-
back cha bo s was pe cei ed as ha ing a ela ionship wi h echnology (Rudnik, in
p ess), he labou ha emained unseen included hou s o wo k o e i y in o ma-
ion ia addi ional sou ces, epo on ongoing e en s, as well as based on he
analysis o de elopmen s on he s ee s, o p opose ac ics o p o es .
The de elopmen o s a egies and ac ics o p o es mobilisa ion, coo dina ion, and
communica ion was ano he o m o p o es - ela ed cogni i e ask ha uni ed
mul iple g oups o ac i is s. Fou esponden s desc ibed he p ocess o pe o ming
s a egic planning ela ed o p o es s as ollows. Poli icians, independen media
ep esen a i es, Teleg am channel edi o s, and poli ical blogge s c ea ed a closed
Teleg am cha o s a egic communica ion ela ed o democ a ic esis ance du ing
he summe o 2020. Be ween 10 and 20 opinion leade s we e cons an ly dis-
cussing wha should be communica ed o he public, which p o es loca ions
should be chosen, o wha he opic o a pa icula mani es a ion would be. The
discussions in his cha , combined wi h online calls, led o join s a egies ega d-
ing p o es o ganisa ion and communica ion. Fo example, one o he Teleg am
channels’ edi o s explained ha in he cha he membe s discussed: “which chan-
nels would publish in o ma ion abou he upcoming mani es a ion. In mos cases
i was Nex a, which hen had mos subsc ip ions, and o he channels immedia ely
17 Rudnik
epos ed his in o ma ion.” Some edi o s claimed ha hey el he esponsibili y
o p o es o s was in hei hands and he e o e coope a ed wi h o he edi o s and
social media celeb i ies in o de o secu e he sa es and mos a ional demons a-
ion ou e, o an idea o c ea i ely aming he ma ches’ messages and slogans.
The e lec ions o he esponden s abou how exac ly hei wo k was o ganised
hin a he spo adic cha ac e o p o es main enance labou : “Some imes on F i-
day we had no idea whe e o lead he mani es a ion on Sunday and wha heme
should be p oposed o a p o es ” (Edi o o one o he Teleg am channels).
Responden s also highligh ed ha he aming o p o es - ela ed messages and
ideas and de eloping mobilisa ion s a egies, which we e o en e e ed o as bo -
om-up ideas, we e mos ly gene a ed by poli icians, Teleg am edi o s and ac i is s.
Fo example, he ini ial plan o ga he by he polling s a ions on 9 Augus a 8pm
was gene a ed among he na ow ci cle o poli icians, as highligh ed by one o he
in e iewed opposi ional poli icians:
Many ideas ha we hink we e sel -o ganised, hey came om us. Fo example,
he idea o ga he by he polling s a ions a 20.00 came om us. We discussed
i among ou sel es and sen a eques o Teleg am channels o dis ibu e his
idea.
This example somewha con adic s a common belie abou he pu ely ho izon al
cha ac e o p o es mobilisa ion and coo dina ion in Bela us. In addi ion, he ex-
ample highligh s he asks o s a egic planning and c ea i e communica ion pe -
o med by he esponden s ( an de Zande e al., 2019). Responden s ecalled he
o mula ion o p o es messages, such as c ea ing sho slogans and concep s, as
hei ecu ing ask. Ge shon poin s ou ha he pa e ned and ecu ing ac i i ies
and pe o mances impac he s abilisa ion o a ne wo k and dec ease i s chao ic
s a e (2010).
C ea i e cogni i e labou ( an de Zande e al., 2019) equi ed a speci ic se o p o-
essional skills, as he ollowing s o y abou he o ganise s o he women’s ma ch-
es illus a es. Two expe ienced ma ke ing specialis s decided o o ganise a
women’s demons a ion ha would publicly espond o he iolence employed by
he police agains he p o es o s on 9-11 Augus 2020. They ag eed upon “ he
mos s e eo ypical image o an i- iolence: emales in whi e d esses wi h lowe s”
(one o he o ganise s o he women’s ma ches), belie ing ha he police in a pa-
ia chal socie y would no de ain emale p o es o s. Knowledge o ma ke ing
s a egies, he aming o messages, he unc ioning o social media algo i hms,
18 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
and he pe cep ions o socie y helped hem o ma ch hei p o es p oposal wi h
he demands o socie y, gauged by he leade s ia pe sonal expe ience o p o es
pa icipa ion o line and analysis o na a i es on he social media. The o ganise s
decided o openly w i e a call o join hese women’s mani es a ions on Twi e ; he
message ead: “All who wan o join in he o ganising o women’s mani es a ions,
join his Teleg am g oup” (One o he o ganise s o he women’s ma ches). Wi hin
days, his Teleg am g oup had ga he ed housands o pa icipan s. Women in his
cha discussed he ideas and sel -o ganised he mani es a ions wi hou any mod-
e a ion by he ini ial o ganise s.
We had a closed g oup bu a e 12 Augus women s a ed o sha e his link o
di e en cha s and on Twi e and in jus one day he e we e a ound 10,000
women. We we e in shock, bu we ealised ha we’d hi he ibe o he people.
Thousands o women s a ed o gene a e ideas. (One o he o ganise s o he
women’s ma ches)
Beyond de elopmen o he s a egies o p o es s and aming o p o es mes-
sages, elec o al ini ia i es Holas, Zub and Hones people, o ices o he opposi ion
poli icians and Teleg am channels we e esponsible o de eloping and managing
ne wo ks o olun ee s, assis an s, p o es e s. As he esponden s om he elec o al
ini ia i es men ion, he ambi ion o engage as many Bela usian ci izens as possi-
ble in o moni o ing he elec ion and main aining he sys ems o al e na i e o e
coun equi ed housands o olun ee s ac oss he coun y. Hones People’s olun-
ee ne wo ks g ew om dozens o housands o local coo dina o s jus in a ew
weeks. Fo Holas, olun ee s played a c ucial ole in e i ying egis a ions on he
pla o ms, some o he o ing ballo s. In he case o he o ices o he poli icians,
olun ee s ac oss he coun y we e esponsible o assis ing in signa u es’ collec-
ion o he candida es, as well as o ganising local campaign mee ings. When he
elec o al phase has me ged in o he p o es s, hese ne wo ks o olun ee s be-
came pla o ms o coo dina ion o he s a egies o local p o es s, sha ing use ul
links, and discussing he poli ical si ua ion. C ea ion and managemen o he ol-
un ee ne wo ks equi ed wo k om dozens o leade s, manage s, whose main
asks ela ed o e i ica ion o wannabe olun ee s, educa ion o new olun ee s,
and collec ion o in o ma ion and da a.
Coo dina ion o he coun y’s pla o m o al e na i e o e coun , equi ed o ganisa-
ion o e ec i e digi al in as uc u e. As Holas esponden indica es, an idea o he
ounde was quickly suppo ed by many wi hin he IT-sec o ; he p oposed in a-
s uc u e equi ed skills o on end-, and backend de elope s, designe s, man-
19 Rudnik
age s, and many o he p o essionals, o be ound wi hin he Bela usian IT-sec o . In
he end, he Holas eam conduc ed mul iple es s o Be a- e sion o al e na i e
o ing, es ed mul iple possible secu i y b eaches, and deli e ed a inal e sion
jus weeks be o e he elec ion. P omo ion o Holas as an al e na i e o ing pla -
o m was suppo ed by o he elec o al ini ia i es, independen media, opposi ion
poli icians, Teleg am channels, and olun ee ne wo ks.
The Bela usian p o es s a e o en e e ed o as ho izon ally o ganised (Gabow-
i sch, 2021). Ne e heless, my in e iews wi h ac i is s, poli icians, and edi o s o
Teleg am channels shed ligh on a ious dimensions o powe ela ions ha
eme ged as he p o es ne wo k un olded. Decision-making ega ding he loca ion
and iming o p o es s, as well as hei hemes, was p ima ily o ganised h ough
he closed Teleg am cha ha in ol ed be ween 10 and 20 people a di e en
s ages. The edi o s o Teleg am channels, ac i is s, jou nalis s, and poli ical ana-
lys s, as well as some poli icians, collec i ely discussed p oposals o p o es am-
ing, secu i y ela ed o p o es o ganisa ion, and logis ics. As a esul , he cha s,
whe e p o es ideas eme ged, in ol ed only a limi ed numbe o leading ac i is s
among housands in he p o es leade ship ne wo k. As some esponden s illus-
a ed, ideas and lashmobs, which we e seen as bo om-up p oposals, such as
wea ing whi e ibbons on elec ion day as a symbol o suppo o he opposi ion,
we e o mula ed by pa icula ac i is s and p omo ed h ough digi al pla o ms.
Addi ionally, as Teleg am channels became a p ima y sou ce o li e upda es on
he Bela usian p o es s, Teleg am edi o s possessed g ea e powe in e ms o de-
cision-making. Which in o ma ion sen h ough he eedback cha bo s by ci izens
would be published on he channels, which loca ions and iming o he p o es s
would be selec ed – hese decisions lay in he hands o abou 10 people esponsi-
ble o edi ing and mode a ing he la ges Teleg am channels. Al hough he
Teleg am channels’ edi o s poin ed ou ha Bela usians would no jus do any-
hing he channels sugges ed and would make a lo o decisions upon ga he ing,
all he esponden s in his g oup el a high deg ee o esponsibili y and powe in
coo dina ing hese la ge g oups o people.
P o es o ganisa ion in Bela us in 2020 was closely connec ed o he p eceding
elec o al campaign and implied a ious o ms o labou ha o en emained un-
seen. Teams o opposi ion candida es, elec o al moni o ing ini ia i es, and media
channels g adually expanded hei p ima y unc ions o ac i a e p o es pa icipa-
ion, coo dina ion, and epo ing. While o ganising he p o es mo emen , aming
p o es demands, o suppo ing p o es pa icipan s wi h elec o al moni o ing ini-
ia i es, he edi o s o Teleg am channels and indi idual ac i is s combined mul i-
20 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
ple unc ions and oles. O en, small eams o people led p ocesses p e iously un-
amilia o hem (Jiang e al., 2022). P o es - ela ed labou included bo h cogni i e
and manual asks, in ol ing bo h ou ine ac i i ies and ad-hoc du ies ela ed o
he apidly de eloping poli ical si ua ion ( an de Zande e al., 2019). Addi ionally,
he o ganisa ion and pe o mance o p o es -labou implied a igh in eg a ion o
echnology, ha du ing he elec o al campaign and he ollowing p o es episode
acqui ed unc ions o he media o ha con ibu ed o op imisa ion and accele a-
ion o se e al p ocesses wi hin he p o es ne wo k (Ge shon, 2010). While some
o he p o es - ela ed asks we e sha ed be ween humans and echnology, c ea i i-
y and p oblem-sol ing asks ela ed o aming p o es mani es a ions and mak-
ing decisions abou whe he o publish ce ain in o ma ion ecei ed h ough he
eedback cha bo s we e p ima ily execu ed by human ac o s wi hin he p o es
ne wo k ( an de Zande e al., 2019). In he nex sec ion, I examine how he dele-
ga ion o some o he p o es - ela ed asks o echnology can be concei ed.
Consequences o p o es labou delega ion o
echnology
To examine he delega ion o p o es labou echnology in mo e de ail, I asked he
esponden s o e lec upon how exac ly hey engaged digi al pla o ms and ech-
nology in o hei wo k. As La ou (1988) had sugges ed, in o de o analyse delega-
ion o echnology, I had o imagine wha he human would ha e o do o ul il he
unc ion execu ed by echnology. As e e y esponden highligh ed, p o es - ela ed
labou was pa ially sha ed wi h, assis ed by, o delega ed o echnology. Below, I
ely on examples o human- o- echnology delega ion o wo p o es - ela ed asks
ou lined abo e – acili a ion o p o es - ela ed communica ion; o ganising digi al
in as uc u e o al e na i e elec o al pa icipa ion – o illus a e ela ions o
p o es o ganise s wi h echnology du ing he p o es episode in Bela us in 2020.
This illus a ion allows me o la e e lec on he consequences o such delega ion.
One o he delega ion examples ega ds o ganising digi al in as uc u e o al e -
na i e elec o al pa icipa ion ia he al e na i e o e pla o m Holas. P io o he
elec ion, he eam o de elope s sugges ed ha o e s egis e on Holas cha bo s
on one o he exis ing messaging pla o ms, Teleg am o Vibe . Regis a ion e-
qui ed a phone numbe o he Bela usians o ing inside he coun y and a submis-
sion o a pho o o a passpo o he Bela usians o ing in he embassies, which
was e i ied by he ained neu al ne wo ks and, in deba able cases, by humans.
The esponden om Holas explained ha wha eme ged as an idea o “ e i y he
elec ion” wi hin he IT communi y, apidly a ac ed o he ac o s wi hin he ne -
21 Rudnik
wo k, which among all, was e lec ed in a numbe o people egis e ing on Holas
cha bo s. Acco ding o Holas’ ounde , one en h o Bela us’ popula ion and abou
one six h o hose eligible o o e, egis e ed on he pla o m p io o he elec ion
day. Unde s anding he in e es in he pla o m, Holas sough ways o ec ui mo e
olun ee s and o ganise anonymous digi al in as uc u e o op imise e i ica ion
and coun o o es. Es ablishing a unc ioning al e na i e o e in as uc u e, a de-
cision o delega e such unc ions as e i ica ion and o e coun was aken by Holas
leade s: “ o main ain such a sys em a he scale and quali y we did, we would need
o e 1,000 people jus o he e i ica ion o he ballo s. The e o e, neu al ne -
wo ks, he cha bo s, wasn’ jus a choice bu he only choice”.
On elec ion day, o e s we e o ake a pic u e o hei o ing ballo . The pic u e il-
lus a ing hei o e should la e be uploaded o Holas h ough one o he commu-
nica ion channels, wi h which he o e had egis e ed p io o he elec ion. A e
ecei ing hund eds o housands o ballo pic u es, olun ee s had o e i y each
ballo . Holas ep esen a i e explained ha one o he means o achie e o e secu-
i y and a he same ime e i y each submi ed o e was a digi al in as uc u e
ha engaged neu al ne wo ks. To pe o m he e i ica ion, neu al ne wo ks we e
ained o e i y he ballo s by iden i ying a o e o a pa icula candida e and wo
signa u es om he o ing cle ks. Despi e his, hey g an ed each submi ed o e
an ID and elimina ed any epe i i e o es. The esponden cla i ies, he epe i i e
submissions occu ed e y o en as he o e s, in an a emp o o e come an in e -
ne shu down, sen hei o es mul iple imes. La e , Holas in coope a ion wi h
Zub collec ed o icial o ing p o ocols p esen ed by he polling s a ions’ man-
age s. They compa ed he e i ied o es wi h he o icial esul s epo ed by he
elec o al commissions using neu al ne wo ks. As a esul , Holas collec ed 550,000
pai s o o icial p o ocols and ci izens’ o es pho og aphed and sen h ough he
cha bo s. Toge he wi h Zub and Hones People, Holas sha ed da a on al e na i e
o e esul s, e idence o elec o al aud and iola ions in he epo s ha la e
se ed as e idence o elec o al aud in he Bela usian p esiden ial elec ion o
2020 (Voice, 2020).
The complexi y o he da a collec ion, e i ica ion, and analysis equi ed no only
he p o essional skills o ma ke ing and communica ion, bu also an unde s anding
o how echnological solu ions could be inco po a ed wi h ega d o use s’ secu i y
and he accessibili y o he al e na i e o ing o a ious g oups o people ac oss
he coun y. Thus, delega ion o human unc ions o echnology du ing he elec-
o al campaign in ol ed he o ganisa ion o al e na i e digi al polling s a ions, he
analysis o elec ion p o ocols, and o ing ballo s using neu al ne wo ks and he
22 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
coo dina ion o da a collec ion h ough digi al egis a ion and pho o uploads
h ough Teleg am and Vibe cha bo s. In a nu shell, his can be e e ed o as he
op imisa ion o p o es - ela ed wo k asks, – o in La ou ’s unde s anding, minimisa-
ion o labou and e o o he humans in ol ed (1988) – which allowed hese o -
ganisa ions o co e b oade g oups o ci izens, speed up some p ocesses like he
e i ica ion o ballo s, and inc ease he accu acy o he o e coun ing by delega -
ing his ask o neu al ne wo ks.
Responden s in his s udy saw Teleg am as he sa es means o communica ion
du ing he p o es episode. In addi ion, he in e ne shu down, o de ed by he Be-
la usian au ho i ies in he i s days o p o es s, pushed millions o Bela usians o
use Teleg am, as i was one o he ew pla o ms accessible ia VPN, simul aneous-
ly p o iding o news, mobilisa ion ins uc ions, and ne wo king (Rudnik, 2024).
The second example ha illus a es delega ion o p o es - ela ed asks o echnol-
ogy conce ns he acili a ion o p o es - ela ed communica ion ia eedback cha -
bo s, c ea ed by he owne s o mobilisa ion Teleg am channels. Feedback cha bo s
ep esen ed an au oma ed collec ion o in o ma ion, whe e he use s, communica -
ing wi h Teleg am bo , pushed bu ons wi h a message p e-w i en by he
Teleg am edi o s, who c ea ed a bo , and p oceeded u he o he window ha al-
lowed hem o submi pho o, ideo, audio, o ex con en . On he eques o
Teleg am channels, p o es o s egula ly sen housands o messages o he
Teleg am channels’ eedback cha bo s ha se ed as a subs i u ion ( an de Zande
e al., 2019) o in o ma ion collec ion on he g ound, o epo ing om he
s ee s. By delega ing in o ma ion agg ega ion, Teleg am edi o s simul aneously
gained access o housands o li e upda es om own squa es ac oss he coun y.
This au oma ion b oadened he geog aphy o in o ma ion agg ega ion and al-
lowed o an inc eased scale o media ion by echnology while elying on a a he
small numbe o people (Ge shon, 2010; La ou , 1988). Some imes he au oma ed
collec ion lagged behind due o he in e ne shu down and he need o iden i y
wha messages om hei cha bo s we e impo an , o e i y whe he hey seemed
ue and, inally, o decide whe he hey we e wo h publishing. Ve i ica ion in-
ol ed eliance on a ailable sou ces and communica ion wi h edi o s o o he
channels (asking whe he hey had ecei ed he same message). This e i ica ion
equi ed human esou ces and could no be au oma ed. A he same ime, when a
decision o publish he e i ied li e upda e was made, he dissemina ion o his
news eached millions o subsc ibe s o he channels due o he in as uc u e o
he socio- echnical ne wo k o Teleg am channels, independen media, and local
g oup cha s. In his way, he agg ega ion o li e upda es and hei dis ibu ion ap-
pea ed highly media ed by he Teleg am eedback cha bo s. This example o dele-
23 Rudnik
ga ion o echnology illus a es he decen alisa ion o in o ma ion collec ion, dis-
ibu ed among human edi o s and he in as uc u e o Teleg am, which enabled
he simul aneous agg ega ion o li e upda es om p o es s, while p ese ing he
anonymi y o he sende .
Con a y o he p e ious p o es episodes in Bela usian his o y, high eliance on al-
e na i e pla o ms o communica ion was explained no only by he dep i a ion
o any access o s a e media. In eg a ion o echnology in o he campaign and
p o es s was d i en by he leade s o he elec o al ini ia i es, opposi ional poli i-
cians, and ac i is s, many o whom, wi h a backg ound om non-poli ical occupa-
ions, had expe ience in ins umen alising social media in hei p o essional li e. In
his ega d, au oma ion o elec o al campaigns, o ganisa ion o digi al in as uc-
u e o he o e s, and b anding o poli ical p o es was seen as a na u al wo k
ask o many engaged p o es o ganise s. As a esponden om Vik a Baba yka’s
eam commen ed:
We ocused on social media and we had a eam ha could p o ide us wi h good
p oduc ion ma e ials, we had he bes pho og aphs, speechw i e s, s ylis s,
designe s, lawye s. Because o ha we we e able o g ow he audience quickly,
we didn’ ha e o aise in e es om independen media because he poli ical
campaign had quickly i ed up on social media.
On he one hand, delega ion o main enance o p o es in as uc u e o echnolo-
gy enabled g ow h o he p o es ne wo k, b oadening he mo emen ’s scope and
i s geog aphical ou each (Ma eo, 2022). By media ing communica ion be ween
pee -ci izens, poli icians, Teleg am channels, digi al in as uc u e a o ded he
c ea ion o an al e na i e poli ics, in which he oices o he independen media,
Teleg am channels, opposi ion poli icians, and o dina y Bela usians we e no di-
ec ly censo ed by he s a e and impac ed he b oadening o space o al e na i e
oices o be hea d (Ge shon, 2010). Technology p o ided pla o ms o wide co -
e age, he popula isa ion o p o es - ela ed con en and enabled he signi ican
scaling-up o he mobilisa ion po en ial o he esis ance mo emen . As one o he
esponden s explained: “The echnology we needed was al eady ou he e, people
we e using i e e y day, we jus needed o come up wi h a c ea i e way o use i ”
(Rep esen a i e o Baba yka eam). Finally, he mo emen ’s in eg a ion o echnolo-
gy allowed o he b oad ou each o in e na ional audiences, as he coun y’s in-
e ne was almos ully shu o o he i s key days o he p o es s.
On he o he hand, high eliance on echnology p oblema ised se e al dimensions
24 In e ne Policy Re iew 13(4) | 2024
