Knoll, Da id
A icle — Published Ve sion
Do Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e In luence A i udes
Towa ds and Iden i ica ion wi h he Eu opean Union?
JCMS: Jou nal o Common Ma ke S udies
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John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Knoll, Da id (2024) : Do Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e In luence A i udes Towa ds
and Iden i ica ion wi h he Eu opean Union?, JCMS: Jou nal o Common Ma ke S udies, ISSN
1468-5965, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 63, Iss. 4, pp. 1376-1389,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/jcms.13695
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Do Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e Influence A i udes Towa ds
and Iden ifica ion wi h he Eu opean Union?
DAVID KNOLL
Depa men o Poli ics and Public Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o Kons anz, Kons anz
Abs ac
The Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e (ECoC) p og amme, a co ne s one o EU Cul u al Policy, is
designed o os e a sense o Eu opeanness amongs ci izens and is desc ibed as a legi imizing
ool o he EU. Al hough ECoCs cumula i ely o m he la ges cul u al e en in Eu ope, hei
e ec i eness in achie ing hese goals emains unde s udied. I con ibu e he fi s assessmen o
he e ec o ECoCs on a i udes owa ds and iden ifica ion wi h he EU by compa ing ECoC
egions be o e and a e he e en o non-winning compe i o s. Resul s om di e ence-
in-di e ences eg ession on Eu oba ome e da a show ha posi i e e ec s o ECoCs on a i udes
owa ds and iden ifica ion wi h he EU a e limi ed bo h spa ially o he hos ing egion and empo-
ally o he immedia e a e ma h o he e en . Thus, ECoCs a e a ool o b ing he EU close o i s
ci izens, bu hei e ec s could be amplified u he by s eng hening he Eu opean dimension o
he e en s.
Keywo ds: a i udes owa ds he EU; EU cul u al policy; Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e; iden ifica ion
wi h he EU
In oduc ion
Designed o os e a sense o Eu opeanness amongs ci izens, he Eu opean Capi als o
Cul u e (ECoC) p og amme is a guably he bes known and mos ex ensi e building
block o EU cul u al policy (Pa el, 2013, p. 541). As such, i is p ima ily designed o ‘in-
c ease Eu opean ci izens’sense o belonging o a common cul u al a ea’(Eu opean
Commission, 2024). Since 1985, his ‘a is ic coun e weigh o he economic and com-
me cial in eg a ion o Eu ope’(Mi ag, 2013, p. 41 ) is a i le awa ded o up o h ee ci ies
pe yea in h ee p edesigna ed coun ies. O e ime, he p og amme e ol ed om a
pu ely cul u al es i al o a mul i ace ed, yea long mega-e en en ailing dozens o
high-b ow and mass-le el cul u al happenings. This includes a exhibi ions, s ee a
o es i als (Ga cia and Cox, 2013, pp. 73, 78) and in ol es a mul iplici y o s akeholde s
anging om a is s o ci izens, cul u al o ganiza ions and e en embassies (McA ee
e al., 2013, p. 44). To p epa e o he co e ed i le, hos ci ies in es conside ably in
upg ading hei in as uc u e, including he es o a ion o his o ical si es, oadwo ks, de-
eloping undown a eas and building cul u al enues (S eine e al., 2015, p. 376).
Thus a , schola ly a en ion has been paid o in es iga ing he u ban and economic
impac s o ECoCs (see, e.g., Balsas, 2004; Gomes and Lib e o-Cano, 2018; Hudec
e al., 2019), bu we know much less abou he p og amme’s e ec on Eu opean iden i y
and a i udes owa ds he EU. P e ious concep ual (Lähdesmäki e al., 2021) and quali a-
i e (Fage-Bu le , 2020) wo k on ECoCs linked hem o he o ma ion o a Eu opean iden-
i y, and on he 25 h anni e sa y o he ECoC p og amme in 2010, i was also celeb a ed
JCMS 2025 Volume 63. Numbe 4. pp. 1376–1389 DOI: 10.1111/jcms.13695
© 2024 The Au ho (s). JCMS: Jou nal o Common Ma ke S udies published by Uni e si y Associa ion o Con empo a y Eu opean S udies and John Wiley & Sons
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This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion and ep oduc ion in
any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed and is no used o comme cial pu poses.
o imp o ing he Eu opean Union’s image (Mi ag, 2013, p. 39). S ill, a sys ema ic e al-
ua ion o he connec ion be ween Capi als o Cul u e and ci izens’Eu opean iden i y and
EU- ela ed a i udes is missing. To add ess his gap, his esea ch no e asks: wha is he
e ec o Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e on ci izens’a i udes owa ds and iden i ica ion
wi h he EU?
Based on exis ing esea ch, I fi s a gue ha ECoC imp o e (a) a i udes owa ds and
(b) iden i ica ion wi h he EU. This is he esul o bo h inc eased in e g oup con ac o
ci izens ha comes wi h hos ing an ECoC, as well as he economic benefi s ha he p o-
g amme b ings abou . I u he a gue ha in ligh o he p og amme’so ficial goal o
highligh ing he cul u al di e si y o Eu ope and os e ing a common sense o belonging,
ECoCs inc ease ci izens’associa ion o he EU wi h cul u al di e si y. Relying on he
compe i i e na ional selec ion p ocess o ECoCs, I use a di e ence-in-di e ences
(DiD) design in which ci izens in ECoC egions a e compa ed o ci izens in egions wi h
ci ies ha compe ed o he i le bu ul ima ely did no win i . This s a egy uses ci izens in
compe i o egions as compa ison g oup o he ci izens in ECoC egions and is applied o
19 Capi al o Cul u e ounds be ween 2005 and 2019.
The esul s suppo he second pa o he a gumen , showing ha ECoCs os e asso-
cia ions o he EU wi h cul u al di e si y, he eby achie ing he p og amme’s co e aim
o highligh ing he ich cul u al he i age and di e si y o Eu ope. Findings on he fi s
pa o he a gumen a e mixed hough: he p og amme has no disce nible impac on peo-
ple’s image o he EU i sel bu can inc ease us in he EU (a i udinal e ec s), as well
as iden i ica ion as an EU ci izen. Howe e , e ec s a e limi ed geog aphically o he
ac ual hos ci y (as opposed o he wide egion) and limi ed in ime o he immedia e
a e ma h o he e en . Ul ima ely, esul s demons a e ha Capi als o Cul u e can fill
he EU’s mo o ‘Uni ed in Di e si y’wi h li e bu poin o impo an scope condi ions
o hese e ec s.
This esea ch no e speaks o he li e a u e on EU cul u al policy, as well as on a i udes
owa ds and iden ifica ion wi h he EU mo e b oadly. The p esen wo k con ibu es he
fi s la ge-N, compa a i e assessmen o he ECoC p og amme’s a i udinal and
iden i y- ela ed e ec s, a hus a unde s udied aspec o one o Eu ope’s la ges cul u al
e en s. In doing so, i adds a new angle o he e alua ion and u u e de elopmen o he
ECoC p og amme as he flagship o Eu opean cul u al policy.
I. ECoCs and A i udes Towa ds he Eu opean Union
Wha a e expec a ions ega ding he e ec s o ECoCs on EU- ela ed a i udes and iden i-
ies? In en ed o show angible esul s a e an inconclusi e G eek Council p esidency in
1983, G eek minis e o cul u e and ac ess Melina Me cou i ini ia ed he p og amme as
an a -based coun e poin o he de eloping common ma ke (Mi ag, 2013). Besides hei
economic benefi s, he li e a u e desc ibes ECoCs as a legi imizing ool o he Eu opean
Union (Fage-Bu le , 2020; Lähdesmäki e al., 2021), a ‘cheap ool o ma ke ing’ o he
EU (Palonen, 2010, p.104) and a way o sell he communi y o i s ci izens
(Sassa elli, 2002, p. 436). An unnamed membe o he Eu opean Pa liamen poignan ly
summa ized he necessi y o a Eu opean cul u al policy as a legi imizing ool o he
Eu opean Union by saying ‘no one alls in lo e wi h a common ma ke ’, (as ci ed in
Sho e, 2004, p. 28). The Commission o he Eu opean Communi ies ecognized his as
Do Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e Influence A i udes Towa ds and Iden ifica ion wi h he Eu opean Union? 1377
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ea ly as 1987, when hey no ed somewha e bosely ha ‘[…] being pa o a Eu opean
cul u e […] is one o he p e equisi es o he solida i y which is i al i he ad en o
he la ge ma ke and he esul ing adical changes in li ing condi ions wi hin he
Communi y is o secu e he popula suppo i needs’(Commission o he Eu opean
Communi ies, 1988, p. 5). E en hough he p og amme e ol ed om a pu ely cul u al
celeb a ion o Eu ope owa ds an economic and ou is ic boos e -e en o un-down
ci ies, b inging Eu opeans close oge he emains an o ficial goal and each applica ion
needs o ou line how hey plan o fill he equi ed ‘Eu opean dimension’wi h li e.
The idea o ECoCs as a legi imizing ool o he Eu opean Union ies in wi h well-es-
ablished iden i y-based as well as u ili a ian heo ies o EU suppo . Fi s , om an
iden i y-based pe spec i e, ci izens come o like he EU be e a e ECoCs because hey
eel mo e Eu opean as a esul o being exposed o Eu opean symbols (c . Billig, 1995;
Manne s, 2011; Sho e, 2013) and posi i e in e g oup con ac (Allpo e al., 1954) wi h
ellow Eu opeans. Eu opean flags, he EU cons an ly looming in he backg ound as he
ini ia o o he p og amme, news co e age o e en s, speeches, deba es, co-ope a ions
wi h o he Eu opean ci ies and a is s, ci y pa ne ships o he highligh ing o an ECoC’s
Eu opean he i age a e equen ly used o fill he ‘Eu opean dimension’, which e e y
ECoC is equi ed o include in i s p og amme, wi h li e (Ga cia and Cox, 2013). To he
ex en ha he ECoC p og amme ‘con ibu ed o he Eu opeaniza ion o ci ies a ound
Eu ope h ough equi ing hem o find ways o na a e and p esen hemsel es as
Eu opean’(Lähdesmäki e al., 2021, p. 56), i makes Eu ope salien in he hos ci ies.
Li e a u e on expe iencing he poli ics o e e yday Eu ope (e.g., Kuhn, 2015; Recchi
e al., 2019) helps o explain he mechanism o iden i y cons uc ion h ough he powe
o symbols, poin ing o he ole o epe i ion o cul u al p ac ices, no maliza ion and de-
libe a e labelling in shaping he ansna ional social eali y o Eu ope. McNama a (2015,
p. 82) concludes ha h ough ECoCs, ‘[…] Eu ope is di used in o he e e yday ab ic o
he ci ies, in a sub le and banal se o ep esen a ions ma ched wi h a ious p ac ices
celeb a ing hese Eu opean capi als’. The mechanism ul ima ely wo ks simila o he
one linking he E asmus s uden exchange p og amme o EU suppo (see, e.g., Mazzoni
e al., 2018).
Second, om a u ili y-based pe spec i e, ci izens come o like he EU be e a e
expe iencing an ECoC because hey benefi om i economically. P e ious esea ch
ound posi i e e ec s o ECoCs on local and egional economic de elopmen , despi e
hei high cos s (Falk and Hags en, 2017; Gomes and Lib e o-Cano, 2018). I indi iduals
asc ibe his economic imp o emen o he EU as he ini ia o o he p og amme, u ili a ian
heo ies o EU suppo (Fos e and F ieden, 2021; Gabel, 1998) p edic an imp o emen
in a i udes owa ds and iden ifica ion wi h he EU, as people ealize he benefi s b ough
abou by he e en .
1
As he e en s a e ied o a specific hos ci y o egion, he fi s hypo h-
esis eads:
H1 : Ci izens in Capi al o Cul u e egions exhibi (a) imp o ed a i udes owa ds and (b)
highe iden ifica ion wi h he EU compa ed o ci izens in non-hos ing egions.
1
As hose benefi s can ma e ialize no only du ing hos ing bu also du ing he p epa a ion phase (Gomes and Lib e o-
Cano, 2018), e ec s o announcing ha a ci y will hos an ECoC a e es ed la e on as well.
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F om a policy e alua ion pe spec i e, ECoCs should also inc ease ci izens’associa ion
o he EU wi h cul u al di e si y. Fo me Commission p esiden Ba oso echoed he s a ed
goal o ECoCs o highligh he di e si y wi hin he Eu opean cul u al space, when he
p aised he p og amme as being an ‘[…] illus a ion o he EU’s commi men o cul u al
di e si y and also how cul u e can uni e people wi hin Eu ope’(Eu opean Commis-
sion, 2010). I ECoCs achie e he goal o highligh ing he di e si y ha is pa o he
EU’s mo o ‘In Va ie a e Conco dia’, indi iduals in Capi als o Cul u e should associa e
he EU mo e s ongly wi h cul u al di e si y han ci izens on o he egions, as he o me
a e di ec ly exposed o he di e si y hese e en s en ail. No e ha his associa ion is no
di ec ional, bu associa ional: i does no quali y whe he a pe son app o es o cul u al di-
e si y as a alue o no ; i me ely e e s o he men al link.
H2 : Ci izens in Capi al o Cul u e egions pe cei e he EU o be mo e cul u ally di e se
han ci izens in non-hos ing egions.
II. Resea ch Design
This esea ch no e uses DiD eg ession on Eu oba ome e su ey da a om 2005 o 2019
o in es iga e he a i udinal e ec s o hos ing Capi als o Cul u e. Since 2005, he EU
p edesigna es up o h ee coun ies pe yea o hos an ECoC (Eu opean Commis-
sion, 2005), configu ing he selec ion as se e al independen na ion-wide compe i ions
be ween ci ies o he i le each yea (Mi ag, 2013, p. 45). Hence, I compa e a i udes
in ECoCs egions o hei compe i o egions be o e and a e he e en . This s a egy
has also been used o in es iga e he economic e ec s o ECoCs (Falk and Hags en, 2017;
Gomes and Lib e o-Cano, 2018), as well as li e sa is ac ion in ECoCs up un il he ea ly
2000’s (S eine e al., 2015). Howe e , his s udy is he fi s o use he compe i i e ECoC
selec ion p ocess o in es iga e EU- ela ed ou comes using indi idual-le el su ey da a,
which a e ob ained by cumula ing and uni ying 26 Eu oba ome e wa es om 2005 o
2019 (lis ed in Table S1). This ep esen s he ime- ame be ween he onse o na ional-
ized compe i ions o he i le and he beginning o he Co id pandemic ha dis up ed
he egula cycle o e en s and includes abou 21,500 esponden s ac oss 19 ounds
(Table 1).
Some ea u es o his app oach me i discussion. Fi s , high poli iciza ion and he influ-
ence o expe s in he selec ion p ocess (Pa el, 2013) cas doub s o e he simila i y o
winning and losing ci ies. S ill, Table 1shows ha ECoC ci ies ep esen a di e se mix
o capi als and pe iphe al ci ies, including poo e and weal hie places alike. Second,
endogenei y could a ise i ECoCs ha e highe le els o EU suppo han compe i o s o
begin wi h. The DiD app oach ci cum en s his p oblem by looking a changes be ween
ci ies, he eby accoun ing o baseline di e ences. Thi d, o he e en s such as he
Eu o-c isis also a ec EU suppo . Howe e , as long as e en s do no a ec ECoCs and
compe i o s di e en ly, hese shocks a e abso bed in he wi hin-coun y compa ison
esul ing om he na ional compe i ions. Fou h, some compe i o ci ies hos local,
scaled-back e sions o hei en isioned ECoC p og amme despi e losing he compe i ion
(Richa ds, 2015). Wha sounds like a con ounding e en in ac s eng hens he
app oach as i makes hos s and compe i o s mo e alike, wi h di e ences being educed
Do Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e Influence A i udes Towa ds and Iden ifica ion wi h he Eu opean Union? 1379
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o he EU looming in he backg ound as he name-sake pa on o he ac ual ECoC.
Fi h, one would ideally compa e ECoCs only o he closes compe i o s, no all con-
ende s. Such a ha d anking is usually no c ea ed, bu whe e possible, only close
compe i o s (as iden ified by Gomes and Lib e o-Cano, 2018, ab. 3) a e used as com-
pa ison g oup. Finally, e en i ci ies a e no chosen as-i andomly om a pool o
close compe i o s, he awa d does come a andom o he a e age ci izen (S eine
e al., 2015).
To measu e a i udes owa ds he EU, he ou come o H1a, I use wo a iables: fi s , a
dummy indica ing i a pe son ‘ ends o us he Eu opean Union’(=1) o no (=0) and,
second, a 5-poin scale o esponden s’image o he EU (‘In gene al, does he EU conju e
up o you a e y posi i e, ai ly posi i e, neu al, ai ly nega i e o e y nega i e im-
age?’), wi h highe alues indica ing a be e image. To measu e esponden ’s Eu opean
iden i y (H1b), a dicho omized e sion o he 4-poin i em ‘You eel you a e a ci izen o
he EU’is used. To in es iga e H2, I ely on a dummy cons uc ed om he ques ion
‘Wha does he EU mean o you pe sonally?’. I equals one i ‘cul u al di e si y’was
Table 1: O e iew o Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e.
Ci y Coun y Yea No es
Co k I eland 2005
Pa as G eece 2006 D opped (no compe i ion)
Luxembu g Luxembu g 2007 D opped (no subna ional da a)
Sibiu Rumania 2007 D opped (no compe i ion)
Li e pool Uni ed Kingdom 2008
S a ange No way 2008 D opped (no EU)
Linz Aus ia 2009 D opped (no compe i ion)
Vilnius Li huania 2009 D opped (no compe i ion)
Essen Ge many 2010
Pécs Hunga y 2010
Is anbul Tu key 2010 D opped (no EU)
Tu ku Finland 2011
Tallinn Es onia 2011
Guima ães Po ugal 2012 D opped (all compe i o s in same egion)
Ma ibo Slo enia 2012
Ma seille F ance 2013
Košice Slo akia 2013
Umeå Sweden 2014
Riga La ia 2014
Mons Belgium 2015 D opped (no subna ional da a)
Pilsen Czech Republic 2015
W oclaw (B eslau) Poland 2016
San Sebas ián Spain 2016
Aa hus Denma k 2017
Paphos Cyp us 2017
Leeuwa den Ne he lands 2018
Valle a Mal a 2018 D opped (no subna ional da a)
Ma e a I aly 2019
Plo di Bulga ia 2019
Sou ce: Da a: Gomes and Lib e o-Cano (2018, ab. 3); GESIS o disagg ega ion in o ma ion (h ps://www.gesis.o g/en/
eu oba ome e -da a-se ice/su ey-se ies/s anda d-special-eb/s udy-o e iew).
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chosen om a non-exclusi e lis o elemen s, and ze o o he wise. Consequen ly, I ely on
logis ic eg ession o us , iden ifica ion and associa ion wi h cul u al di e si y and o -
de ed logis ic eg ession o image.
The DiD es ima o as he main independen a iable is he in e ac ion o wo dummies:
fi s , ime measu es i esponden s we e in e iewed be o e (0) o a e (1) he e en ook
place in hei coun y. As Eu oba ome e wa es a e usually fielded in sp ing and la e au-
umn, he au umn wa e be o e an ECoC-yea (e.g., wa e 62.0 om la e 2004 o he 2005
ECoC o Co k) is he p e-e en measu e, and he au umn wa e nea he end o he
ECoC-yea ep esen s he pos -e en measu e (wa e 64.2 om la e 2005 o Co k). By
hen, mos e en s o he ECoC ha e passed.
2
Compa ing wo au umn wa es accoun s
o po en ial seasonali y e ec s. In he obus ness es s, I also check o e ec s o an-
nouncing (as opposed o hos ing) he e en by using he announcemen da e as ea men .
Second, ecoc is a dummy indica ing i a esponden li es in he egion hos ing he ECoC
(1) o in a egion wi h a compe ing ci y (0). The a iable is cons uc ed om
Eu oba ome e egion indica o s, wi h in o ma ion on compe i o s aken om Gomes
and Lib e o-Cano (2018, ab. 3) and he o ficial e alua ions o mo e ecen ci ies. I addi-
ionally con ol o a numbe o sociodemog aphic ac o s, namely, esponden age, gen-
de , age when finishing ull- ime educa ion, occupa ion s a us (wo king/s uden / e i ed/
non-wo king) and esidency ( u al/ own/u ban). Due o many missing alues on a i udi-
nal co a ia es o EU suppo , hey a e no included as con ols in he eg ession, bu hei
p e-e en balance is discussed below and esponden ’s poli ical le – igh o ien a ion is
included as a co a ia e in Table S7 wi h he co espondingly educed sample size. De-
ailed in o ma ion on a iables, coding, ci ies and compe i o s is p o ided in Tables S2
and S3 and Figu e F3.
Be o e looking a he esul s, I discuss h ee unde lying assump ions. Fi s , i is neces-
sa y o e i y ha esponden s in hos and compe i o egions a e su ficien ly simila o
se e as compa ison g oups o each o he . I is hus eassu ing o see ha mos
p e-e en co a ia es a e balanced be ween g oups, e en hough spli ing a ound 1000 e-
sponden s pe coun y and wa e in he espec i e egions does no gua an ee ep esen a-
i e samples on he egional le el (Table S4). Gi en he ex ensi e p epa a ion be o e he
e en and he boos e is alk abou benefi s accompanying hem, i is no su p ising ha
he economic expec a ions and suppo o globaliza ion a e sligh ly mo e posi i e in hos
egions. Second, he DiD amewo k equi es ha bo h g oups ollow pa allel ends p io
o he e en . Figu e F1 shows ha by and la ge, he pa allel ends assump ion holds. Ex-
cep ions include ends in Cyp us and Poland, which a e no included in subse analysis
la e on o ha eason. Remaining di e ences appea o be a ibu able o s a is ical noise.
Finally, I a gue ha spillo e s om ECoCs o compe i o s a e no a majo conce n –i
any hing, hey a enua e e ec s owa ds ze o. Whils a dec ease in a i udes in compe i o
ci ies as a ‘backlash’agains losing he compe i ion is heo e ically possible, i does no
appea empi ically. Th ee ou come a iables emain cons an o inc ease. Only image de-
c eases, bu does so in he hos egion as well, indica ing an o e all ime end, a he han
a backlash specific o compe i o s.
2
In es iga ing longe pe iods o ime be o e and a e he e en is no a iable op ion, as he egional coding becomes in-
consis en ac oss longe ime spans o many coun ies, which is also why an e en -s udy is in easible in he p esen case.
Do Eu opean Capi als o Cul u e Influence A i udes Towa ds and Iden ifica ion wi h he Eu opean Union? 1381
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III. Findings
Afi s desc ip i e esul o he e ec s o hos ing Capi als o Cul u e on a i udes owa ds
and iden ifica ion wi h he EU a e - es s o pos -e en di e ences. Whils hey show sig-
nifican ly highe us in he EU and highe associa ions o he EU wi h cul u al di e si y
in hos egions (p<0.001), he DiD eg essions in Table 2do no appea o suppo he
hypo heses a fi s glance. The models include demog aphic con ols, a se ies o dummies
o e en ounds and, o cou se, he in e ac ion be ween ime (p e/pos hos ing he e en )
and ECoC (hos egion/compe i o egion). Looking a all 19 ounds o which da a a e
a ailable, he DiD es ima o s e u n insignifican o esponden s’image o he EU
(model 1), hei us in i (model 3), hei sel -iden ifica ion as an EU ci izen (model 5)
and hei associa ion o he EU wi h cul u al di e si y (model 7).
Howe e , he igh -hand models o each ou come in Table 2pain a mo e nuanced pic-
u e. They ocus on he subg oup o ECoC ounds in which e ec s (posi i e as well as
nega i e) a e mos likely o be de ec able – ha is, ounds whe e ci y-le el e ec s a e less
p one o ge dilu ed in he wide egion being coded as ‘hos ing’, un il hey become s a-
is ically unde ec able noise. This includes (a) e en s whe e he ECoC and he egion
coded as hos ing o e lap mo e closely due o he ac ha NUTS-2 egions a e ei he geo-
g aphically compa a i ely small o ounds wi h mo e de ailed NUTS-3-le el da a a ail-
able [Pilsen 2015 (CZ), Aa hus 2017 (DK), Leeuwa den 2018 (NL), Tu ku 2011 (FI),
Tallin 2011 (EE) and Riga 2014 (LV)] and (b) e en s ha explici ly inco po a ed he en-
i e egion [Ma ibo 2012 (SI), Essen 2010 (DE), see S aka and Vecco, 2017;
Mi ag, 2013].
When compa ed o he ime end o he compe i o egions, ci izens in his subse o
ECoC egions appea o ha e highe us in he EU (Table 2, model 4, p<0.1), end
o iden i y as EU ci izens mo e equen ly (model 6, p<0.1) and also associa e he EU
mo e s ongly wi h cul u al di e si y (model 8, p<0.05). These findings – isualized
in Figu e 1–illus a e ha unde a ou able ci cums ances, he change in a e age p e-
dic ed p obabili ies o us he EU inc eases by 4.1 pe cen age poin s compa ed o he
p edic ed change in us in he compe ing egions. The p edic ed p obabili y o iden i y
as a Eu opean ci izen inc eases by 5.6 pe cen age poin s and he p obabili y o associa e
he EU wi h cul u al di e si y by abou 3.9 pe cen age poin s. These e ec s amoun o
8.2%, 12.2% and 9.5% o he espec i e a iable’s s anda d de ia ion. The EU’s image
in hos ing egions emains una ec ed, as model 2 shows. To sum up, he e is condi ional
empi ical suppo o H2 (EU = Cul u al di e si y) and H1b (EU iden i y), whe eas sup-
po o H1a (EU a i udes) is mixed, wi h null findings o EU image and limi ed suppo
o us .
The esul s so a use he au umn wa e o he hos ing yea as pos -e en measu es. To
es i e ec s pe sis , I e un he abo e analyses using sp ing wa e a e hos ing as he
pos -e en measu e. Table S5 shows ha e ec s a e sho li ed and disappea less han
hal a yea a e a ci y’s spell as an ECoC d aws o a close, and Table S13 epo s subs an-
ially simila esul s ob ained om linea models. These poin s o impo an scope condi-
ions o he a i udinal and iden i y-based e ec s o ECoCs: fi s , hey appea o be lim-
i ed o he hos ing ime i sel , and second, hey do no spill o e o he wide geog aphic
egion. Ins ead, hey a e only de ec able i an en i e egion is exposed o he e en , ei he
Da id Knoll1382
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Table 2: DiD Reg ession Resul s o Hos ing ECoCs on EU A i udes.
EU image T us in EU EU ci izen EU = cul u al di e si y
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8)
ECoC 0.17*** 0.22** 0.16** 0.10 0.08 0.15 0.01 0.07
(0.04) (0.07) (0.05) (0.08) (0.07) (0.11) (0.06) (0.09)
Pos -e en 0.01 0.09
+
0.03 0.23*** 0.06 0.19* 0.05 0.01
(0.03) (0.05) (0.03) (0.06) (0.04) (0.09) (0.04) (0.07)
ECoC * Pos -e en 0.04 0.01 0.04 0.18
+
0.04 0.27
+
0.10 0.23*
(0.06) (0.09) (0.07) (0.10) (0.09) (0.15) (0.08) (0.11)
Gende 0.03 0.07 0.01 0.02 0.04 0.04 0.20*** 0.26***
(0.03) (0.04) (0.03) (0.05) (0.04) (0.07) (0.03) (0.06)
Age 0.00*** 0.00 0.00*** 0.01* 0.00* 0.00 0.00 0.01*
(0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00) (0.00)
Educa ion 0.10*** 0.10*** 0.09*** 0.09*** 0.15*** 0.16*** 0.14*** 0.13***
(0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.01) (0.02) (0.01) (0.01)
Residency (base: own)
Ru al 0.04 0.10
+
0.07* 0.08 0.13** 0.06 0.14** 0.20**
(0.03) (0.06) (0.04) (0.06) (0.05) (0.09) (0.04) (0.07)
U ban 0.08* 0.08 0.02 0.08 0.13* 0.04 0.18*** 0.24***
(0.03) (0.06) (0.04) (0.06) (0.05) (0.09) (0.04) (0.07)
Occupa ion (base: wo king)
S uden 0.05 0.07 0.35*** 0.32** 0.14 0.34* 0.20** 0.12
(0.06) (0.10) (0.07) (0.11) (0.10) (0.16) (0.07) (0.12)
Re i ed 0.05 0.04 0.13** 0.25** 0.20** 0.08 0.12* 0.08
(0.04) (0.07) (0.05) (0.08) (0.06) (0.11) (0.06) (0.09)
O he non-wo king 0.28*** 0.30*** 0.18*** 0.25** 0.42*** 0.38** 0.16** 0.27**
(0.04) (0.08) (0.05) (0.09) (0.06) (0.12) (0.06) (0.10)
FE o ounds Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Cons an 0.50*** 0.97*** 0.33** 0.53** 1.88*** 1.83***
(0.11) (0.16) (0.13) (0.20) (0.12) (0.18)
Pseudo R
2
0.050 0.018 0.066 0.045 0.060 0.053 0.040 0.040
Log-likelihood 27,250 9002 12,540 4493 7955 2533 10,663 3927
Obse a ions 21,520 7493 19,381 6791 13,459 4198 20,899 7552
No es: Robus s anda d e o s in pa en heses. O de ed logis ic eg ession o EU image, logi o us , EU ci izen and cul u al di e si y.
+
p<0.1.
*
p<0.05.
**
p<0.01.
***
p<0.001.
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