To ejón Pé ez, Se gio; Fe nández-Macías, En ique; Vázquez, Ignacio González;
Ma qués Pe ales, Ilde onso
Wo king Pape
The wo king imes hey a e a-changing: T ends in six EU
coun ies (1992-2022)
JRC Wo king Pape s Se ies on Labou , Educa ion and Technology, No. 2024/04
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Join Resea ch Cen e (JRC), Eu opean Commission
Sugges ed Ci a ion: To ejón Pé ez, Se gio; Fe nández-Macías, En ique; Vázquez, Ignacio González;
Ma qués Pe ales, Ilde onso (2024) : The wo king imes hey a e a-changing: T ends in six EU
coun ies (1992-2022), JRC Wo king Pape s Se ies on Labou , Educa ion and Technology, No.
2024/04, Eu opean Commission, Join Resea ch Cen e (JRC), Se ille
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Cen e
The Wo king Times They A e A-Changing:
T ends in Six EU coun ies (1992-2022)
JRC Wo king Pape s Se ies on
Labou , Educa ion and Technology
2024/04
To ejón Pé ez, S., Fe nández-Macías, E., González Vázquez, I. And Ma qués Pe ales, I.
JRC139815
B ussels: Eu opean Commission, 2024
© Eu opean Union, 2024
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Vázquez, I. and Ma qués Pe ales, I., The Wo king Times They A e A-Changing: T ends in Six EU coun ies (1992-2022),
Eu opean Commission, Se ille, 2024, JRC139815.
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Con ac in o ma ion
Name: Se gio To ejón Pé ez
Email: se gi[email p o ec ed]
EU Science Hub
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i
Con en s
Abs ac ............................................................................................................................. 1
Execu i e Summa y .......................................................................................................... 2
1. In oduc ion: a secula end owa ds ewe wo king hou s ......................................... 3
2. Deba e and li e a u e e iew ......................................................................................... 4
2.1. On he ac o s de e mining he e olu ion and dis ibu ion o wo king hou s ........ 5
2.2. A concep ual mapping o ele an ac o s .............................................................. 8
2.3. Main hypo heses and explana ions o Eu ope (1980 - onwa ds)........................ 10
3. Da a sou ce and a iables ........................................................................................... 14
4. The de e minan s o wo king ime in Eu ope ............................................................. 16
4.1. The key ole o pa - ime wo k in educing wo king ime ................................... 16
4.1.1. P o iding a long- e m con ex (1870-2022) o he mos ecen pe iod ....... 16
4.1.2. A ocus on ecen ends (1992-2022) .......................................................... 18
4.2. Why pa - ime wo k expanded? ........................................................................... 20
4.3. The case o ull- ime wo ke s: why do hey s ill wo k so many hou s? .............. 22
4.4. Why he sel -employed wo k ewe hou s han in he pas ? ................................ 26
5. Conclusions and u u e esea ch ................................................................................. 28
Re e ences ...................................................................................................................... 29
Annex: a compa ison ac oss six EU coun ies ............................................................... 32
Lis o igu es ................................................................................................................. 33
Lis o ables ................................................................................................................... 33
1
The Wo king Times They A e A-Changing:
T ends in Six EU coun ies (1992-2022)
Se gio To ejón Pé ez (Join Resea ch Cen e), En ique Fe nández-Macías (Join Resea ch Cen e),
Ignacio González Vázquez (Join Resea ch Cen e), Ilde onso Ma qués Pe ales (Uni e si y o Se ille)
“A ue gen leman was supposed o be someone dedica ed o leisu e.”
T us , by He nán Díaz
Abs ac
The ime Eu opeans de o e o paid wo k has consis en ly dec eased since he Indus ial
Re olu ion. Howe e , since he 1980s, he pace o his end has slowed. The aim o his
a icle is wo old: i s , we de elop a heo e ical amewo k o accoun o he main ac o s
de e mining he e olu ion and dis ibu ion o wo king hou s in Eu ope; second, we u ilize
EU-LFS da a (1992-2022) o analyze he p ima y ac o s explaining ecen de elopmen s
in wo king ime. Ou esul s indica e: 1) ha educ ions in wo king hou s a e p ima ily
a ibu able o he inc eased p e alence o non-s anda d o ms o wo k, mainly pa - ime;
2) ha pa - ime wo k has expanded mainly due o he eminiza ion o employmen and
he e ia iza ion o he economy; 3) ha ull- ime wo ke s con inue o wo k
app oxima ely he same hou s as in he 1980s, as coun e ailing e ec s push wo king
hou s up (occupa ional upg ading and e ia iza ion) and down ( he expansion o public
se ices, he sh inking o he goods-p oducing sec o , and sel -employmen becoming
less ime-in ensi e); and 4) ha he sel -employed wo k ewe hou s o e ime because
pa - ime sel -employmen has become mo e p e alen , al hough he sel -employed s ill
wo k he longes hou s on a e age. The heo e ical and empi ical implica ions a ising
om hese indings a e discussed, along wi h po en ial a enues o u u e esea ch.
Keywo ds: employmen ; labou ; wo king ime; wo k in ensi y
Join Resea ch Cen e e e ence numbe : JRC139815
2
Execu i e Summa y
• Since he ea ly 1990s, he ime Eu opeans de o e o paid wo k has sligh ly
dec eased, con inuing (albei a a slowe pace) a secula end ha has been
e iden o mo e han a cen u y. Howe e , in ecen decades, hese educ ions
in wo king ime ha e no bene i ed all segmen s o he wo k o ce.
• Full- ime wo ke s con inue o wo k simila hou s o hose in he 1980s. This
sugges s ha a e age educ ions in wo k ime a e p ima ily due o he
inc easing p e alence o pa - ime wo k. Pa ime wo k makes om
employmen o be, on a e age, mo e agmen ed and less ime-in ensi e.
• Pa - ime wo k is mo e p e alen among women and in he se ice sec o ,
sugges ing ha he eminiza ion o employmen and he ela i e expansion o
he se ice sec o a e key ac o s d i ing he ise in pa - ime wo k.
• The e a e coun e ailing o ces a ec ing wo king ime, which oge he explain
he ela i e s abili y o hou s among ull- ime wo ke s o e ime. On one hand,
occupa ional upg ading and he g ow h o he se ice sec o ha e pushed
wo king hou s up, as longe hou s a e eco ded p ima ily among high-skilled
wo ke s (bo h blue- and whi e-colla ) and in p i a e se ices. On he o he , ac o s
such as he expansion o public se ices (whe e sho e hou s a e ypical), he
declining weigh o he goods-p oducing sec o (which his o ically in ol ed
long hou s), and he educ ion in bo h he p e alence and ime-in ensi y o
sel -employmen ha e pushed wo king ime down.
P e ious esul s emphasize he impo ance o se e al ac o s:
• Fi s , hey sugges ha egula o y changes ha e been key: beginning in he
1980s, shi s in EU egula ions p omo ed he ise o non-s anda d o ms o
employmen . Whe eas ull- ime wo k (p ima ily among men) was p e iously he
dominan o m, egula o y changes and he mo e owa d de-s anda diza ion
allowed o he de elopmen o mo e agmen ed and less ime-in ensi e
employmen o ms, such as pa - ime wo k. These new o ms o wo k became
mo e p e alen in he se ice sec o and among women. In o he wo ds, he
e ia iza ion o he economy and he eminiza ion o employmen a e wo
signi ican ac o s d i ing educ ions in wo king ime, as hey con ibu ed o
he expansion o pa - ime wo k. This shi occu ed while he mos ime-
in ensi e jobs, p ima ily in he goods-p oducing sec o , declined in impo ance.
These ac o s e lec bo h changes in economic s uc u e and shi s in cul u al
no ms and amily s uc u es, mo ing away om he male b eadwinne model.
• Con e sely, ew ac o s ha e exe ed upwa d p essu e on wo king ime. F om an
indi idual and u ili a ian pe spec i e, i seems he subs i u ion e ec p e ails
among high-skilled wo ke s: as wages inc ease, so does he oppo uni y cos
o leisu e, incen i izing high-paid wo ke s o wo k longe hou s. Addi ionally,
a cul u al ans o ma ion may also be d i ing inc eases in wo king ime: he use
o ime, busyness and hype consume ism o signal s a us, wha helps
explaining why high-skilled wo ke s a e mo e likely o wo k longe hou s.
3
1. In oduc ion: a secula end owa ds ewe wo king hou s
Mo e han wo cen u ies ago, he Indus ial Re olu ion b ough abou a d ama ic inc ease
o he hou s o wo k o mos o he popula ion, o en o inhumane le els -wo k schedules
in he new indus ies eached 12 o 16 hou s a day, 6 days a week, o he equi alen o
a ound 60-90 hou s pe week (Gilmo e, 2021)-. I seems ha he a e age hou s o wo k
eached hei absolu e maximum le el a leas in ecen his o y du ing his pe iod. F om
ea ly on, he e we e in ense deba es on he need o limi wo king hou s o mo e humane
le els, and he ea lies egula ions limi ing wo king ime we e he UK Fac o y Ac s in he
ea ly 19 h Cen u y. Bu mos impo an ly, he nascen labou mo emen ook he
educ ion o wo king hou s ( he campaigns o he 8-hou day) as one o i s main
demands, and i would emain so un il he i s hal o he 20 h Cen u y.
As a esul o he p essu e o he labou mo emen and he inc easing egula o y ac ion
in he a ea o employmen , a e age wo king hou s we e consis en ly and sha ply educed
om he mid-19 h Cen u y o he mid-20 h Cen u y. The big declines in wo king hou s
ook place in his pe iod. In pa icula , be ween he 1870s and he 1930s he a e age
weekly hou s o paid wo k d opped om a ound 65 in mos de eloped economies o
a ound 40-45 (see igu es 2 and 3 in sec ion 4.1). Then, wo king hou s seemed o
con e ge and s abilise om he mid-20 h cen u y a ound he 40-hou wo kweek (8 hou s
pe day, 5 days a week) in mos de eloped coun ies. A e eaching he 40-hou
wo kweek no m, he decline has con inued bu a a much slowe pace (Beh inge e al.
2024; Eu opean Commission, 2023), o en as a esul o labou ma ke agmen a ion ( he
eme gence o pa - ime wo k) a he han as a con inua ion o he decline in he wo king
ime no m i sel .
1
This decele a ion o wo king ime educ ions in he second hal o he
20 h cen u y may be pe cei ed as a pa adox, gi en he mul i ude o echnological
ad ancemen s and he sus ained inc ease in p oduc i i y o e he las decades.
Since hen, he decline in he hou s o wo k has los momen um and he igh o wo king
ime educ ion has los he cen ali y i used o ha e o he labou mo emen . Why? To
some ex en , his may be he esul o i s own success. When wo king hou s in de eloped
economies eached a le el ha co esponded o he his o ical demand o 8 hou s pe day
and 5 days pe week, which amoun s o one hi d o he o al hou s o a wo king day and
less han one ou h o a wo king week, he na u e o he s uggle changed. Ra he han
an exis en ially c i ical demand ( he wo king hou s o he ea ly Indus ial Re olu ion we e
li e ally li e- h ea ening), i became almos a ma e o p e e ence in e ms o well-being.
F om he mid-20 h Cen u y, he labou mo emen ended o ocus mo e on o he demands,
such as highe wages o sus ain inc easing s anda ds o li ing (and he inc easing
expec a ions o he wo king class in his espec ). Bu e en i he demand o wo king ime
educ ion los cen ali y and he decline in wo king hou s los momen um, nei he
disappea ed comple ely. Demands o wo king ime educ ion pe iodically e-eme ged
du ing he second hal o he 20 h and he ea ly 21s Cen u y: du ing pe iods o c isis and
high unemploymen (as in he 1970s/ 80s, o mo e ecen ly in he a e ma h o he G ea
1
The ise o pa - ime wo k and o he non-s anda d o ms o employmen , pa icula ly p e alen among
segmen s o he wo k o ce his o ically expe iencing lowe employmen a es, such as women, imply he e
a e mo e people ac i e in employmen , albei h ough less in ensi e o ms o employmen . Consequen ly,
he a e age numbe o hou s people wo k has dec eased. This sugges s ha wo ke s do on a e age ewe
hou s due o wo k agmen a ion, bu also ha egula wo ke s con inue wo king mo e o less he same.
4
Recession), as a po en ial o m o sha ing a ailable employmen mo e equi ably, and
du ing pe iods o economic g ow h and s abili y (as in he 1960s o , mo e ecen ly, in he
eco e y a e he G ea Recession) linked o new (pos -ma e ialis ic) demands o a be e
wo k-li e balance o a mo e sus ainable economic sys em.
In ecen yea s, he deba e on wo king ime educ ion has esu aced ( o ins ance, in
campaigns and e en expe imen s o a 4-day wo kweek in Eu ope; see Salaza e al. 2023,
also Cuello 2023). Apa om he usual a gumen s ela ed o wo k-li e balance and
wo ke s´ well-being, he cu en demands o sho e wo king hou s ha e been linked o
he idea o a o hcoming accele a ion o economic g ow h and widesp ead p oduc i i y
and e iciency gains as a esul o big echnological ad ances such as obo ics o AI (an
a gumen which is eminiscen o he idea o wo k ime educ ion as wo k-sha ing ha
was common in he 1970s and 1980s). Also, he idea o wo king ime educ ion has been
jus i ied as a necessa y pa o a b oade eo ien a ion o he economic sys em in an
en i onmen ally mo e sus ainable and ai di ec ion (Scho and Tienhaa a 2022).
In his con ex , i is use ul o ecapi ula e and zoom in o he mos ecen pe iod in he
e olu ion o wo king hou s in Eu ope, ying o unde s and be e he si ua ion ha we
ace i we wan o collec i ely discuss u he educ ions o wo king ime. In his pape
we analyse compa a i e da a o six Eu opean coun ies (Spain, Ge many, Denma k,
I eland, Czechia, and F ance) o 1992-2022, upda ing he analysis o he e olu ion o
wo king hou s based on he mos ecen a ailable da a and explo ing some o he ac o s
explaining he obse ed ends. How many hou s do people wo k in Eu ope nowadays,
and how has his changed o e he las h ee decades? Has he secula end owa ds
wo king ime educ ion s alled in he las h ee decades? Wha ac o s a he na ional,
collec i e o indi idual le el may ha e acili a ed o hinde ed his decline? These a e he
ques ions ha we aim o answe in his s udy, which is s uc u ed as ollows: in sec ion 2,
we e iew he specialized li e a u e and de elop a heo e ical amewo k o iden i y he
ac o s explaining wo k ime dynamics in ecen decades. Sec ion 3 desc ibes he da a
sou ce and a iables used. Sec ion 4 p esen s main esul s. Finally, in sec ion 5, we d aw
some conclusions and sugges some a enues o u u e esea ch.
2. Deba e and li e a u e e iew
As p e iously men ioned, in he 19 h cen u y people ac oss he wo ld used o wo k
ex emely long hou s. Howe e , in he las 150 yea s wo king hou s ha e dec eased
subs an ially, pa icula ly in oday’s iches coun ies (Eu opean Commission, 2023;
Hube man and Minns, 2007). In 1870, wo ke s in mos o hese coun ies wo ked mo e
han 3,000 hou s annually, equi alen o 60–70 hou s each week o 50 weeks pe yea .
In con as , oday hose ex eme wo king hou s ha e been oughly cu in hal (ILO, 2022).
The e ha e been di e en s ages h oughou his long jou ney, as igu e 2 and 3 show.
F om 1870–1913 he e was a ela i ely slow decline. Then om 1913-1938 he decline
in hou s s eepened in he mids o he powe ul sociopoli ical, echnological and
economic changes ha ook shape wi h Wo ld Wa I, he G ea Dep ession, and he lead-
up o Wo ld Wa II. A e an up ick in hou s du ing and jus a e Wo ld Wa II ( egis e ed
mainly in Ge many, F ance and he US), he decline in hou s con inued, albei a a slowe
pace han in he p e-Wo ld Wa II pe iod. This slowdown was in ensi ied especially om
he 1980’s (ILO, 2022; Beh inge e al. 2024). In sho , al hough a di e en paces, and
5
wi h he only excep ion o wha happened du ing and jus a e Wo ld Wa II, in he las
150 yea s wo king hou s ha e egis e ed a con inuous decline in de eloped coun ies.
His o ically, he decline in annual wo king hou s esul ed om ewe wo king hou s each
day, as well as ewe wo king days each week and ewe wo king weeks in he yea . The
leng h o he wo kday ell be ween he 1880s, when he ypical wo ke labou ed 10 hou s
a day o 6 days a week, and 1920, when hei coun e pa wo ked an 8-hou day o 6
days a week. By 1940, he ypical wo k schedule was al eady 8 hou s a day, 5 days a
week, wi h his 40-hou wo kweek becoming he s anda d in mos de eloped coun ies
un il he p esen day. Al hough u he educ ions in wo k ime since hen ha e la gely
aken he o m o inc eases in aca ions, holidays, sick days, pe sonal lea e, and ea lie
e i emen , ime dia y s udies sugges ha he wo kday has con inued o end downwa d
o less han 8 hou s a day (Cos a, 2000).
Declines in he leng h o he wo k day and he numbe o wo king days in a yea ha e
been d i en by se e al ac o s, including inc eases in p oduc i i y, he adop ion o laws
and egula ions ha limi wo king hou s, o he ex ension o non-s anda d o ms o wo k.
Wha ac o s may explain he ecen e olu ion o wo king hou s in de eloped economies?
Mo e speci ically, wha ac o s may explain he ecen slowdown in he secula p ocess
o educ ion o a e age wo king hou s in de eloped economies? A b ie e iew o ecen
li e a u e on his opic allows iden i ying a numbe o candida e explana o y ac o s,
which we will discuss in his sec ion and empi ically es in his and subsequen pape s.
2.1. On he ac o s de e mining he e olu ion and dis ibu ion o wo king hou s
Recen li e a u e on his opic has ocused mo e on he causes behind he obse ed
di e si y in a e age wo king hou s ac oss de eloped coun ies han on he ac o s
explaining hei o e all e olu ion.
2
In pa icula , much o he deba e has cen ed on he
easons behind he di e ence in a e age wo king hou s in he US (and o he Anglo-Saxon
economies) and Eu opean coun ies -see o ins ance Bick e al. (2019) o Hube man and
Minns (2007)-. Whe eas un il he 1970s o 1980s, he US and Wes e n Eu ope unde wen
a simila e olu ion (wi h slow bu s eady decline in wo king hou s), om ha poin we
can obse e a g owing di e gence. F om he 1980s, a e age wo king hou s in he US
s agna ed o e en sligh ly inc eased, in a s iking e e sal o he his o ical end; whe eas
in Eu ope, hey con inued declining (albei a a slowe pace). The easons o his
di e gence ha e been ho oughly discussed in ecen Social Sciences applied esea ch,
and his li e a u e p o ides use ul hin s o a b oade unde s anding o he ac o s
explaining he ecen ends in wo king hou s in de eloped economies.
The neoclassical model o labou supply p o ides he unde lying amewo k and s a ing
poin o mos o he economic li e a u e on he de e minan s o hou s wo ked and hei
change o e ime. This model ocuses on he ac o s ha a ec he indi iduals' decision
o alloca e hei ime be ween wo k and leisu e, wi h wo k p o iding income o pu chase
goods and se ices while leisu e p o ides u ili y in i sel . The p ima y de e minan o
wo king ime in his amewo k is he wage a e, which can be unde s ood as a measu e
o he p ice o ime o he indi idual. A highe wage a e inc eases he oppo uni y cos
o leisu e ime, and may hus incen i ize he indi idual o wo k mo e hou s ( he
subs i u ion e ec ). Al e na i ely, a highe wage a e also allows he indi idual o ea n he
2
Al hough he e a e impo an pape s on his oo, see Hube man and Minns (2007) o Beh inge e al (2024).
12
e al. 2022). The e o e, we can expec hese ac o s o become mo e impo an in
he pe iods in which inequali y has subs an ially inc eased ( ha is, om he 1980’s
in he cases o he US and Eu ope). These cul u al no ms con as s ikingly wi h
he p e-wa pe iod, when he e was a widesp ead demand o sho e wo king
hou s. As p e iously discussed, in he ini ial pe iod o he indus ial e olu ion a
p e-capi alis ime cul u e p e ailed in which highe wages educed a he han
inc eased labou supply (De V ies 1994). While in he XIX cen u y ‘conspicuous
abs en ion om labou became he con en ional ma k o supe io pecunia y
achie emen and he con en ional index o epu abili y’ (Veblen, 1899), and
consequen ly hose wi h highe ea nings did ewe hou s o wo k (Cos a, 2000),
i seems ha his si ua ion was e e ed a some poin in he second hal o he 20 h
cen u y, when wo k and busyness s a ed being used as s a us symbols.
• In e ms o amily s uc u e, he las pe iod also con as s wi h he p e ious one
in signi ican ways. In he mos ecen pe iod, inc easing emale employmen bu
wi h a con inuing alloca ion o mos amily and home esponsibili ies o women
imposed a hea y cons ain on hei paid wo king hou s, esul ing in sho e hou s
(o en pa - ime). In con as , he p e ious pe iod saw he consolida ion o he
nuclea amily model, wi h he male pa ne as he sole b ead-winne (in pa icula
du ing he child- ea ing s age) and a s ong gende di e en ia ion be ween paid
and unpaid ( amily) wo k. The expansion o emale (paid) wo k om he end o
he 20 h cen u y, o en h ough less ime-in ensi e and non-s anda d o ms o
employmen , ha e pushed agg ega e wo king hou s down in many coun ies.
• Ano he signi ican p ocess a ec ing he e olu ion o wo king hou s conce ns he
indus ial ela ions sys em. Whe eas he pe iod o 1945-1980 was ma ked by
s ong unions and ins i u ionalised collec i e ba gaining, he mos ecen pe iod
wi nessed a delibe a e policy d i e o agmen collec i e ba gaining, wi h he
objec i e o de eloping mo e lexible wage-se ing mechanisms. This has
weakened ade unions and wo ke s’ oices, and has su ely a ec ed he e olu ion
o wo king ime oo. E en i in he pe iod 1945-1980 unions we e no so ocused
on educing wo king ime as be o e (wages and o he wo king condi ions ended
o gain mo e p ominence), hei s eng h and impo ance in he collec i e
de e mina ion o wo king condi ions su ely played a ole in he limi a ion and
s anda disa ion o wo king hou s, and hus hei weakening has p obably played
a ole in he agmen a ion and s agna ion o a e age wo king hou s in ecen
yea s. E idence suppo ing he hypo hesis o weake unions and collec i e
ba gaining ins i u ions p omo ing longe hou s (and ice- e sa) can be ound in
Alesina and Zei a (2006), Bu chell e al. (2024), Bu goon and Baxandall (2004)
and Hube man and Minns (2007). This has occu ed, in pa , because hese
ins i u ions ha e diminished in impo ance, capaci y and in luence in adi ional
sec o s (such as manu ac u ing), bu also due o he p ocess o e ia iza ion and
he eme gence o new o ms o wo k -such as pla o m wo k (Fe nández-Macías
e al., 2023)-, whe e unions and collec i e ba gaining ins i u ions do no ha e ye
a signi ican pene a ion.
13
• In e ms o s uc u es and le els o inequali y, he mos ecen pe iod has seen an
inc ease in se e al coun ies ha may ha e con ibu ed also o he s agna ion o
a e age hou s o wo k -in pa icula , in Anglosaxon economies, as p e iously
discussed-(Beh inge e al. 2024; Belleza e al. 2016; Bowles and Pa k, 2005;
Hube man and Minns, 2007; Pybus e al. 2022; Velandia-Mo ales e al. 2022). Bu
in Eu ope, pe haps he mos impo an change in s uc u al inequali y a ec ing
wo king ime has been he g owing unemploymen and labou ma ke insecu i y
( esul ing om changing mac oeconomic p io i ies and he p e iously men ioned
lexibilisa ion o labou ma ke s), which has weakened he labou ma ke posi ion
o many wo ke s in ways ha may ha e o ced hem o accep undesi able
condi ions such as longe wo king hou s. Again, his con as s wi h he p e ious
his o ical pe iod cha ac e ised by ic ional unemploymen and gene ally
sh inking inequali ies.
• Wo k o ganisa ion has also changed in ecen yea s in ways ha may ha e
a ec ed wo king ime. I he pos -wa pe iod was domina ed by Taylo is ic (in
manu ac u ing) and bu eauc a ic (in se ices) o ms o wo k o ganisa ion ha
ended o be associa ed wi h s anda dised and nego ia ed hou s o wo k, he pos -
80s pe iod is associa ed wi h “ lexible” (and inc easingly digi alised) pos - o neo-
Taylo is ic o ms o wo k o ganisa ion which o en en ail de ac o longe hou s o
wo k, concealed behind lexible schedules o a blu ing o he line be ween wo k
and p i a e li e. In his con ex , in he 21s cen u y, we a e wi nessing he
expansion o algo i hmic managemen o wo k en ailing he use o algo i hms and
da a-d i en echnologies o au oma e manage ial unc ions wi hin o ganisa ions
(Baiocco e al., 2022; Rani e al., 2024). While algo i hmic managemen has clea
po en ial o educe ime spen a wo k by s eamlining wo k p ocesses, enhancing
e iciency in ask alloca ion and pe o mance and by au oma ing some o ms o
human labou , i appea s ha ins ead o esul ing in inc eased leisu e ime,
wo ke s who a e managed algo i hmically expe ience p essu es owa ds incessan
a ailabili y (Piasna, 2023). Simila ly, ano he ecen s udy sugges s ha he
po en ial p oduc i i y gains b ough abou by algo i hmic managemen , i hey
exis , may lead o be e se ice deli e y, labo displacemen , o inc eased wo k
in ensi y, bu no a educ ion in wo king hou s, as hei p ima y objec i e is
e iciency a he han imp o ed wo king condi ions (Rani e al., 2024).
• In e ms o he economic s uc u e, he mos ecen pe iod has seen a
con inua ion o he secula shi owa ds a se ice-based economy, and wi hin
se ices owa ds pe sonal on he one hand and knowledge-based on he o he
(To ejón Pé ez e al. 2023; 2024). This has also been a pe iod o inc easing
na ional and in e na ional agmen a ion o alue chains. All o his u he
con ibu es o some o he p e iously men ioned p ocesses o agmen a ion,
economic insecu i y and weakening o he pos -wa ins i u ions o labou
egula ion, wi h p obable e ec s on he dis ibu ion o wo king hou s.
14
• Finally, in e ms o he unde lying echnology and di ision o labou , he key
de elopmen s o he las h ee o ou decades wi h espec o wo king ime ha e
been an inc easing digi alisa ion o economic ac i i y, and an inc easingly global
di ision o labou . In his espec , i is use ul o highligh he his o ically changing
ole o p oduc i i y g ow h as a d i e o wo king ime educ ion. In he second
pe iod shown in able 2 (1850-1945), as p oduc i i y g ow h was ansla ed in o
s eep educ ions o wo king ime as well as in o g owing wage le els. In he
ollowing pe iod ( he consolida ion o he 40h no m, 1945 o 1980), e en as e
p oduc i i y g ow h ansla ed mos ly in a e y ma ked g ow h o wage le els,
wi h a much mo e limi ed impac on wo king ime educ ion. Bu om 1980
onwa ds, con inuing (e en i milde ) p oduc i i y g ow h did no esul ei he in
wage g ow h o in signi ican wo king ime educ ions, implying a signi ican
ealloca ion o he su plus gene a ed by p oduc i i y g ow h owa ds capi al,
which has been documen ed in many pape s (Ka aba bounis and Neiman 2014).
While he e may be o he ac o s explaining changes in he e olu ion and dis ibu ion o
wo king hou s in di e en con ex s, we con end ha he p e ious lis is comp ehensi e
enough, co e ing he p incipal ac o s ha ha e played a signi ican ole in Eu ope (and
o he de eloped capi alis coun ies) in ecen decades. Fu he mo e, we ha e
endea ou ed o classi y hese ac o s based on hei na u e and cha ac e is ics ( anging
om echnical o social ac o s), scope ( om mac o o mic o de e minan s), and his o ical
con ex , ying o emphasize he bounda ies be ween ac o s and p ocesses ha a e o en
highly in e ela ed. In doing so, ou objec i e is o p o ide concep ual and heo e ical
cla i y o a deba e ha encompasses di e se a gumen s and hypo heses. In o he wo ds,
ou aim is o help un a el his complex puzzle and, his way, be e unde s and he
e olu ion o wo king ime in Eu ope in he las h ee decades.
In he ollowing pages we examine ends in wo king ime in six EU coun ies om 1992
o 2022. Th ough his analysis, we conduc an ini ial assessmen o he ele ance o
a ious o he ac o s desc ibed abo e. Howe e , his amewo k may be applied and used
in subsequen s udies, aimed a del ing deepe in o he d i e s explaining ends in
wo king ime ac oss di e en loca ions and ime ames.
3. Da a sou ce and a iables
To cons uc se ies on wo king ime om 1992 o 2022 we ely on he EU Labou Fo ce
Su ey (EU-LFS). Ou sample includes Spain, Ge many, Denma k, I eland, Czechia, and
F ance. They ep esen di e en wel a e s a e egimes, acco ding o a ious axonomies
(Esping-Ande sen, 1990; Sc uggs and Allan, 2006; Fe agina e al., 2015), and encompass
he ull ange o economies co e ed in he li e a u e on a ie ies o capi alism (Hall and
Soskice 2001; Molina and Rhodes 2007). Addi ionally, his sample cap u es
di e en ia ion in he egula ion o wo king ime, bo h in e ms o he de ini ion o
s anda d wo king hou s wi hin he ma gins o he EU ( anging om he 35-hou
wo kweek in F ance o close o 40 in he Czech Republic and Spain) and he addi ional
ma gin o lexibili y in wo king ime in oduced by collec i e ag eemen s. In his ega d,
Denma k and F ance show a high deg ee o p e alence o wo k-li e balance opics in
collec i e ag eemen s, an issue which is also p esen in sec o al ag eemen s in Ge many,
while ha ing limi ed p e alence in Spain and Czechia (Eu o ound, 2017). This egime
15
a ie y allows o conside ing he ins i u ional ac o when in e p e ing di e ences in
wo king ime ac oss coun ies.
Ou analy ical sample comp ises employees aged 15 o o e . The sample size in he ini ial
yea (1992, 1997 in he Czech Republic) is 62,716 in Spain, 145,584 in Ge many, 13,222
in Denma k, 48,819 in I eland, 33,683 in he Czech Republic, and 67,137 in F ance, while
in he inal yea (2022) i amoun s o 34,022 in Spain, 99,763 in Ge many, 43,521 in
Denma k, 9,896 in I eland, 16,757 in he Czech Republic, and 27,666 in F ance.
The main ad an age o he EU-LFS is ha i uses a ha monized me hodology, ensu ing
compa abili y ac oss coun ies. In addi ion, i allows o he c ea ion o consis en se ies
co e ing long pe iods wi h he same a iables and de ini ions. As such, i allows
analysing labou ma ke ans o ma ions in he long un a bo h na ional and EU le els.
I s main limi a ion is ha Na ional Labo Fo ce Su eys di e wi h espec o he
sampling o e e ence weeks o e he yea , which may be a p oblem o his pape because
hou s wo ked exhibi a s ong deg ee o (coun y-speci ic) seasonali y. This may a ec
compa abili y o esul s. Howe e , we add ess his issue and minimize his po en ial bias
by elying on usual a he han ac ual hou s as he main a iable o ou in e es . Usual
hou s a e de ined as he numbe o hou s pe week usually wo ked in main job. The EU-
LFS also p o ides in o ma ion on he hou s ac ually wo ked in he main job in he
e e ence week ( ha is, ac ual hou s). We chose he o me o he ollowing wo easons:
• We a e in e es ed in cap u ing he amoun o ime wo ke s ypically spend a wo k
in a s anda d week, a he han ocusing on he ime spen a wo k in a speci ic
week. While he numbe o hou s wo ke s dedica e o hei job in a gi en week
may a y due o special ci cums ances such as holidays, sick lea es and medical
isi s and o he ac o s, ou goal is o s udy he a e age o usual pa e ns o wo k
as e lec ed in he usual wo k schedules.
• Usual hou s enhance compa abili y o esul s. Since he ieldwo k is conduc ed a
di e en imes ac oss coun ies, he e is he possibili y ha he iming could
impac esul s. I he ieldwo k in one coun y is ca ied ou while many wo ke s
a e on lea e o sick, his may in luence esul s, especially i compa ed o a
scena io whe e mos wo ke s a e ac i e. While ac ual hou s e lec hese changing
ci cums ances, usual hou s e e mo e b oadly o he wo kload in a ypical week
a he han he speci ic week when he ieldwo k is conduc ed. In o he wo ds,
usual hou s ha e as a e e ence a mo e ex ended ime pe iod, cap u ing he
si ua ion ha is mo e common o wo ke s, and lea ing special ci cums ances
aside. Thanks o his, usual hou s con ibu e o minimize he bias in compa abili y
due o coun y-speci ic seasonali y.
While his a iable is app op ia e o ou s udy, i migh no be so well sui ed o
compa a i e analysis including coun ies ou side he EU. This is because an impo an
sou ce o a ia ion in wo k imes is due o he di e gence in he numbe o days o , ha
a e no cap u ed his way: hal o he gap in annual wo k imes be ween he old (Eu ope)
and he new wo ld (Anglo Saxon coun ies) is due o he di e gence in he numbe o
days o (Hube man and Minns, 2007). Howe e , his is no a p oblem because we a e
16
p ima ily in e es ed in he e olu ion o he wo king week. Fu he mo e, he di e ences
in days o ac oss EU coun ies a e limi ed.
Apa om analysing how he numbe o usual hou s a wo k di e en segmen s o he
wo k o ce egis e has e ol ed o e ime in six EU coun ies, we decompose hese ends
(and an indica o on he sha e o pa - ime con ac s) acco ding o some key a iables:
age (15-29, 30-44 and 45-64); gende ; educa ional a ainmen (low, medium and high)
3
;
p o essional s a us (sel -employed and employees); wo king ime a angemen ( ull- ime
and pa - ime); occupa ion (low skilled blue colla , low skilled whi e colla , high skilled
blue colla and high skilled whi e colla )
4
and economic sec o ( he goods p oducing
sec o , p i a e se ices and public se ices).
5
In sho , he alue added o he analyses o sec ion 4 a ises om ou abili y o gene a e
consis en se ies o da a on wo king ime dynamics in a leas wo ways: 1) o e ime in
he long un, co e ing a pe iod o h ee decades (1992-2022); and 2) o compa a i e
pu poses a he EU le el. The e o e, his da a is well-sui ed o conduc ing an ini ial
assessmen o he impo ance ha a ious ac o s (such as hose desc ibed in sec ion 2)
ha e in explaining he e olu ion and dis ibu ion o wo king hou s, as we do nex .
4. The de e minan s o wo king ime in Eu ope
This sec ion has ou pa s. Fi s , i ocuses on he eme gence o pa - ime wo k as he
main ac o d i ing down wo king ime in ecen decades. Second, i sheds ligh on he
easons behind he inc easing p e alence o pa - ime wo k. Thi d, i shi s he ocus o
ull- ime wo ke s, examining he ac o s ha explain why hei wo king hou s ha e
emained ela i ely s able o e he pas decades. Finally, i explo es why hose who used
o wo k longe hou s ( he sel -employed) a e also educing hei wo kloads.
4.1. The key ole o pa - ime wo k in educing wo king ime
4.1.1. P o iding a long- e m con ex (1870-2022) o he mos ecen pe iod
Be o e ocusing on ecen ends, we p o ide some his o ical con ex . To his end, igu es
2 and 3 show how weekly wo king hou s ha e e ol ed o e ime in he long un, in a
pe iod co e ing one cen u y and a hal ( om 1870 o 2022) in he ou EU coun ies o
ou sample o which he e is da a a ailable om ha s a ing poin (plus he Uni ed S a es
o compa ison).
6
While Figu e 2 shows he hou s pe week wo ked by ull- ime
p oduc ion wo ke s in non-ag icul u al sec o s, Figu e 3 depic s da a poin s om 1992
e e ing o he hou s wo ked by all wo ke s. In bo h cases, da a p io o 1992 is sou ced
om Hube man and Minns (2007). F om ha yea , we ex end he se ies o he mos ecen
a ailable da a, u ilizing he EU-LFS as ou da a sou ce om 1992 o 2022.
We p esen wo igu es o o e comp ehensi e his o ical da a. The i s one main ains
consis ency wi h Hube man and Minns's (2007) me hodology o e he whole pe iod.
Figu e 3 displays a b eak in 1992, as om ha poin we ansi ion o analysing all wo ke s
3
Low co esponds o ISCED le els below 1 and un il 2; medium o 3 and 4, and high o 5 o o e .
4
Low skilled blue colla co esponds o ISCO codes 80 and 90, low skilled whi e colla o ISCO 40 and 50,
high skilled blue colla o ISCO 60 and 70, and high skilled whi e colla o ISCO 10 o 30.
5
The goods p oducing sec o encompasses ag icul u e, mining, cons uc ion, u ili ies and manu ac u es
(NACE g oups om A o F in NACE Re .2); public se ices include he public adminis a ion, heal h and
educa ion (ca ego ies O, P, Q and U in NACE Re .2), and p i a e se ices he es o se ices.
6
We main ain he Uni ed S a es in he igu e, jus o p o ide addi ional con ex and benchma king.
17
a he han solely ull- ime p oduc ion wo ke s in non-ag icul u al sec o s. This shi in
ocus is c ucial gi en he g owing signi icance o pa - ime wo k since he la e 20 h
cen u y, which la gely accoun s o educ ions in wo king hou s du ing ha pe iod.
Consequen ly, excluding his segmen o he wo k o ce om ou analysis would esul in
an o e es ima ion o o al wo king hou s. This disc epancy explains why es ima es appea
highe in Figu e 2 compa ed o Figu e 3, whe e we obse e a educ ion in wo king hou s.
Figu e 2. Hou s o wo k pe week ( ull- ime p oduc ion wo ke s in non-ag icul u al ac i i ies), 1870–2022
Sou ce: Hube man and Minns (2007) o da a un il 1980, and au ho ’s elabo a ion wi h he EU-LFS o
da a om 1992. Fo consis ency easons, his igu e adop s Hube man and Minns (2007) app oach, ha
cap u es weekly hou s o ull- ime p oduc ion wo ke s in non-ag icul u al ac i i ies.
F om he end o he XIX cen u y un il he 1980’s, educ ions in wo king ime we e
cons an . In he Eu opean con ex , he e ha e been wo excep ions whe e his gene al
end was e e ed o ew decades: F ance om he la e 1930’s un il he 1960’s, and
Ge many om 1929 o 1950. In hese wo p ecise pe iods and coun ies, he numbe o
hou s inc eased a e eaching his o ical minimum le els. Lea ing hese pa icula
ci cums ances aside, he gene al end in he long un is clea ly downwa d. Howe e , he
pe iod going om 1870 o 1980 can be spli in h ee main subpe iods:
• The p e-wa pe iod (1870-1913). In his sub-pe iod, hou s o wo k we e
consis en ly educed in all he coun ies o ou sample (plus in he US).
• 1913-1950. This con ulsi e pe iod, which wi nessed Wo ld Wa I and II,
co esponds wi h he la e s age o “ he igh o sho e hou s” -as desc ibed in ou
amewo k ( able 1)-. These yea s hou s o wo k con inued dec easing in all
coun ies a a as e pace. The la ges educ ions in wo king ime in con empo a y
his o y ook place du ing hese decades (specially in F ance and he US).
• The “golden e a” (1950-1980). A e he Second Wo ld Wa , a downwa d end
con inued in all coun ies, al hough he pace o his end was educed. T ends
hese yea s we e mo e simila o hose egis e ed in he p e-wa pe iod.
18
Figu e 3. Hou s o wo k pe week (all wo ke s since 1992), 1870–2000
Sou ce: Hube man and Minns (2007) o da a un il 1980, and au ho ’s elabo a ion wi h he EU-LFS o
da a om 1992. F om 1992, da a cap u es weekly hou s o all wo ke s.
Then, he e a e wo possible in e p e a ions o wha occu ed om 1980 o 2022.
Acco ding o Figu e 2, du ing his pe iod o "de egula ion and agmen a ion" (see Table
1), o he i s ime in ecen his o y he numbe o hou s s abilized in all coun ies,
indica ing no u he educ ions in weekly hou s. Howe e , his s abiliza ion is only
appa en i we exclude pa - ime (and ag icul u al) wo ke s om he analysis. When we
include hem, as done in Figu e 3, we obse e ha he downwa d end p e iously
obse ed indeed con inues un il 2022. This signi ican dispa i y in ends om 1992
onwa ds be ween Figu e 2 and 3 unde sco es he g owing impo ance o pa - ime wo k
as a key a iable in explaining de elopmen s ( educ ions) in wo k hou s in ecen imes.
4.1.2. A ocus on ecen ends (1992-2022)
P e ious igu es p o ided his o ical con ex . Howe e , he con as be ween igu e 2 and
3 in ends om he 1990s al eady e eals ha pa - ime wo k la gely explains he
con inued (e en i slowe ) decline in wo king hou s in Eu ope in he las decades. F om
his poin , he ocus o all emaining analyses is on ends om 1992, om whe e we ha e
been able o cons uc de ailed se ies ha a e consis en o e ime and ac oss coun ies.
Figu e 4 displays ends in wo king ime o all people in employmen by wo king ime
a angemen and p o essional s a us, con i ming ou p e ious conjec u e. Fi s , i is clea
ha ull- ime wo ke s con inue wo king oughly he same numbe o hou s h oughou
he whole pe iod in all coun ies. In ac , di e ences ac oss coun ies o ull- ime s a e
ma ginal, e ealing ha he no m o 40 hou s o s anda d employmen is consis en and
pe asi e ac oss Eu ope. Wha his means is ha all he educ ions o wo king ime ha
we obse ed ea lie o all wo ke s (as shown in igu e 3 and igu e 14 in he Annex) a e
due o a composi ional e ec : he inc easing p e alence o non-s anda d o ms o wo k.
19
Figu e 4. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y, p o essional s a us and wo king ime a angemen , 1992-2022
The sel -employed wo k longe hou s han anyone else. Al hough he numbe o hou s
hey wo k has dec eased in all coun ies excep Spain, hey ha e con inued wo king mo e
han 40 hou s pe week in mos cases (excep in Ge many) du ing he majo i y o he
pe iod. Only in ecen yea s ha e hey begun o app oach he no m o 40 hou s pe week.
Despi e s ill wo king mo e han o he s, he ac ha hose who ypically de o e mo e ime
o wo k ha e sligh ly sho ened hei wo k schedules mus ha e also con ibu ed o he
decline o agg ega e wo king hou s. We explo e his u he in sec ion 4.4.
Finally, hose in pa - ime wo k spend almos hal o he ime a wo k han ull- ime s,
ha is a ound 20 hou s pe week. F ance is he only coun y whe e pa - ime s ha e
consis en ly been doing mo e han 20 hou s pe week.
In sho , we can summa ise he o e all e olu ion o wo king hou s in wo main poin s:
1. Reduc ions in wo king ime om he 1990’s in Eu ope a e due o a composi ional
e ec : he highe p e alence o non-s anda d o ms o employmen o e ime.
7
2. The sel -employed a e sho ening hei wo kloads, wi h his o he ac o also
pushing wo king hou s down o e ime (excep in Spain).
Fo hese easons, below we analyse: he ac o s d i ing he expansion o pa - ime wo k,
as he main o m o wo k ha has pushed wo king ime down in he las decades (sec ion
4.2); why ull- ime wo ke s con inue wo king mo e o less he same and which a e he
7
Gi en ha pa - ime wo k eme ges as a key d i e o educ ions in wo k hou s, s udies ha analyze only
ull- ime wo ke s -such as Hube man and Minns (2007)- a e unable o cap u e one o he main ac o s
explaining de elopmen s in wo k hou s in ecen decades. Consequen ly, hey a e likely o unde es ima e
he educ ions in wo k hou s expe ienced in he las decades.
20
ac o s making om hem o con inue doing long wo king hou s (sec ion 4.3); and why
he sel -employed ha e ended o wo k less and less o e ime (sec ion 4.4).
4.2. Why pa - ime wo k expanded?
Pa - ime wo k is mo e p e alen among women (Figu e 5). This holds in all coun ies
and o mos age bands. Young men a e he only ones ha , in some cases, ge close o
e en su pass he le els o pa - ime o adul women, as seen in Spain, I eland and
Denma k. This is because among he young, o bo h gende s, he e a e mo e people
combining di e en ac i i ies ( o ins ance, paid wo k and o mal educa ion), bu also
because i ms e y o en o e less ime-in ensi e o ms o employmen o hose wi h less
senio i y and expe ience. This age e ec , in some coun ies, o se s he gende gap.
Howe e , gene ally speaking, women a e o e ep esen ed in pa - ime wo k. Fo his
eason, he eminisa ion o employmen
8
has con ibu ed o he educ ion o agg ega e
wo king hou s in Eu ope, la gely h ough he expansion o pa - ime wo k.
Figu e 5. Sha e (%) o pa - ime wo k by age and sex
On he o he hand, pa - ime wo k is mo e p e alen in he se ice sec o ( igu e 6). In
bo h p i a e and public se ices, he sha e o pa - ime s is much highe han in he goods
p oducing sec o (a sec o ha encompasses cons uc ion, manu ac u es, ag icul u e and
u ili ies). This is consis en ly obse ed in all he coun ies o ou sample du ing he en i e
pe iod. In ac , he di e ence in he sha e o pa - ime wo k be ween se ices and he
goods p oducing sec o has inc eased o e ime. Taking in o accoun ha Eu ope
8
Acco ding o EU-LFS da a, in 1992, women ep esen ed 40% o all wo ke s in he six coun ies o ou
sample. By 2022, his pe cen age had isen o nea ly hal o he wo k o ce (48.2%).
21
con inues expe iencing a p ocess o e ia isa ion o employmen (To ejón e al. 2023;
2024)
9
, om Figu e 6 we can also in e ha e ia isa ion o employmen mus ha e
con ibu ed o he expansion o pa - ime wo k and he o e all educ ion in wo king ime.
Figu e 6. Sha e (%) o pa - ime wo k by b oad sec o
As explained in sec ion 2.3, he e olu ion o wo king hou s in Eu ope in he las h ee
decades is be e unde s ood in compa ison wi h he p e ious pe iod. In his sec ion, we
ha e b ie ly discussed he ac o s behind he expansion o pa - ime wo k, which has been
he mos signi ican d i e o wo king ime educ ion in Eu ope since he 1990s. Be o e
his pe iod, he majo i y o wo ke s we e employed unde ull- ime con ac s, aligning
wi h he male b eadwinne model o amily o ganiza ion. Howe e , du ing he 1980s and
1990s he e was a di e si ica ion in o ms o employmen ha s ongly a ec ed he
du a ion o wo king ime. Regula o y changes in many coun ies acili a ed he c ea ion
and expansion o non-s anda d o ms o employmen , o en en ailing educed wo k hou s.
This shi was pa ly d i en by e o s, o en explici ly s a ed, o comba ising
unemploymen a es, ex end employmen oppo uni ies o b oade segmen s o he
popula ion and os e compe i i eness. Du ing his pe iod, women became inc easingly
ac i e in e ia y educa ion and in he wo k o ce, equen ly h ough non-s anda d o ms
o wo k, such as pa - ime employmen . Concu en ly, de eloped economies, including
hose in Eu ope, unde wen a ying a es o ansi ion om indus ial o se ice-based
economies. In essence, egula o y changes we e c ucial o he eme gence and inc ease
o pa - ime wo k, which in u n os e ed a s ong eminiza ion o employmen , u he
9
In 1993, on agg ega e in he six coun ies o ou sample, 60.8% o wo ke s we e employed in se ices
(bo h public and p i a e sec o s), whe eas by 2022, his igu e had isen o 74.3%.
28
ime. The ollowing igu es depic ends in wo king ime o he sel -employed by sec o
(Figu e 12) and occupa ion (Figu e 13). They e eal ha educ ions in wo king hou s o
he sel -employed ha e been widesp ead (excep in Spain, whe e he e has been s abili y)
and no d i en by educ ions in pa icula sec o s o occupa ions.
5. Conclusions and u u e esea ch
Since he 1990s, he ime Eu opeans de o e o paid wo k has sligh ly dec eased,
con inuing a secula end ha has been e iden o mo e han a cen u y. Howe e , hese
educ ions in wo k ime ha e no bene i ed all segmen s o he wo k o ce; hey a e
p ima ily explained by he inc easing p e alence o pa - ime wo k. The e a e mo e
people in employmen han e e , bu employmen is also mo e agmen ed. The main
ac o s d i ing he ise in pa - ime wo k a e he eminiza ion o employmen and he
g ow h o he se ice sec o . While mo e people, pa icula ly women, ha e mo ed in o
less ime-in ensi e o ms o employmen o e ime, ull- ime wo ke s ha e con inued
wo king oughly he same hou s o e he pas ew decades. This o e all end conceals
he a ying dynamics expe ienced by di e en segmen s o he wo k o ce. In o he wo ds,
he e a e coun e ailing e ec s pushing wo king ime bo h up and down, which oge he
explain he ela i e s abili y o wo king hou s among ull- ime wo ke s o e ime:
• On one hand, i seems ha occupa ional upg ading and e ia iza ion ha e pushed
wo king ime up, gi en ha longe hou s a wo k a e eco ded p ecisely by high-
skilled wo ke s (bo h blue and whi e colla s) and in p i a e se ices.
• On he o he , ac o s such as he g ow h o public se ices (whe e sho e hou s
a e eco ded), he declining impo ance o he goods-p oducing sec o (whe e long
hou s a e done), and sel -employmen becoming bo h less p e alen and a less
ime-in ensi e o m o employmen ha e pushed wo king ime down.
Taken oge he , he p e ious esul s highligh he impo ance o se e al ac o s desc ibed
in sec ion 2. Fi s , hey sugges ha egula o y changes we e key: s a ing in he 1980s,
shi s in Eu opean egula ions p omo ed he eme gence o non-s anda d o ms o
employmen . While ull- ime wo k (p ima ily o men) had been he dominan o m o
employmen in ea lie pe iods, egula o y changes and he mo e owa d de-
s anda diza ion and libe aliza ion allowed o he c ea ion o mo e agmen ed and less
ime-in ensi e o ms o wo k, such as pa - ime wo k. These new o ms o wo k became
mo e p e alen in he se ice sec o and among women. In o he wo ds, he e ia iza ion
o he economy ( he expansion o se ice-o ien ed sec o s, mainly p i a e) and he
eminiza ion o employmen a e wo signi ican ac o s d i ing educ ions in wo king
ime in ecen decades, as hey ha e con ibu ed o he expansion o pa - ime wo k. This
occu ed while he mos ime-in ensi e jobs ( hose in he goods-p oducing sec o )
declined in impo ance. These ac o s e lec bo h changes in he economic s uc u e
and shi s in cul u al no ms and amily s uc u es (mo ing away om he male
b eadwinne model). On he o he hand, o he ac o s ha e pushed in he opposi e
di ec ion, d i ing inc eases in wo king ime. F om an indi idual and a u ili a ian
pe spec i e, he subs i u ion e ec p e ails among high-skilled wo ke s: gi en ha hei
wages a e highe , leisu e has a highe oppo uni y cos , incen i izing hem o wo k longe
hou s. This is consis en wi h ano he cul u al change cha ac e izing he pe iod we ocus
on, which also d i es inc eases in wo king ime: he use o ime and busyness o signal
29
s a us, as well as hype consume ism, which a leas pa ially explain why high-skilled
wo ke s end o wo k longe hou s.
This opic is highly complex. The e a e no simple explana ions o he dis ibu ion and
e olu ion o wo king ime. Ins ead, a a ie y o ac o s, each o a di e en na u e, p oduce
a ying e ec s in di e en con ex s and pe iods. The main ac o s ange om ins i u ional
and indi idual o echnical, as well as o hose ela ed o indus ial ela ions, wo k
o ganiza ion, and cul u al no ms. Fo his eason, ou ini ial e o was o de elop a
comp ehensi e li e a u e e iew and a heo e ical amewo k o accoun o he key
ac o s ha may explain ecen de elopmen s in wo king ime in Eu ope. This can be
concei ed as a oolbox o esea che s aiming o explain ecen ends in wo king ime.
Second, om an empi ical poin o iew, ou aim was o make an ini ial assessmen o
he impo ance o he a ious ac o s and explana ions desc ibed in sec ion 2. While he
analysis has clea limi a ions, p ima ily ha we canno disen angle causa ion, we belie e
i is use ul o gene a ing some heo e ical and empi ical cla i y and o guiding u u e
esea ch. Gi en ha s udies o his ype a e challenged by he exis ence o mul iple
hypo heses, a iables and in e ela ed e ec s ha a e con ex -dependen , ou esul s se e
o p o ide a i s comp ehensi e assessmen , iden i y he a iables and hypo heses ha
seem mos ele an in he Eu opean con ex , and hus guide and o ien u u e esea ch.
Conside ing he exis ence o ac o s o a ying na u es and hei di e ing impo ance
ac oss ime pe iods and coun ies, a aluable ollow-up would be a mul ile el analysis.
The EU-LFS allows o such an analy ical app oach, as i includes indi idual-le el
a iables (such as wo king ime a angemen s, educa ion, income, and occupa ion) o
mo e han 30 coun ies. While i s main d awback is he lack o ele an agg ega e-le el
a iables measu ing ins i u ional and coun y-le el cha ac e is ics, i is ela i ely easy o
combine his da abase wi h such a iables ( o ins ance, hose ela ed o inequali y le els,
union densi y, economic de elopmen , and mo e). This way, we could assess whe he
indi idual o ins i u ional ac o s p e ail in explaining he a iance in wo king ime.
Addi ionally, his da a and analy ical s a egy would allow o a comp ehensi e
assessmen o he ela i e impo ance o a ious ac o s ac oss di e en con ex s and
acili a e he iden i ica ion o bo h ele an ac o s and me e con ounde s.
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Annex: a compa ison ac oss six EU coun ies
A compa ison o ends ac oss coun ies (Figu e 14) e eals ha employees wo k longe
hou s in Czechia. This end has pe sis ed h oughou he en i e pe iod. Spain ollows
wi h he second-highes numbe o hou s pe week eco ded, ailed by F ance, I eland,
Ge many, and Denma k. In 2022, he e was a di e ence o mo e han 6 hou s in he ime
wo ke s de o ed o wo k pe week be ween Denma k (on a e age, 33.2 hou s) and he
Czech Republic (39.3 hou s). Despi e hese di e ences, he numbe o hou s wo ked has
consis en ly dec eased in all coun ies o e he las ew decades. As a esul , since 2019,
wo ke s in all coun ies ha e wo ked ewe han 40 hou s pe week.
Figu e 14. Hou s pe week usually wo ked, by coun y
Reduc ions in wo king ime ha e been mo e p onounced in I eland (-5.7 hou s om 1992
o 2022) and he Czech Republic (-4.3 om 1997 o 2022). Ne e heless, hese a e he
coun ies in which employees spen mo e ime a wo k in he nine ies: abo e 40 hou s pe
week, as in Spain. In Denma k and F ance educ ions om 1992 o 2022 (-2.2 and -1.8,
espec i ely) we e he leas in ense. Howe e , hese a e wo o he h ee coun ies
( oge he wi h Ge many) whe e wo king hou s we e below 40 al eady in 1992.
33
Lis o igu es
Figu e 1. A concep ual mapping o he ac o s de e mining he e olu ion and dis ibu ion
o wo king hou s ............................................................................................................... 9
Figu e 2. Hou s o wo k pe week ( ull- ime p oduc ion wo ke s in non-ag icul u al
ac i i ies), 1870–2022 .................................................................................................... 17
Figu e 3. Hou s o wo k pe week (all wo ke s since 1992), 1870–2000 ...................... 18
Figu e 4. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y, p o essional s a us and wo king
ime a angemen , 1992-2022 ......................................................................................... 19
Figu e 5. Sha e (%) o pa - ime wo k by age and sex ................................................... 20
Figu e 6. Sha e (%) o pa - ime wo k by b oad sec o .................................................. 21
Figu e 7. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y and educa ion ( ull- ime wo ke s)
........................................................................................................................................ 22
Figu e 8. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y and occupa ion ( ull- ime wo ke s)
........................................................................................................................................ 23
Figu e 9. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y and sec o ( ull- ime wo ke s) ... 24
Figu e 10. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y and p o essional s a us ( ull- ime
wo ke s) .......................................................................................................................... 25
Figu e 11. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y and wo king ime a angemen
(sel -employed) ............................................................................................................... 26
Figu e 12. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y and sec o (sel -employed) ...... 27
Figu e 13. Hou s usually wo ked pe week by coun y and occupa ion (sel -employed)
........................................................................................................................................ 27
Figu e 14. Hou s pe week usually wo ked, by coun y ................................................. 32
Lis o ables
Table 1. The e olu ion o wo king hou s in Eu ope - ac o s and p ocesses .................. 10
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