Pa lo ai e, Inga; Aseno , Rosen; Henningsen, As id
Wo king Pape
Ins i u ional and labou ela ions egimes p omo ing decen wo king
condi ions o Local and Regional Go e nmen (LRG) wo ke s in
C oa ia, Ge many, G eece, Spain, and Sweden
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 114
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Pa lo ai e, Inga; Aseno , Rosen; Henningsen, As id (2024) : Ins i u ional and
labou ela ions egimes p omo ing decen wo king condi ions o Local and Regional Go e nmen
(LRG) wo ke s in C oa ia, Ge many, G eece, Spain, and Sweden, ILO Wo king Pape , No. 114, ISBN
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XIns i u ional and labou ela ions
egimes p omo ing decen
wo king condi ions o Local and
Regional Go e nmen (LRG)
Wo ke s in C oa ia, Ge many,
G eece, Spain, and Sweden
Au ho s / Inga Pa lo ai e, Rosen Aseno , As id Henningsen
May / 2024
ILO Wo king Pape 114
Copy igh © In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion 2024
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Ins i u ional and labou ela ions egimes p omo ing decen wo king condi ions o Local and Regional
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XJRA9504
01 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Abs ac
This publica ion p esen s a compa a i e analysis o he Local and Regional Go e nmen (LRG) sec-
o wo k o ce in i e Eu opean coun ies: C oa ia, Ge many, G eece, Spain, and Sweden. Despi e
a ia ions in go e nance models and indus ial ela ions, commonali ies eme ge, such as he LRG
sec o 's signi icance in he na ional public sec o , a p edominan emale wo k o ce, and s ong
o ganiza ion wi hin social dialogue and collec i e ba gaining sys ems. Go e nance s uc u es
in luence LRG wo k o ce size, wi h C oa ia and G eece displaying highly cen alized adminis a-
ions, while Spain, Sweden, and Ge many showcase s onge LRG-le el adminis a ions. No ably,
LRG wo ke s cons i u e a subs an ial po ion o public sec o employmen ac oss all i e coun-
ies. The gende pay gap is lowe in he public sec o han he p i a e sec o , declining o e ime.
Di e ging his o ical ends in LRG sec o size a e obse ed, wi h inc eases in Ge many, Spain,
and Sweden, while G eece expe ienced a decline linked o aus e i y measu es. The s udy high-
ligh s a ia ions in labou egimes. T aining igh s o LRG wo ke s lack legal p o isions in all
coun ies excep Spain, whe e i is included in collec i e ba gaining. LRG wo ke s bene i om a
s ong igh o associa ion, union ep esen a ion, social dialogue adi ions, and ex ensi e col-
lec i e ba gaining co e age. T ade union p esence is highe in he LRG sec o compa ed o he
p i a e sec o . Legal igh s o s ike exis o LRG wo ke s in all coun ies excep o Ge man ci -
il se an s in he sec o . While he a i ica ion o he ILO Violence and Ha assmen Con en ion
(No.190) is limi ed, all i e coun ies ha e enac ed na ional and EU legisla ion agains wo kplace
disc imina ion and ha assmen .
Abou he au ho s
Inga Pa lo ai e has 20 yea s o expe ience o unde aking pan-Eu opean esea ch and e alu-
a ion s udies o assess he e ec i eness o policies and p ac ices ac oss a ange o policy a e-
as, including social and employmen policies, social dialogue and indus ial ela ions, and skills
de elopmen . He wo k included a numbe o s udies on he wo king condi ions, social pa -
ne landscape, digi alisa ion, and capaci y building needs in he local and egional go e nmen
ac oss he Eu opean coun ies.
Rosen Aseno has o e 10 yea s o esea ch and e alua ion expe ience wi h a ocus on p omo -
ing inclusion and equi y a in e na ional and na ional le els. He is highly expe ienced in con ib-
u ing o quali a i e esea ch design; epo ing, da a collec ion and analysis (documen e iew,
in e iews, ocus g oup discussions, su eys, obse a ion).
As id Henningsen has o e 20 yea s’ expe ience o p o iding specialised esea ch and e al-
ua ion se ices a a ansna ional le el. She has unde aken p epa a o y analysis, compa a i e
s udies and in e im and inal/ex-pos e alua ions and p o ided guidance on moni o ing and
e alua ion and p o ided capaci y building and aining.
02 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
Ac onyms 06
Execu i e Summa y 07
XIn oduc ion 09
Sec o al social dialogue a EU le el 10
Localizing SDGs o inclusi e de elopmen 11
Model o analysis and me hodology 12
X1 C oa ia 14
Go e nance sys em 14
LRG labou s a is ics 15
Sec o al b eakdown 16
Labou egimes 16
Pay s uc u es 17
T aining 18
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions 18
X2 Ge many 20
Go e nance sys em 20
Se ices p o ided by municipali ies 20
LRG labou s a is ics 21
Sec o al b eakdown 22
Labou egimes 23
Pay s uc u es 24
T aining 24
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions 25
X3 G eece 27
Go e nance sys em 27
Se ices p o ided by Subna ional go e nmen s 27
LRG labou s a is ics 28
Sec o al b eakdown 29
Labou egimes 30
Pay s uc u es 30
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 114
T aining 31
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions 31
X4 Spain 33
Go e nance sys em 33
LRG labou s a is ics 34
Sec o al b eakdown 35
Labou egimes 35
Pay s uc u es 36
T aining 37
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions 37
X5 Sweden 39
Go e nance sys em 39
LRG labou s a is ics 40
Sec o al b eakdown 42
Labou egimes 43
Pay s uc u es 44
T aining 45
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions 45
X6 Compa a i e summa y 47
Go e nance sys ems 47
LRG labou s a is ics 47
Gende b eakdown 47
Labou codes 48
Righ o aining and p o essional de elopmen 48
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions 48
Re e ences 50
04 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Lis o Figu es
Figu e 1. C oa ia: go e nmen s uc u e 14
Figu e 2. C oa ia: g oss wages, public adminis a ion and de ence; compulso y social secu i-
y (2012 - 2022, EUR) 17
Figu e 3. C oa ia: gende pay gap (pe cen ), 2016-2019 18
Figu e 4. Ge many: he go e nmen s uc u e 20
Figu e 5. Ge many: G oss mon hly wage, 2020, EUR 24
Figu e 6. G eece: he go e nmen s uc u e 27
Figu e 7. G eece: E olu ion o employmen in public adminis a ion and de ence; compulso-
y social secu i y ( housands), sha e o o al employmen 29
Figu e 8. Spain: he go e nmen s uc u e 33
Figu e 9. Spain: G ow h in employmen ( housands o employees) 34
Figu e 10. Spain: gende pay gap (2013 - 2022) 37
Figu e 11. Sweden: The go e nmen s uc u e 40
Figu e 12. Sweden: P i a e and public employmen by go e nmen le el 41
05 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Lis o Tables
Table 1: Dimensions and cha ac e is ics o decen aliza ion 09
Table 2. Some ag eed p oduc s o SSDC LRG, 2008-2015 10
Table 3. Indus ial ela ions egimes in coun ies unde s udy 13
Table 4. Decen aliza ion Index 13
Table 5. C oa ia: Employmen by sub-sec o , 2018 16
Table 6. Ge many: E olu ion o public employmen by go e nmen le el 21
Table 7. Ge many: Female employmen , 2020 22
Table 8. Ge many: Pa - ime employmen , 2020 22
Table 9. Ge many: Employmen by sub-sec o , 2020 22
Table 10. Ge many: Employees by employmen s a us, 2020 23
Table 11. Ge many: Employees by place o wo k, a he le el o Lände , 2020 23
Table 12. Ge many: Numbe o wo ke s s iking and s ike days, 2015-2020: Public adminis-
a ion, de ence and compulso y social secu i y s. o he sec o s 26
Table 13. Ge many: Numbe o s ikes, 2022: Public adminis a ion, de ence and compulso y
social secu i y s. o he sec o s 26
Table 14. G eece: numbe o employees in he local and egional adminis a ion (LRG), 2012 -
2017 29
Table 15. G eece: Gende pay gap in unadjus ed o m by ype o owne ship o he economic
ac i i y 30
Table 16. Spain: numbe o employees in he local and egional adminis a ion (LRG), 2019 35
Table 17. Sweden: Female employmen , 2019 (in housands) 41
Table 18. Sweden: Pa - ime employmen , 2020 42
Table 19. Sweden: Employmen by sub-sec o , 2020 42
Table 20. Sweden: Employees by place o wo k, 2019 43
Table 21. Sweden: G oss mon hly wage 2022 (SEK) by gende , and pay gaps 2015/2022 44
12 ILO Wo king Pape 114
pollu ion, especially om land-based sou ces such as plas ics. Main enance o he coas lines,
beaches, and solid was e managemen all wi hin he LRGs’ manda e.
●SDG 15: P o ec , es o e, and p omo e sus ainable u iliza ion o e es ial ecosys ems, man-
age o es s sus ainably, comba dese i ica ion, as well as hal and e e se land deg ada ion
and e mina e he loss o biodi e si y. Ope a ing in communi ies, LRGs unde s and and ap-
p ecia e he ma e ial condi ions o local people who may be engaged in de o es a ion. They
a e be e placed o lead sensi iza ion p og ammes and design al e na i e sou ces o ene -
gy o local communi ies.
Model o analysis and me hodology
This s udy seeks o e lec on he key issues a ec ing LRG wo ke s in i e Eu opean coun ies:
C oa ia, Ge many, G eece, Spain, and Sweden which ep esen he di e en geog aphies, s a e
o ganiza ion models, and income le els. Al hough hey a e no ep esen a i e o he whole o
Eu ope, hey a e su icien o a snapsho analysis o he si ua ion ob aining in LRGs ac oss
Eu ope’s di e se deg ees o decen aliza ion.
The epo is based p ima ily on desk esea ch o a ailable in o ma ion, including Eu opean and
na ional s a is ics, s a is ical banks, epo s, s udies, and publica ions. The in o ma ion was ob-
ained h ough a gene al sea ch o key policy da abases and gene al in o ma ion holde s a he
na ional le el (such as na ional s a is ical ins i u es). In addi ion, esponses o he ques ionnai e
issued o he a ilia es o EPSU/PSI2 and Council o Eu opean Municipali ies and Regions (CEMR)3
ha e been e lec ed in he epo esul s.
The coun ies selec ed also ep esen a sample o he cen alized indus ial ela ions egimes,
as de ined by he Eu opean Commission in 2008 acco ding o he manne he coun ies gene -
ally add ess hem, as ollows:
●o ganised co po a ism, wi h union densi y highe han employe densi y, bu high collec i e
ba gaining co e age;
●social pa ne ship, wi h employe densi y highe han union densi y, bu also high collec i e
ba gaining co e age;
●s a e-cen ed, wi h high employe densi y, low union densi y, and high collec i e ba gaining
co e age.
O he wo egimes a e no s udied he e:
●libe al, wi h low union and employe o ganiza ion densi y and collec i e ba gaining co e -
age; and
●mixed, e en lowe han he libe al model on all h ee a eas.
This s udy ocusses on he h ee ypologies wi h cen alized collec i e ba gaining: Sweden, an
o ganised co po a ism coun y; Ge many, a social pa ne ship coun y; and G eece, C oa ia, and
Spain, which a e s a e-cen ed. Collec i e ba gaining in Sweden and Ge many is mainly a he
sec o al le el, while he OECD has cha ac e ised he p incipal le el o ba gaining in he emain-
ing h ee coun ies as “ a iable/uns able” (Visse 2009, 49).
2EU a ilia es a e bo h a ilia ed o EPSU and PSI; PSI is he social pa ne o he ILO.
3CEMR is he Eu opean social pa ne o employe s in he LRG sec o .
13 ILO Wo king Pape 114
XTable 3. Indus ial ela ions egimes in coun ies unde s udy
Regimes/ coun ies Union densi y Employe associa ion
densi y
collec i e ba gaining co -
e age
O ganised Co po a ism
Sweden 65.2 (2019) 80-90 (2018) 90.0 (2018)
Social Pa ne ship
Ge many 16.3 67.8 (2019) 51.8 (2019)
S a e-cen ed
C oa ia 20.8 (2018) 56.3 (2014) 46.7 (2017)
G eece 19.0 (2016) 52.7 (2017) 25.8
Spain 12.4 77 80.1
Sou ces: ILOSTAT; OECD /AIAS ICTWSS da abase (Sep 2023)
The i e coun ies selec ed also ep esen di e en o ms o he decen alisa ion and o ganisa ion
o he deli e y o public se ices a he local and egional le el. Indeed, he o m and cha ac e o
decen aliza ion has implica ions on he wo king condi ions o sub-na ional wo ke s. Acco ding
o he Decen aliza ion Index – An in e ac i e ool wi h a pe spec i e on di e en dimensions o
decen alisa ion (poli ical, adminis a i e and iscal) ac oss he 27 EU Membe S a es, Ge many
and La ia a e he mos poli ically decen alized coun ies a he local le el in he EU egion wi h
I eland being he leas decen alised. Adminis a i ely, Denma k anks i s ollowed by Es onia
and Poland while I eland is he leas adminis a i ely decen alized. In e ms o iscal decen aliza-
ion, Denma k anks i s ega ding he expendi u e a io (i.e., he ela i e sha e o o e all sub-na-
ional expendi u e compa ed o o al go e nmen expendi u e) ollowed by Spain, and Ge many.
The Decen aliza ion Index measu es he deg ee o decen aliza ion based on he h ee di e -
en dimensions o decen aliza ion (poli ical, iscal, and adminis a i e) by alloca ing a sco e o
be ween 0 – 3 o each o he 27 EU membe coun ies. A sco e o 3 implies he highes deg ee
o decen aliza ion while a sco e o 0 means he leas deg ee o decen aliza ion. On his basis,
he i e coun ies, which a e a ocus o his s udy sco e di e en ly on he Decen aliza ion Index
as shown in he able below.
XTable 4. Decen aliza ion Index
Coun y
Decen aliza ion Sco e O e all
Decen aliza ion
Sco e
Decen a ion Index Rank
ou o EU27Poli ical Fiscal Adminis a i e
C oa ia 1.5 21.2 1.6 16/27
Ge many 2.5 3 2 2.5 1/27
G eece 1.8 0.3 1.6 1.3 22/27
Spain 1.8 2.7 2.2 2.2 6/27
Sweden 1.8 32.3 2.4 4/27
Sou ce: Eu opean Commi ee o he Regions: Decen aliza ion Index, accessed Sep embe 2022
14 ILO Wo king Pape 114
X1 C oa ia
C oa ia has h ee le els o go e nance - cen al le el, egional le el consis ing o 21 egional go -
e nmen uni s - 20 coun ies (županija) and he Ci y o Zag eb and local le el ha includes 428
municipali ies (općine) and 128 owns/ci ies (g ado i). The cons i u ional basis o he es ablish-
men o Local and Regional Sel -Go e nmen is ensh ined in Pa VI o he Cons i u ion o C oa ia.4
Go e nance sys em
C oa ia has a highly cen alized adminis a ion consis ing o s ong cen al go e nmen and LRGs
ha ac as in e media y in o ganizing cen ally led and inanced heal h, educa ion, and social
wel a e se ices (Eu opean Commission 2018a).
XFigu e 1. C oa ia: go e nmen s uc u e
The cen al s a e au ho i ies a e esponsible o o e all legisla ion and execu ion, he s a e budge
and annual accoun s, secu i y and de ence, adop ion o dec ees o implemen laws, o eign and
domes ic policy, di ec ion and con ol o e he ci il se ice ope a ion, economic de elopmen ,
di ec ion o he pe o mance and de elopmen o public se ices.
4C oa ia, “C oa ia’s Cons i u ion o 1991 wi h Amendmen s h ough 2010”; Eu opean Commi ee o he Regions, “Di ision o Powe s:
C oa ia”
15 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Coun ies, in u n, a e in cha ge o he ollowing ac i i ies:
- educa ion,
- medical ca e,
- own and u ban planning,
- economic de elopmen ,
- ansi and a ic in as uc u e,
- planning and de elopmen o he ne wo k o educa ional, medical, social and cul u al ins i u-
ions, and
- issuing building and loca ion pe mi s, o he ac s ela ed o cons uc ion, and he implemen a-
ion o physical planning documen s wi hin hei physical a ea bu ou side la ge ci ies.
Municipali ies pe o m asks o local impo ance ha di ec ly add ess he ci izens’ needs and a e
no assigned o s a e bodies, such as:
- o ganiza ion o se lemen s and housing,
- own and u ban planning,
- u ili y se ices,
- child-ca e,
- social wel a e,
- p ima y heal h p o ec ion,
- educa ion and p ima y-school educa ion,
- cul u e, physical cul u e and spo s,
- consume p o ec ion,
- p o ec ion and imp o emen o na u al en i onmen ,
- i e-p o ec ion and ci il de ence,
- a ic
La ge ci ies ha e b oade ju isdic ion, which also includes he municipal economy, main enance
o public oads, issuing building and loca ion pe mi s, o he ac s ela ed o cons uc ion, and he
implemen a ion o physical planning documen s wi hin hei physical a ea.
LRG labou s a is ics
The e a e no comple e s a is ics abou LRG sec o employmen in C oa ia. Es ima es show ha in
2015, he e we e 317,075 go e nmen employees in C oa ia (abou 18 pe cen o he coun y’s
wo k o ce), ou o which 87 pe cen we e cen al go e nmen employees, and he emaining
16 ILO Wo king Pape 114
13 pe cen (a ound 41,000) we e employed in he LRGs, indica ing a la ge and highly cen al-
ized public adminis a ion in C oa ia (Eu opean Commission 2018a, 102-103). Be ween 2016 and
2018, he LRG sec o employed some 36,000 employees, ou o which 22,000 (60 pe cen ) we e
local go e nmen and a ound 14,000 (40 pe cen ) we e employed in he egional go e nmen
(Eu o ound 2019).
Sec o al b eakdown
Wi hin he LRG sec o , abou hal o employees wo k in local go e nmen adminis a ion, a hi d
is employed in social wo k se ices, and he es (20 pe cen ) a e in he esiden ial ca e se ic-
es, lib a ies, a chi es, museums and cul u al ac i i ies. A he egional le el, less han a i h o
he public sec o employees a e in he egional go e nmen adminis a ion, and he emaining
o e 80 pe cen a e e enly widesp ead in esiden ial ca e se ices, social wo k ac i i ies, and li-
b a ies, a chi es, museums and cul u al ac i i ies.
XTable 5. C oa ia: Employmen by sub-sec o , 2018
Numbe s o Employees in he en i e LRG sec o 36 057 (C oa ian Bu eau o S a is ics)
Numbe s o es-
ima es o he
numbe s o Local
Adminis a ion
Employees
Adminis a ion o
local go e nmen s
Residen ial ca e ac-
i i ies unde he e-
sponsibili y o munic-
ipali ies
Social wo k ac i i ies un-
de he esponsibili y o
municipali ies
Lib a ies, a chi es,
museums and cul u -
al ac i i ies unde he
esponsibili y o munic-
ipali ies
22,308 9,765 3,654 7,015 1,874
Numbe o es i-
ma es o he num-
be s o egion-
al adminis a ion
Employees
Adminis a ion o
egional go e n-
men s
Residen ial ca e ac-
i i ies unde he e-
sponsibili y o egion-
al adminis a ion*
Social wo k ac i i ies un-
de he esponsibili y o
egional adminis a ion*
Lib a ies, a chi es, mu-
seums and cul u al ac-
i i ies unde he e-
sponsibili y o egional
adminis a ion*
14,521 (es .) 2,521 4,000 (es ima ion) 4,000 (es ima ion) 4,000 (es ima ion)
* These ac i i ies can be inanced o go e ned by egional go e nmen / adminis a ion.
Sou ce: Pa lo ai e e al, 2022.
Labou egimes
The e a e wo main o ms o labou egimes and employmen in he public sec o : he ci il se -
an and he employee. Ci il se an s employed by he cen al s a e (wi hin he ‘s a e adminis a-
ion sys em’) a he cen al le el and LRGs a e egula ed sepa a ely om employees and o he
wo ke s in all pa s o public adminis a ion who a e employed based on labou con ac s eg-
ula ed by he Labou Ac o 2014. Ci il se an s pe o m adminis a i e and p o essional asks
wi hin he ield o ac i i y o hei ele an bodies, whe eas employees pe o m suppo ing and
auxilia y asks. The Ac on Ci il Se an s and Employees in Local and Regional Sel -go e nmen
egula es he igh s, du ies and esponsibili ies, as well as o he ma e s ele an o he wo k o
ci il se an s and employees in local go e nmen uni s’ adminis a i e bodies.
Mos s a e-employed wo ke s in he adminis a ion a e ci il se an s. The la ges sha e o ci -
il se an s is in he s a e (cen al and LRG) adminis a ion – 93 pe cen o all employed. In he
LRG, hei sha e is 88 pe cen , and in cen ally inanced public se ices i is 86 pe cen . The ci il
se an s’ igh s es ablished in he Ci il se ice legisla ion include he igh o sala y, he igh o
aining, he igh o equal ea men in se ice, poli ical igh s, and he igh o be p o ec ed in
he e en o whis leblowing, among o he s (Eu opean Commission 2018a).
17 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Pay s uc u es
The Go e nmen Dec ee o 2001 (wi h mul iple la e amendmen s) es ablishes he coe icien s
ha de e mine ci il se an s’ emune a ion, complemen ed by o he ac o s.
High- anking senio ci il se an s a e paid less han hei coun e pa s in he p i a e sec o , while
he sala ies in he lowe echelons o public adminis a ion a e highe han he lowes sala ies in
he p i a e sec o (Eu opean Commission 2018a). A e age wages in he public sec o in C oa ia
declined be ween 2008 and 2016. In 2020, he go e nmen inc eased he wages o all ci il and
public se an s by 6.12 pe cen (in h ee inc emen s o 2 pe cen ).
XFigu e 2. C oa ia: g oss wages, public adminis a ion and de ence; compulso y social secu i y (2012 - 2022,
EUR)
Sou ce: ILOSTAT
In 2021, men wo king in he public sec o ea ned eigh pe cen mo e han women on a e age
(Sala y Explo e 2021). Howe e , o e all, in he public sec o he gende pay gap was lowe han
in he p i a e sec o and dec eased sligh ly in he las yea s.
18 ILO Wo king Pape 114
XFigu e 3. C oa ia: gende pay gap (pe cen ), 2016-2019
Sou ce: Eu os a
T aining
In C oa ia, ci il se ice aining is seen as closely linked o he objec i es and p ocesses o public
adminis a ion e o ms. These links a e explici ly ecognised, making ci il se an s’ pa icipa ion
in aining ac i i ies and p og ammes bo h a igh and an obliga ion (OECD 2008). A icle 54 o
he Labou Ac obliges he employe p o ide “schooling, educa ion, oca ional as well as p o-
essional aining o he wo ke .” In-se ice aining o ci il se an s is pa ially cen alised. In
2004, he Ci il Se an s’ T aining Cen e was es ablished as he main aining ins i u ion espon-
sible o p omo ing and implemen ing ci il se ice e o ms. T aining p og ammes and cu icula
o ci il se an s a e de i ed om aining needs assessmen s. Mo e han en s a e bodies con-
inue o o ganise in-se ice aining in hei espec i e ields ( ax adminis a ion, diplomacy, e c.)
(Eu opean Commission 2018a).
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions
The e a e no collec i e ag eemen s co e ing he whole o local and egional adminis a ion. Ou
o all wo ke s in he LRG sec o , hal a e co e ed by mul i-employe and single employe collec-
i e ba gaining. Collec i e ag eemen s a e ba gained and signed sepa a ely a he egional and
local le els, and hey co e a ound 70 pe cen o he wo ke s in he LRG adminis a ion, pub-
lic o de and sa e y, 20 pe cen o he wo ke s in he i e se ice, and 10 pe cen o he social
wo ke s unde LRG, esiden ial wo ke s, and lib a y, a chi es and museum and cul u al ac i i ies
employees unde LRG (Eu o ound 2019). The e is signi ican he e ogenei y in he ex en and pa -
e ns o collec i e ba gaining in LRG uni s. The e a e LRG uni s in which igh s o all employees,
including in en e p ises hey own, a e egula ed by egula collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s.
The e a e also LRG uni s in which collec i e ag eemen s we e concluded only o a segmen o
employees. This si ua ion esul s in lack o coo dina ion o employees' igh s in di e en uni s
o local go e nmen .
19 ILO Wo king Pape 114
The T ade Union o S a e and Local Ci il Se an s and Employees o C oa ia (SDLSN) is he only
ade union ha ep esen s all ypes o public se ice wo ke s. SDLSN - he s onges ade un-
ion in he sec o and membe o PSI, EPSU, ITUC and ETUC - is in ol ed in mul i-employe and
collec i e ba gaining in he sec o and is consul ed by he go e nmen on wo king condi ions
o employmen ela ed issues in he sec o (Eu o ound 2019). In some ci ies o egions he e a e
some smalle and less in luen ial TUs, which a e no ep esen a i e o he collec i e ba gaining.
Public sec o ade unions ha e been success ul in challenging ou sou cing e o ms, such as a
e o m in ended o ou sou ce abou 26,500 jobs om public adminis a ion o he p i a e sec-
o in 2014 (Eu opean Commission 2018a).
The o he h ee local go e nmen associa ions p omo ing and se ing he in e es s o sub-na-
ional go e nmen s include he Associa ion o Municipali ies which co e 283 associa ed munic-
ipali ies ou o 428; Associa ion o Towns, wi h 121 ou o 128 owns; and he C oa ian Coun y
Associa ion wi h 20 coun ies and he Ci y o Zag eb as membe s. The h ee associa ions a e all
membe s o CEMR.
The igh o s ike is cons i u ionally gua an eed wi h some es ic ions ha apply o he a med
o ces, he police, he ci il se ice and public se ices (whe e some LRG wo ke s a e wo king,
such as in he municipal police o example) (EPSU and ETUI 2020a).5 Such wo ke s e en when
on s ike mus con inue o wo k o gua an ee minimum se ices in hei a ea o esponsibili y.6
Acco ding o he Labou Ac , only ade unions ha e he igh o call and unde ake a s ike.7
The e is a signi ican body o Eu opean coun ies ha a e implemen ing na ional legisla ion on
he p ohibi ion o disc imina ion and ha assmen a wo k.8 Howe e , C oa ia has no a i ied ILO
Con en ion on he Elimina ion o Violence and Ha assmen in he Wo ld o Wo k, 2019 (No. 190).
5A icle 61 o he Cons i u ion o he Republic o C oa ia gua an ees he igh o s ike wi h some es ic ions as ollows: ‘The igh o
s ike shall be gua an eed. The igh o s ike may be es ic ed in he a med o ces, he police, he ci il se ice and public se ices
as speci ied by law.
6See C oa ia Police Ac , A icle 96, The Law on Police
7The e a e no da a abou he numbe o s ikes, numbe o wo ke s s iking, and numbe o s ike days in C oa ia.
8A icle 2 o he TFEU es ablishes he non-disc imina ion p inciple as one o he undamen al alues o he Union, while A icle 10 o
he TFEU speci ies he disc imina ion g ounds ecognised in legisla ion, his is complemen ed by he Employmen Equali y Di ec i e
(Di ec i e 2000/78/EC); he Racial Equali y Di ec i e (Di ec i e 2000/43/EC)
20 ILO Wo king Pape 114
X2 Ge many
Go e nance sys em
Ge many is a ede al s a e, consis ing o h ee le els o go e nmen – na ional ede al go e n-
men , 16 s a es (Lände ) and 11,054 municipali ies. The Basic Law ( he Cons i u ion) de ines he
ede al and s a e go e nmen s' legisla i e esponsibili ies as exclusi e ede al powe s (A icles
71 and 73), compe ing powe s (A icles 72, 74), sha ed powe s (A icle 72), and exclusi e s a e
/ egion powe s (A icle 70). The egions ha e exclusi e powe s in he police (excluding ede al
police), mos o educa ion, he p ess, eedom o assembly, public housing, p isons, and media
a ai s. Municipali ies a e he lowes le el o adminis a ion in Ge many. The e a e se e al ypes
o municipali ies in Ge many, wi h di e en le els o au onomy.
XFigu e 4. Ge many: he go e nmen s uc u e
Se ices p o ided by municipali ies
The ede al go e nmen can exe cise au ho i y only in he a eas speci ied in he Basic Law. The
exclusi e legisla i e ju isdic ion o he ede al go e nmen includes de ence, o eign a ai s, im-
mig a ion, ci izenship, communica ions and cu ency s anda ds
21 ILO Wo king Pape 114
The ede al and s a e go e nmen s sha e concu en powe s in se e al a eas including bu no
limi ed o business law, ci il law, wel a e, axa ion, consume p o ec ion, public holidays and
public heal h. Ge man s a es o ganize egis y o ices, ood inspec ion, ci il egis a ion, and
s a is ical wo k.
The lowes le el o o icial e i o ial di ision a e he i e main di e en ypes o municipali ies.
The municipali ies ha e “manda o y asks ha a e p esc ibed by ede al o s a e laws . . . . These
include passpo and ci il egis a ion se ices, he p o ision o schools and oads, u ban land-use
planning, s ee cleaning and was ewa e managemen . . . . In addi ion, he e a e olun a y mu-
nicipal asks such as cul u e, spo s acili ies and local de elopmen coope a ion.” (Engagemen
Global 2023)
O he municipal asks include oad cons uc ion, anspo , main enance o schools and kinde -
ga ens, public sa e y ( i e p o ec ion se ice, labou inspec o a e, building inspec o a e), social
assis ance (social wel a e, old people‘s homes, homeless shel e s), educa ion and cul u e (adul
educa ion cen es, lib a ies, hea es, o ches as, museums), u ili ies (wa e , elec ici y, gas), hous-
ing cons uc ion, u ban planning, economic de elopmen , heal h and you h wel a e, was e dispos-
al, sewe age, g een spaces, ec ea ion, ceme e ies, hospi als, playg ounds, and spo s acili ies.
LRG labou s a is ics
Cu en ly, mo e han six million public sec o employees wo k in he coun y, whe e mos o 41
pe cen a e a he egional go e nmen s, 38 pe cen in he municipal go e nmen s and 12 pe
cen in he ede al go e nmen . The numbe o employees has inc eased a all go e nmen le els
o e he las i e yea s, wi h he highes inc ease obse ed a he municipal le el (+12 pe cen ).
XTable 6. Ge many: E olu ion o public employmen by go e nmen le el
2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 Change 2015-
2020
Fede al 690,890 692,840 702,745 716,405 734,050 755,070 9%
Regional 2,501,095 2,527,215 2,556,870 2,602,305 2,650,600 2,684,645 7%
Municipal 2,218,510 2,257,845 2,317,270 2,362,785 2,416,970 2,478,450 12%
Social insu -
ance 407,845 410,355 411,880 413,885 414,425 419,180 3%
To al 5,818,340 5,888,260 5,988,765 6,095,375 6,216,040 6,337,345 9%
Sou ce: Fede al S a is ics O ice
O e hal o he employees in he public sec o a e women. The sha e o emale employmen is
pa icula ly high a he municipal and egional le el, in con as wi h less han a hi d o emale
employees a he ede al le el.
28 ILO Wo king Pape 114
A icle 102 o he G eek Cons i u ion es ablishes he ounda ions o he p o ision o subna ion-
al go e nmen se ices: “The ange and ca ego ies o local a ai s, as well as hei alloca ion o
each le el, shall be speci ied by law. Law may assign o local go e nmen agencies he exe cise
o compe ences cons i u ing mission o he S a e.”
Decen alised s a e adminis a ions supe ise egional and municipal au ho i ies, assess he le-
gali y o adminis a i e ac s o municipal au ho i ies, manage s a e asse s e c. The e a e se e al
a eas o concu en powe s be ween egions and municipali ies, and o he s a e exclusi e o each.
Regions a e esponsible o egional de elopmen planning, “g een de elopmen ”; ag icul u e,
li es ock, ishe y; na u al esou ces, and ene gy-indus y (wa e managemen , mine al weal h,
ene gy, indus y and manu ac u ing); employmen , ade and ou ism; anspo s and commu-
nica ions; wo ks, spa ial planning, and en i onmen ; heal h; educa ion, cul u e, and spo s; and
ci il p o ec ion, and logis ics.
Municipali ies a e esponsible o building pe mi s and u ban planning applica ions; issuing o
p o essional licences; u al de elopmen , ag icul u e, li es ock and ishe ies; anspo in a-
s uc u e; heal hca e; educa ion; en i onmen ; quali y o li e and p ope unc ioning o ci ies and
se lemen s; employmen ; social p o ec ion and solida i y; educa ion, cul u e and spo s; and
ci il p o ec ion. Howe e , insula municipali ies exe cise addi ional powe s in he ollowing a e-
as: ag icul u e; na u al esou ces, ene gy and indus y; employmen , ade and ou ism; ans-
po s and communica ions; and wo ks, u ban and spa ial planning and en i onmen . (Council
o Eu ope 2012)
The economic adjus men p og amme o G eece called o me ging municipali ies, p e ec u es
and egions wi h he aim o educing ope a ing cos s and “es ablish local go e nmen uni s size-
able enough o ma shal esou ces and skills use ul o he abso p ion o EU unding.” (Eu opean
Commission 2011) As a esul , 325 municipali ies we e c ea ed om 1034 p e iously exis ing ones
(So i opoulos 2018), pa o a ound 4,500 local go e nmen en i ies ha we e closed o me ged.
(Eu opean Commission 2011) Howe e , a ecen s udy “[u]sing da a o he 2005-2018 pe iod,
[ ound] e y weak e idence o he e o m on cu en cos s, while he amalgama ion o munici-
pali ies is associa ed wi h a signi ican dec ease in pe capi a in es men o a ound 31 Pe cen .
This e ec is obus , pe sis en , and associa ed wi h a subs an ial decline in GDP pe capi a o
abou 5% a e he amalgama ion ook place.” (Benos e al. 2023)
LRG labou s a is ics
In 2022, he e we e 371,800 public adminis a ion employees in G eece. Public adminis a ion
employmen in G eece sh ank by 18.2 pe cen be ween i s p e-c isis le el o 382,000 in he i s
qua e o 2008 and i s zeni h in 2019 (Table 16). This end is connec ed o he aus e i y meas-
u es ela ed o G eece’s 2008-2009 economic c isis, which led o layo s and 50 pe cen educ-
ion in go e nmen subsidies o he local adminis a ion (Pa lo ai e e al, 2019).
29 ILO Wo king Pape 114
XFigu e 7. G eece: E olu ion o employmen in public adminis a ion and de ence; compulso y social secu i-
y ( housands), sha e o o al employmen
Sou ces: ILOSTAT
Sec o al b eakdown
The sha e o he cen al go e nmen in he public sec o employmen was 84 pe cen , and ha
o he local and egional go e nmen – 15 pe cen and one pe cen , espec i ely.11 Be ween
2015 and 2017, he numbe o employees a he local go e nmen /municipal le el educed om
82,769 o 74,134, he majo i y o whom - a ound 66,000 (89 pe cen ) – we e employed in he local
adminis a ion. An e en highe dec ease ook place a he egional le el be ween 2012 and 2015
when he numbe o egional adminis a ion employees was educed by mo e han hal om
14,943 in 2012 o 6,803 in 2015 (Table 14). Apa om he o e all numbe o employees, i was no
possible o ind disagg ega ed da a a egional o municipal le el by, o example, depa men .
XTable 14. G eece: numbe o employees in he local and egional adminis a ion (LRG), 2012 - 2017
Yea
To al numbe
o Local admin-
is a ion em-
ployees
Adminis a ion
o local go -
e nmen s
Municipal ad-
minis a ion:
Residen ial
ca e ac i i ies
Municipal ad-
minis a ion:
Social wo k ac-
i i ies
Municipal ad-
minis a ion:
Lib a ies, a -
chi es, muse-
ums and cul-
u al ac i i ies
To al numbe
o egional
adminis a-
ion employ-
ees
2012 -65,919 672 7,066 477 14,943
2015 82,769 - - - - 6,803
2017 74,134 - - - - -
NOTE: ELSTAT no longe publishes wo-digi economic ac i i y da a. Also, i was no possible o ind he gende -disagg ega ed da a o
local and egional go e nmen employees.
Sou ces: Eu opean Union, 2018; Hellenic S a is ical Au ho i y (ELSTAT), 2017; Eu opean Council, 2012.
11 Eu opean Union, "The Public Adminis a ion and cha ac e is ics in he EU 28: G eece", 2018
30 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Labou egimes
The e a e wo b oad ca ego ies o employees o he cen al and local go e nmen : ci il se an s
and public employees wi h a labou con ac . The la e may ha e a con ac o an inde ini e ime
pe iod o a ixed- e m con ac while ci il se an s a e appoin ed wi h enu e and hei employ-
men ela ion wi h he s a e is egula ed by he Ci il Se ice Code (included in Laws 3528/2007,
3584/2007 and 4057/2012). Howe e , cou decisions ha e equa ed he s a us o ci il se an s
wi h ha o employees wi h inde ini e pe iod con ac s. Public employees unde ixed- e m o
p ojec -based con ac s, egula ed by Labou Law, do no enjoy enu e o employmen (Eu opean
Commission 2018b). Subna ional wo ke s a e ep esen ed by he ADEDY union, which ep e-
sen ed 73.33 pe cen o hem in 2001 (Wal he i 2001).
Pay s uc u es
Be ween 1997 and 2009, he e we e pay inc eases o b ing he ci il se ice in line wi h he p i-
a e sec o , wi h a new pay me hod based on a se ies o 36 sala y scales acco ding o each job
ca ego y. Each scale is b oken down in o 18 le els, each one wi h a base sala y. Employees sal-
a y is aised by one le el au oma ically e e y wo yea s. Local go e nmen con ac ual employ-
ees’ sala ies a e se by collec i e ag eemen s concluded be ween ade unions, he Minis y o
he In e io , and he Minis y o Finance. In local go e nmen s, emune a ion is he same as
o S a e ci il se an s (Eu os a 2015b). Remune a ion in he public sec o is gene ally de ined
by wo ac o s: a) h ee componen s (basic sala y, senio i y and pos allowance), es ablished by
law, which o en changes depending on he condi ion o he s a e’s inances; and b) a ia ions
in he emune a ion by minis y and s a e agency. The basic sala y depends on educa ional le -
el; he senio i y allowance is added o he basic sala y e e y h ee yea s; and a pos allowance
is p o ided o ci il se an s in manage ial posi ions. The e a e no pe o mance- ela ed bonuses
(Eu opean Commisssion 2018b).
Be ween 2009 and 2013 he a e age income o ci il se an s ell by eigh pe cen , while ha o
employees in public co po a ions (albei s a ing om a compa a i ely much highe le el) ell by
25 pe cen . In compa ison, sala ies in he non-banking p i a e sec o ell by 19 pe cen o he
same pe iod (Eu opean Commisssion 2018b).
Some ca ego ies o ci il se an s ea n mo e han o he public sec o employees (Eu opean
Commisssion 2018b). In 2021, on a e age, he public sec o employees in G eece ea ned six pe
cen mo e han hei p i a e sec o coun e pa s, wi h a e age sala y in he public sec o being
EUR 2,520 compa ed o EUR 2,370 in he p i a e sec o (Sala y Explo e 2021). Da a speci ically
ela ing o he wages o local/ egional go e nmen wo ke s a e no a ailable, bu he end o
he o e all public sec o wages also applies a local go e nmen le el.
F om 2010 o 2018, he gende pay gap in he public sec o declined by 53 pe cen compa ed o
one pe cen decline in he p i a e and emained smalle han ha in he p i a e sec o (Table 18).
XTable 15. G eece: Gende pay gap in unadjus ed o m by ype o owne ship o he economic ac i i y
2010 2014 2018 Di e ence, (2010-2018) % Change (2010 – 2018)
Public sec o 16.4% 13.0% 7.7% 8.7% -53%
P i a e sec o 17.3% 16.4% 17.2% 0.1% -1%
Sou ce: Eu os a , “Gende pay gap in unadjus ed o m by ype o owne ship o he economic ac i i y”.
31 ILO Wo king Pape 114
T aining
In 1994, a High Council o he Selec ion o Pe sonnel was es ablished by Law No.2190/1994 and
is esponsible o he selec ion and aining o ci il se an s (including local and egional go e n-
men wo ke s). I is an independen au ho i y o e seeing he selec ion p ocess, ensu ing me i ,
impa iali y, and anspa ency. In 1983, he Na ional Cen e o Public Adminis a ion and Local
Go e nmen was ounded wi h he aim o aining ci il se an s. High le el ci il se ice o icials
ha e been ained in he Na ional School o Public Adminis a ion be o e en e ing he public
se ice. The Ins i u e o In-Se ice T aining is an addi ional uni o he Cen e, p o iding con inu-
ous p o essional aining (Hellenic Republic 2022). The Minis y o Adminis a i e Recons uc ion
is esponsible o s anda dising ec ui men and skills p o iles, o e seeing he ini ial and in-se -
ice aining o ci il se an s in he Na ional Cen e o Public Adminis a ion and moni o ing he
conduc o compe i ions o en y-le el ci il se an s ((Eu opean Commisssion 2018b).
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions
The e a e wo majo ade union con ede a ions in G eece – ADEDY (Sup eme Adminis a ion
o G eek Ci il Se an s T ade Unions), co e ing he cen al, local, and egional go e nmen em-
ployees – a membe o PSI and EPSU, and GSEE, which o ganises p i a e sec o employees and
employees in i ms and sec o s unde public con ol. Below his le el is a hie a chy o union
s uc u es - p ima y le el unions (a he base) and second le el o ganisa ions (indus y o occu-
pa ional ede a ions, o egional o ganisa ions, known as labou cen es). ADEDY is a hi d-le el
o ganiza ion wi h p ima y-le el ade-unions o ci il se an s o ming seconda y-le el ede a-
ions which a e membe s o ADEDY, among hem is he municipal wo ke s’ POE-OTA ade un-
ion ede a ion (ETUI 2016a).
Gene al collec i e ag eemen s which egula e he o e all e ms and condi ions o employmen
o employees co e ed by Law No. 2738/1999 a e d awn up ollowing nego ia ions be ween hese
employees' mos ep esen a i e hi d-le el ade union o ganisa ion (i.e. con ede a ion) and he
cen al go e nmen . Fo nego ia ions on issues conce ning i s - and second-le el local au ho -
i y employees, ep esen a i es o he Cen al Union o Municipali ies and Communes o G eece
(KEDE, a membe o CEMR) o he Union o P e ec u al Go e nmen s o G eece (ENAE) espec-
i ely a e also p esen a he nego ia ions (Pa lo ai e e al 2019).
The Ci il Se an s’ Code egula es he s a us o public employees excep some cases, which e-
qui e special condi ions o a e subjec o cons an changes. In addi ion o ci il se an s and con-
ac ual s a , empo a y s a a e hi ed o h ee o eigh mon hs in o de o co e empo a y
s a ing equi emen s. Public employees ha e almos he same igh s and obliga ions as ci il
se an s, wi h di e ences ela ed o hei assessmen , p omo ion, heal h and social secu i y sys-
em and pension schemes. Tempo a y con ac ual s a do no enjoy he same igh s, bu some
bene i s a e he same, such as ma e ni y lea e (Eu os a 2015b). The Ci il Se ice Code de ines
he igh s and obliga ions o ci il se an s and con ac employees wi h inde ini e pe iod con-
ac s, including wo ke s a he local and egional go e nmen le el. Indi idual igh s include he
igh o p i acy, he p o ec ion agains dismissals, he igh o pa icipa e in poli ical ac i i ies, he
eedom o associa ion, he igh o belong o a poli ical pa y, and he igh o s ike (Eu opean
Commission 2018b). The igh o s ike is gua an eed by A icle 23 o he Cons i u ion. Only ade
unions may call s ikes (ETUI 2017).
As ega ds ci il se an s, a s ike may be called only by he second le el and hi d-le el ade un-
ion o ganisa ions a e a decision o he gene al assembly, o by p ima y ade union o ganisa-
ions o b oade geog aphic egions o na ional co e age. S ikes a e p ohibi ed o membe s
o he judicia y and pe sons se ing in he secu i y co ps, including mili a y pe sonnel and ci il
se an s o he a med o ces and he Hellenic Coas Gua d (EPSU and ETUI 2019a). The e a e no
o icial s a is ics o s ikes in G eece. Acco ding o he GSEE Ins i u e o Employmen , be ween
May 2010 and he end o 2015, he GSEE o ganized 28 gene al s ikes (20 las ing 24 hou s and
4 las ing 48 hou s) (ETUI 2017).
32 ILO Wo king Pape 114
The new G eek employmen Law No. 4808/2021, domes ica es he Violence and Ha assmen
Con en ion, 2019 (No. 190), which, along I aly makes G eece a o e unne amongs he EU.
Unde his law, employe s a e obliged o ake measu es o p e en disc imina ion and ha ass-
men a wo k and o ecei e, in es iga e and manage all complain s ela ed o iolence and ha -
assmen a he wo kplace con iden ially, wi hou any ole ance o iolence, and in a way ha
espec s human digni y.12
12 See A icles 1 – 23 o Law No.4808/2021
33 ILO Wo king Pape 114
X4 Spain
Go e nance sys em
Spain has h ee le els o go e nmen - cen al, egional (comp ised o 17 au onomous commu-
ni ies and he au onomous ci ies o Ceu a and Melilla) and local, (consis ing o 50 p o inces and
8, 131 municipali ies). The Cons i u ion se s ou he di ision o powe s, whe e exclusi e, legisla i e,
and basic compe ences a e a ibu ed o he S a e while he Au onomous Communi ies assume
compe ences ha a e no a ibu ed o he S a e and de ined in hei S a u es o Au onomy. The
p o inces exis mainly o coo dina ing pu poses (see Figu e 8).
XFigu e 8. Spain: he go e nmen s uc u e
Sou ces: Eu opean Commi ee o he Regions; Eu opean Commission, 2018c
34 ILO Wo king Pape 114
The cen al go e nmen has cons i u ionally gua an eed basic and legisla i e compe ences in
di e en a eas, such as exclusi e powe s in in e na ional ela ions, de ence, adminis a ion o
jus ice, comme cial, c iminal, ci il and labou legisla ion, cus oms, gene al inances ad s a e deb ,
public heal h, e c.
Au onomous communi ies ha e almos exclusi e powe o manage hei own inances, educa ion,
heal h, social se ices, ag icul u e, indus y, and ade, al hough he cen al go e nmen has he
powe o issue basic legisla ion in hese a eas. Depending on hei S a u es, au onomous com-
muni ies may ha e addi ional powe s, such as egional secu i y o ces, co-o icial language, e c.
P o inces a e gene ally esponsible o secu ing coo dina ion and p o ision o municipal se ic-
es. Municipali ies, in u n, p o ide local public se ices ( he ype o which depends on he mu-
nicipali y size), such as public oad main enance, d inking wa e supply sys ems, was e collec ion
and ea men , ci il p o ec ion, e c.
LRG labou s a is ics
Be ween 2009 and 2019, public sec o employmen as a sha e o o al employmen sligh ly in-
c eased om a ound 2.8 million o jus abo e 3 million employees, o a ound 15.6 pe cen o all
employees in Spain (Table 15). The OECD epo s ha “In 2021, public employmen in Spain ep-
esen ed 16.6% o o al employmen ,” o an annual a e age g ow h a e o 2.8 pe cen (OECD
2023). The egional go e nmen sha e was 58 pe cen , compa ed o a ound 20 pe cen o
he cen al and local go e nmen each, indica ing high decen alisa ion om cen al o egional
and local go e nmen (EC 2018).
XFigu e 9. Spain: G ow h in employmen ( housands o employees)
Sou ces: Au ho ’s calcula ions based on da a om Eu os a , “Employmen and ac i i y by sex and age – annual da a” and OECD
2021a.
35 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Sec o al b eakdown
In 2019, 43 pe cen (1,313,600) o he public sec o employees we e employees in he local and
egional adminis a ion, mos o which (79 pe cen ) we e in he egional adminis a ion. Two-
hi ds o he egional and h ee-qua e s o he local adminis a ion employees we e employed
in he adminis a ion o hei espec i e le el o go e nmen (Pa lo ai e e al, 2022). The e was
no da a on emale employmen a he local and egional le els o go e nmen .
XTable 16. Spain: numbe o employees in he local and egional adminis a ion (LRG), 2019
To al numbe o e-
gional adminis a ion
employees
Adminis a ion o
egional go e n-
men s
Regional adminis a-
ion: Residen ial ca e
ac i i ies
Regional adminis-
a ion: social wo k
ac i i ies
Regional adminis a ion: li-
b a ies, a chi es, museums
and cul u al ac i i ies
1,037,000 680,000 202,000 136,000 19,000
To al numbe o Local
adminis a ion em-
ployees
Adminis a ion o
local go e nmen s
Municipal adminis-
a ion: Residen ial
ca e ac i i ies
Municipal admin-
is a ion: Social
wo k ac i i ies
Municipal adminis a ion:
Lib a ies, a chi es, museums
and cul u al ac i i ies
276,600 203,900 37,800 25,500 9,400
Sou ce: Pa lo ai e e al, 2022
Labou egimes
The e a e wo main o ms o labou egimes and employmen in he public sec o : he ci il se -
an and he employee wi h a labou con ac . Ci il Se an s a e appoin ed o li e and hei em-
ploymen ela ion is egula ed by Adminis a i e Law. Ci il se an s may hold mos posi ions in
he public sec o , as he pos s ela ed o he sa egua ding o public powe s and he S a e gen-
e al in e es a e ese ed o ci il se an s. The e is no p oba ion pe iod o newly employed ci il
se an s. The employees unde con ac a e egula ed by he Employmen Law; hey do no en-
joy enu e and a e ec ui ed only o ce ain posi ions. In 2016, ci il se an s ep esen ed a ma-
jo i y o employees in he S a e (81.6 pe cen ) and egional (64.8 pe cen ) adminis a ion, while
in he local adminis a ion hey we e a ound 38 pe cen (EC 2018).
The Ci il Se ice Basic S a u e de ines a Code o Conduc and e hical p inciples as well as igh s
and obliga ions acc ued o public se ice wo ke s. Righ s include he igh o p i acy, immobili y,
adminis a i e ca ee and pay, igh o associa ion, and he igh o s ike, amongs o he s. Non-
ci il se ice employees a e subjec o an employmen con ac and a e egula ed by he Labou
Law (Wo ke s’ and Collec i e Ag eemen s S a u e). The Spanish Fede a ion o Municipali ies and
P o inces ep esen employe s, while Subna ional wo ke s a e ep esen ed by he public se -
ice b anches o he Gene al Wo ke Union, he Wo ke Commissions and he Basque Wo ke s
Solida i y, which oge he ep esen ed 72.53 pe cen o hem in 2001 (Wal he i 2001). A p es-
en , he e a e hund eds o municipal and p o incial (called au onomous) collec i e ag eemen s
(Eu os a 2015c).13 The e we e 78 collec i e ag eemen s in he p o incial and local adminis a-
ions ha had inancial impac s in 2022, co e ing 21,302 wo ke s.14 The Wo ke s’ Commission
epo s ha hese ag eemen s eco ded he smalles sala y inc eases among all economic sec-
o s in 2021, bu he g ea es ela i e inc eases in 2022. (CCOO 2023, p. 16). A ecen e o by
he Spanish go e nmen o inc ease hei au onomy o e he cen alized collec i e ag eemen s
was no app o ed by he pa liamen .
13 Full- ex e sions o he collec i e ag eemen s can be ound a he Collec i e Ag eemen sea ch engine o he Labou Minis y
14 Minis y o Labou and Social Economy, s a is ical web page, 2022 p o isional da a,
h ps://www.mi es.gob.es/es adis icas/cc /cc 22p o/cc _2022_a .xls, sp eadshee CCT-II.11.
36 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Mos acancies a e illed h ough compe i ion among he success ul candida es. A la ge p opo -
ion o success ul candida es a e i s admi ed in o a speci ic aining school (e.g. ax inspec o s,
ci il adminis a o s o diploma s). The aining may las up o 10 mon hs, and i is mo e cus om-
a y a he cen al han a he LRG le els o go e nmen . The e is no clea compe ency amewo k
o pe o mance/compe ency app aisal ha de e mines he indi idual aining ack o each ci il
se an . Public employees a e en i led o aining a e ecei ing he pe mission o he head o
he uni (Eu os a 2015c).
Pay s uc u es
Remune a ion o he ci il se an s consis s o i e componen s: he basic sala y (depends on
he educa ional le el); a senio i y allowance (paid e e y h ee yea s); ank allowance (based on
he pe sonal g ade o he ci il se an ); pos allowance (depends on he ea u es o he job); and
pe o mance-based bonuses. Basic sala y, senio i y and ank allowance a e es ablished in he
Annual Budge a y Law, while pos allowance and bonuses a e de e mined by each minis y in
nego ia ions wi h he Minis y o Finance and Public Adminis a ion. The highe he hie a chi-
cal le el, he less ele ance is assigned o he h ee basic componen s (basic sala y, senio i y,
and ank), and mo e o complemen a y ewa ds ha a e no used o wo king ou he pension
scheme (EC 2018).
In 2021, on a e age public sec o employees in Spain ea ned 5 pe cen mo e han hei p i a e
sec o coun e pa s (2,780 EUR e sus 2,660 EUR) ac oss all sec o s (Sala y Explo e 2024). F om
2011 o 2019, he gende pay gap in he public sec o dec eased om 13 pe cen o a ound 10
pe cen and emained smalle han ha in he p i a e sec o , whe e a dec ease was obse ed
as well - om 21.4 pe cen in 2011 o 16.2 pe cen in 2019 (Table 21).
37 ILO Wo king Pape 114
XFigu e 10. Spain: gende pay gap (2013 - 2022)
Change 2013-2022, p.p. Change 2013-2022, %
Public -5.4 -40%
P i a e -8.3 -39%
Sou ce: Eu os a , ea n_g _gpg 2
T aining
In Spain, he de elopmen o aining policies is in p inciple assigned o he go e nmen bodies
in cha ge o public se ice and pe sonnel policies. In addi ion o legal p o isions, he e a e ne-
go ia ed collec i e ag eemen s egula ing he de ails o in-se ice aining o public se an s.
The in-se ice aining o public employees is mos ly go e ned by collec i e ag eemen s (OECD
1997). The Na ional Ins i u e o Public Adminis a ion (INAP) is esponsible o aining and im-
p o emen o he Ci il Se ice, as well as ec ui men in o he Ci il Se ice; aining and p o es-
sional imp o emen o public employees; esea ch and publishing; p omo ing inno a ion wi hin
he public adminis a ion, among o he s. INAP is an au onomous body wi hin he na ional go -
e nmen o Spain, a ached o he Depa men o Te i o ial Policy and Ci il Se ice.
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions
The main ade union o ganiza ions ep esen ing public employees a a s a e le el a e: The T ade
Union Con ede a ion o Wo ke s’ Commissions (CCOO), he Gene al Wo ke s’ Union (UGT) (bo h
membe s o PSI and EPSU) and he Con ede a ion o Independen T ade Unions and T ade Union
Con ede a ion o Ci il Se an s (CSIF) (Eu os a 2015c).
By law, unions mus be consul ed ega ding wo king condi ions, he employmen amewo k,
he code o conduc , as well as he igh o s ike and he es ablishmen o minimum se ices in
he e en o a s ike. The condi ions o employmen o he ci il se an s and labou s a (base
sala y and he employmen amewo k), including he LRG wo ke s, a e nego ia ed be ween
he Minis y o Finance and Public Adminis a ion and he public sec o ade unions (EC 2018).
44 ILO Wo king Pape 114
Pay s uc u es
The key le el o collec i e ba gaining in Sweden is he sec o al le el. The e is one se o ag ee-
men s o he egional and municipal sec o and ano he se o ag eemen s o he sec o o
cen al go e nmen adminis a ion.
In he public sec o , collec i e ag eemen s co e almos all wage ea ne s, whi e and blue-colla
wo ke s alike. They co e all public employe s and he Swedish Associa ion o Local Au ho i ies
and Regions (SALAR, a membe o CEMR) ep esen s all municipali ies and egions.18 Mo e han
80 pe cen o public sec o employees a e o ganised. Collec i e ag eemen s, howe e , also co -
e hose no unionised.
Sala ies in Sweden a e gene ally nego ia ed indi idually upon ec ui men . Collec i e ag eemen s
in some cases egula e lowes /s a ing wage le els, which p o ide a basis o he indi idual ne-
go ia ions. O he app oxima ely 680 collec i e ag eemen s on wages in Sweden, ewe han 250
ha e speci ied le els o he lowes wages. These include, howe e , key sec o s o employees
wo king a egional o municipal le el (including wo ke s in p e-schooling and he ca e sec o ).19
A e age public sec o g oss mon hly sala ies we e SEK 36,600 in 2022. The e a e wage di e enc-
es, wi h sala ies a egional and na ional le el being, on a e age, signi ican ly highe han a mu-
nicipali y le el: cen al go e nmen wages a e 20 pe cen highe o SEK7,900 mon hly which is
equi alen o EUR€707. A e age public sec o sala ies compa e globally o a e age p i a e sec o
sala ies (-6%), and he gap is compa a i ely la ge be ween p i a e sec o whi e-colla wo ke s
and egional and cen al go e nmen wo ke s (-13.4 and 13.0 pe cen espec i ely). The gen-
de pay gap o nine pe cen in 2020 in he public sec o was iden ical o ha o he p i a e sec-
o , bu he e a e ma ked di e ences be ween he employees in he sec o s. Ac oss public and
p i a e sec o s, he gende pay gap is he smalles a municipali y le el (-1.5 pe cen ) and he
highes among egional employees (-17.3 pe cen ). A cen al go e nmen le el he pay gap i
s ood a 4.9 pe cen in 2022. The gende pay gap has dec eased ac oss he public sec o in he
las i e yea s, om 12 pe cen o 8.2 pe cen . The dec ease is mos ma ked among egional
employees ( om 22.3 pe cen o 17.3 pe cen ) (See able 20).
XTable 21. Sweden: G oss mon hly wage 2022 (SEK) by gende , and pay gaps 2015/2022
Employmen To al Women Men
Di e ence
Women/Men
2022 (%)
Di e ence
Women/Men
2015 (%)
Municipal 33,700 33,600 34,100 -1.5 -4.5
Regional 41,300 39,500 47,700 -17.3 -22.3
Cen al go e nmen 41,500 40,500 42,600 -4.9 -7.4
A e age public sec o 36,600 35,700 38,900 -8.2 -11.9
Manual wo ke s, p i a e sec o 30,800 28,600 32,000 -10.6 -10.5
Non-manual wo ke s, p i a e sec-
o 47,700 43,300 51,200 -15.4 -18.4
A e age p i a e sec o 39,000 36,600 40,500 -9.6 -12.0
To al a e age 38,300 36,200 40,200 -10.0 -12.3
Sou ce: S a is ics Sweden, ”A e age mon hly sala y by sec o 1992–2020”
18 Regions and municipali ies a e no obliged o be membe s o SALAR, bu all a e membe s.
19 See Medlingsins i u e Kollek i a alen och de lägs a löne na
45 ILO Wo king Pape 114
T aining
The e is no legal igh o aining in he public sec o o o LRG wo ke s. The collec i e ag ee-
men be ween Kommunal and SALAR does no include aining and p o essional de elopmen
p o isions. In e ms o OSH- ela ed aining, he Swedish Wo k En i onmen Ac , 2014 s a es ha
employe s mus ensu e ha employees ecei e he necessa y aining ha p omo e a good and
sa e wo k en i onmen such ha no one becomes sick o hu s hemsel es because o hei wo k.
In 2020, a d a legisla ion o a join educa ion wi hin he s a e adminis a ion was published,
co e ing basic educa ion and con inuing educa ion o employees in he s a e adminis a ion
(Rege ingen, 2020). A sepa a e p oposal o amend he Swedish labou law has p o isions which
g an employees he igh o ake s udy lea e, wi h a g an co esponding o 80 pe cen o hei
sala y (Lindholm, 2021). Addi ionally, some collec i e ag eemen s include a igh o aining lea e.
In p ac ice, Swedish employee’s pa icipa ion a e in job- ela ed non- o mal educa ion and ain-
ing 20 ac oss public and p i a e sec o is high, and la gely abo e he Eu opean a e age (Ge man
Economic ins i u e 2018).
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions
In he public sec o , he eedom o associa ion and he plu ali y o ade unions a e ecognised
and deeply en enched. The Swedish labou ma ke is mainly egula ed h ough collec i e ag ee-
men s wi hou in e e ence om he go e nmen .
Re lec ing he cen alised app oach o collec i e ba gaining, he Swedish Agency o Go e nmen
Employe s (SAGE) ep esen s cen al go e nmen while all egional and local go e nmen s a e
ep esen ed by he Swedish Associa ion o Local Au ho i ies and Regions (SALAR). Two addi ion-
al employe o ganisa ions ep esen s a e-owned companies and municipal companies while
wo ke s a e ep esen ed by he ollowing ade unions which o ganise and lead di e en p o-
essional g oups in he nego ia ions: he Union o P o essionals ASSR; he Swedish Associa ion
o Physio he apis s; Vision; he Swedish Teache s’ Union; he Swedish Associa ion o G adua e
Enginee s; he Swedish Municipal Wo ke s’ Union; he Swedish Associa ion o Occupa ional
The apis s; he Swedish Associa ion o Heal h P o essionals; he Con ede a ion o Execu i es
and Manage ial S a ; he Swedish Medical Associa ion; and he Swedish Fi e igh e s Associa ion.
The la ges o hese o ganisa ions wo king egionally o locally is he Swedish Municipal Wo ke s’
Union Kommunal, which has abou 280,000 membe s and is a membe o PSI and EPSU.
The cen al collec i e ag eemen be ween he Swedish Municipal Wo ke s’ Union (Kommunal),
and he Swedish Associa ion o Local Au ho i ies and Regions (SALAR) includes egula ions abou
a la ge a ie y o wo king condi ions. The collec i e ag eemen is e ised by he pa ies e e y ne-
go ia ion pe iod. Kommunal and SALAR ha e signed he la es collec i e ag eemen which co e s:
●Con ac o employmen and wo king ime
●Te mina ion, no ice and e ms
●Wo king ime and wo king ime managemen
●Wages, compensa ion o unsocial wo king hou s and o e ime e c.
●Compensa ion du ing sickness and pa en al lea e
●Lea e due o pe sonal ci cums ances
●Vaca ion
20 These a e any o ganised and sus ained lea ning ac i i ies ha ake place bo h wi hin and ou side educa ional ins i u ions (cou ses,
wo kshops o semina s, guided-on- he-job aining.
46 ILO Wo king Pape 114
●Insu ances and pensions
Public employees a e egula employees and a e he e o e egula ed by he gene al ules on
s ike and collec i e ac ion (EPSU and ETUI 2019b). Sec ion 14 o Chap e 2 o he Ins umen
o Go e nmen o 2015 gua an ees he igh o s ike and o unde ake collec i e ac ion on he
labou ma ke , unless o he wise p o ided by law o collec i e ag eemen . Employees who a e
bound by a collec i e ag eemen may no s ike du ing he ag eemen pe iod.
The Public Employmen Ac con ains p o isions ha limi and es ic he exe cise o he igh o
s ike in he public sec o . These limi a ions ela e no ably o s ikes o wo ke s in he exe cise o
o icial powe o which is una oidably necessa y in o de o ensu e he exe cise o o icial pow-
e (Sec ion 23); he obliga ion o he pa ies o en e in o nego ia ions in he e en o a s ike
(Sec ion 27) and he awa d o damages (Sec ions 28 o 29).
The incidence o s ikes in Sweden is low,21 compa ed o o he No dic coun ies. The e ha e been
no public sec o s ikes in he las i e yea s, and he LRG wo ke s ha e no pa icipa ed in a s ike
since 2003, while media o s ha e sol ed ins i u ional ad ance no i ica ions. These a e issued in
ad ance o he announced in en ion o s ike. 22
Sweden has no a i ied he Violence and Ha assmen Con en ion, 2019 (No. 190) al hough p e-
pa a o y wo k is unde way;23 howe e , he e is a signi ican body o na ional legisla ion ha p o-
hibi s disc imina ion and ha assmen a wo k.24
21 See Economic Fac s Sweden,
h ps://www.ekonomi ak a.se/Fak a/A be sma knad/A als o handlinga /Kon lik e /
h ps://www.kollega.se/da o -s ejka - i-sa-li e and
22 See Na ional Media ion O ice in Sweden, No disk jäm ö else
23 In Oc obe 2021, an o icial go e nmen al inqui y (SOU) p esen ed a epo on he p e equisi es o a Swedish a i ica ion and imple-
men a ion o ILO con en ion 190. ILO:s kon en ion om åld och akasse ie i a be sli e - Rege ingen.se
24 The e a e cons i u ional p o isions wi h espec o disc imina ion in he Swedish Ins umen o Go e nmen (pa o Sweden’s
Cons i u ion). The ela ionship o EU law is egula ed h ough he Ins umen o Go e nmen (1:10 and 10:6) and o he laws. The
Eu opean Con en ion on Human Righ s (ECHR) was inco po a ed in o na ional law in 1995 and gi en quasi-cons i u ional s a us.
P e ious an i-disc imina ion laws we e in 2009 me ged in o he Disc imina ion Ac .
47 ILO Wo king Pape 114
X6 Compa a i e summa y
In his s udy, we ha e seen how dis inc he wo king condi ions o LRG employees a e om hose
in he coun ies and e en in he b oade public se ice. This equi es a di e en app oach om
he mo e common c oss-na ional compa a i e s udies, because “gi en ha each sec o is cha ac-
e ised by speci ic p oduc and labou ma ke s, esul ing in di e en wo k o ces, di e en wo k
p ac ices and di e en economic con ex s.” (Bech e e al. 2012: 184). As he Di ec o o he ILO
Sec o al Policies Depa men s a ed in 2010, “While social dialogue a he na ional le el (bo h
sec o al o mul i-sec o al) ha e ecognized a ibu es, a he same ime, [. . .] he e a e local le el
issues ela ed o labou which a y acco ding o he municipali y, and a e di icul o cap u e a
he na ional le el.” (Tinoco 2010). The condi ions o wo k a e di e en in each coun y’s LRGs, bu
he di e ences wi h o he g oups o wo ke s is also no ewo hy. As a esul , wo king condi ions
and s a us o ci il se an s and public employees in LRGs do no ollow na ional pa e ns bu a
sec o al pa e n, esul ing in common dynamics wi hin LRGs wo ke s among coun ies s udied.
This echoes he indings om he heo e ical wo k on he sec o al egimes o indus ial ela ions
(Bech e e al. 2012) which poin ed ou he exis ence o sec o al egimes o indus ial ela ions
complemen ing and e en eplacing na ional egimes. This is especially ele an in ela ion o he
labou condi ions and s a uses o ci il se an s and public employees in LRGs. Such common
ends wi h LRGs wo ke s among coun ies s udied included p incipally he exis ence o wo main
labou law egimes o he ci il se an s and o dina y employees in he LRG sec o and a high
co e age o collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s o LRGs wo ke s and employe s.
Go e nance sys ems
The go e nance sys ems o he i e coun ies a e a spec um anging om he highly cen alised
coun ies wi h a s ong cen al go e nmen (such as C oa ia and G eece) o he highly ede al-
ised s a es such as Ge many and Spain whe e he egional go e nmen le el plays a signi ican
ole. Sweden alls somewha in be ween, wi h sha ed policy esponsibili ies o he na ional and
local go e nmen s.
LRG labou s a is ics
Di e ences in employmen igu es o LRG wo ke s exis in he i e coun ies. The p opo ion o
LRG wo k o ce in he o e all public sec o employmen anges om 13 pe cen in C oa ia, 16
pe cen in G eece, 78 pe cen in Spain and Sweden, and 79 pe cen in Ge many. B oadly speak-
ing, he numbe o LRG wo ke s has been inc easing in ecen yea s– wi h a no able excep ion
o G eece, mos ly connec ed o he aus e i y measu es ela ed o G eece’s 2008-2009 deb c isis
and subsequen in e na ional escue packages. In o he coun ies, a simila end in employ-
men g ow h was obse ed: Fo example, a +7 pe cen employmen g ow h a he egional and
+12 pe cen a he local le el in Ge many.
Gende b eakdown
In mos coun ies, he majo i y o LRG sec o wo ke s a e women, up o 70 pe cen in Sweden.
The gende pay gap in he public sec o s ood a se en pe cen in G eece and Ge many, eigh
pe cen in C oa ia and 10 pe cen in Spain. In Sweden, ac oss public and p i a e sec o s, he
gende pay gap was smalles a he municipali y le el (2 pe cen , whe e mos LRG wo k o ce
is concen a ed) and he highes among egional employees (18 pe cen ). In all i e coun ies,
he gende pay gap is lowe in he public sec o compa ed o he p i a e sec o . Fu he mo e, a
48 ILO Wo king Pape 114
dec ease in he gende pay gap in he public sec o is obse ed in all i e coun ies (as well as a
decline in he p i a e sec o ).
Labou codes
In mos o he coun ies s udied, he e a e wo main o ms o labou egimes and employmen
in he LRG sec o : he ci il se an egula ed by laws ela ing o he ci il se ice and he o dina y
employee, unde he employmen con ac law.25 The p opo ion o ci il se an s in he o e all
LRG sec o wo k o ce a ies: 88 pe cen in C oa ia (bo h local and egional le els combined), 12
pe cen a local le el and 53 pe cen a egional in Ge many, 38 pe cen a local le el and 65
pe cen a egional in Spain. The excep ion o his is Sweden, whe e he same employmen ules
a e applied o public sec o employees as hose applied o he p i a e sec o . In Sweden, s a e
and hence LRG employees a e ea ed wi h special condi ions, bu he e is no o mal legal s a us.
Righ o aining and p o essional de elopmen
None o he i e coun ies ecognize a legal igh o aining o LRG wo ke s, and aining and
p o essional de elopmen opics a e no ypically included in he collec i e ba gaining ag ee-
men s (wi h he excep ion o Spain). Typically, aining is p o ided by he indi idual LRG sec o
employe s wi h LRG wo ke s a ying as o whe he hey a e ha ing a egula e iew o hei ain-
ing needs, aining ime being coun ed as wo king ime and co e age o aining expenses. In
some coun ies, pa o he aining o LRG wo ke s is cen ally o ganised.
T ade union igh s and wo king condi ions
In he LRG (as o he whole public sec o ) sec o , eedom o associa ion and ade union plu-
alism a e ecognised and deeply en enched in all i e coun ies. T ade unions a e ypically pe -
mi ed o o ganise bo h wo ke s and ci il se an s in he LRG sec o , and ade union p esence
amongs he LRG wo ke s is ypically highe han o he p i a e sec o employees (in he coun-
ies examined whe e da a was a ailable).
The o ganisa ion o collec i e ba gaining di e s in he LRG sec o be ween he coun ies. In
C oa ia and Ge many, collec i e ag eemen s a e ba gained and signed sepa a ely a he e-
gional and local le els. This is di e en in Sweden whe e he e is one se o ag eemen s o he
egional and municipal sec o (i.e. he employe o ganisa ion SALAR makes a ecommenda ion
o he local and egional go e nmen s o sign he ag eemen , who hen all sign he collec i e
ag eemen s indi idually) and ano he se o ag eemen s o he sec o o cen al go e nmen
adminis a ion. The collec i e ba gaining co e age is gene ally high. In C oa ia, ou o all wo k-
e s in he LRG sec o , hal a e co e ed by collec i e ba gaining (bo h mul i-employe and single
employe ba gaining). In Ge many, collec i e ba gaining ou comes oge he co e mo e han
80 pe cen o local and egional employees. Simila ly, a high p opo ion is epo ed in Sweden,
whe e he collec i e ag eemen s also apply o employees who a e no unionised.
The igh o s ike o LRG wo ke s is legally gua an eed in he coun ies, excep o ci il se an s
in he LRG sec o in Ge many. In Spain, whils LRG wo ke s can s ike, he deli e y o essen ial
se ices mus be gua an eed. Whe e da a is a ailable, he numbe o s ikes in he public sec o
is lowe compa ed o he p i a e sec o . In Sweden, he e ha e been no s ikes in he LRG sec o
since 2003, wi h he indus ial con lic s esol ed by media o s.
25 The choice o e minology e e s o he ci il se an s as wo ke s who a e ully in eg a ed o he public se ice (e.g. h ough a compe-
i ion) and o whom he labou code applies and hose wo ke s o whom he common/ci il/p i a e labou code applies. Many LRG
wo ke s a e casual/ empo a y wo ke s o no co e ed unde a public se ice labou code as se ices we e p i a ised/ou sou ced and
g an ed in o concession and ha c ea es a wo- ie condi ion o local public se ice wo ke s.
49 ILO Wo king Pape 114
O he i e coun ies s udied, only G eece has a i ied ILO Con en ion No. 190 (alongside I aly,
which makes i wo EU Membe S a es wi h a i ica ion). This is o be seen in he con ex o he
p oposal o an EU Council decision au ho izing all EU Membe S a es o a i y he ILO Con en ion
190.26 In his ligh , i appea s ha Ge many and C oa ia ha e aken s eps o s a he a i ica ion.27
Fu he mo e, all i e coun ies ha e adop ed u he na ional legisla ion p ohibi ing disc imina-
ion and ha assmen a wo k.
Possible di ec ions o u u e esea ch include examining he ends o LRG employmen in o h-
e Eu opean coun ies, as well as b oadening he scope o examine he aspec s o occupa ional
heal h and sa e y, digi aliza ion, elewo king and he igh o disconnec and esponses o g een
ansi ions a ec ing he LRG sec o . Also, he aspec s ela ing o p omo ing gende equali y and
con inuing o ensu e a high collec i e ba gaining co e age a e wo hy o in es iga e, also in iew
o p essu es on he public budge esou ces amewo k.
26 EUR-Lex - 52020PC0024 - EN - EUR-Lex (eu opa.eu)
27 ILO-Kon en ion 190 - Bündnis ü nachhal ige Tex ilien ( ex ilbuendnis.com)
50 ILO Wo king Pape 114
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