Human, P.
A icle
The adical a ionaliza ion o managemen hough : I s
causes and consequences
Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Human, P. (1986) : The adical a ionaliza ion o managemen hough : I s causes
and consequences, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online
Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 17, Iss. 1, pp. 7-12,
h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 17i1.1027
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217914
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The
adical
a ionaliza ion
o
managemen
hough :
i s
causes
and
consequences
P.
Human
School o Business Leade ship, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica
Radical
a ionaliza ion e e s o he phenomenon whe e
means
a e
seen
as
ends-in- hemsel es. T ansla ed o he
p ac ice o managemen his would
mean
ha he exe cise
o echniques
is
absolu ized o he ex en ha ends (goals)
a e
los om sigh .
In
his a icle
we
enqui e in o he
causes
as
well
as
he consequences o his phenomenon. I
is a gued ha he na u e
o
science
as
well
as
he na u e
o he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion
can
be
seen
as
causal
ac o s o he 'i on cage' o adical a ionaliza ion. Some o
hose amilia 'i on cages' such
as
s a egic planning,
indus ial ela ions, beha iou modelling
and
he pe sonal
compu e
a e
discussed.
S.
A .
J.
Bus. Mgm . 1986,
17:
7
-12
Die
konsep
adikale
asionalisasie
e wys
na die e skynsel
waa
middele gesien wo d
as
doele-in-sig-sel . Di be eken
da egnieke e absolu ee wo d en kos e
an
doele
in
die
bes uu sp ak yk.
In
hie die a ikel wo d die oo sake
en
ge olge
an
hie die e skynsel onde soek.
Daa
wo d
gea gumen ee da die wese
an
die we enskap
en
die
bu ok a iese o ganisasie o 'n g oo ma e die oo saak is
an
hie die 's aalhok' e skynsel. Bekende 's aalhokke'
an
adikale asionalisasie soos s a egiese beplanning,
indus iele e houdinge, ged agsmodelle ing
en
die
pe soonlike
ekenaa ,
wo d besp eek.
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1986,
17:
7-12
P.
Human
School
o
Business Leade ship, Uni e si y
o
Sou h A ica, P
.0.
Box
392, P e o ia,
0001
Republic
o
Sou h A ica
Accep ed No embe I
98S
In a ecen su ey (Ba clays Business B ie , Ap il 1985:1)
o
Sou h A ican businessmen,
i
was epo ed ha
'No
less
han
72
pe cen
o
esponden s indica ed ha hey
iew
p ospec s
o he nex h ee mon hs wi h pessimism, while
28
pe cen
we e easonably op imis ic o he immedia e u u e. The e
was
no
unquali ied op imism amongs he businessmen su -
eyed'. A yea ago, app oxima ely 75%
o
businessmen we e
s ill op imis ic. Things
do
seem o be ' alling
apa '.
Who
o
wha should be ega ded as he culp i o his
dep essed s a e
o
a ai s? A popula (and na u al) eac ion
o c ises such as his
is
o accuse ac o s ex e nal o onesel .
I is also much easie o accuse ac o s
o
an
abs ac kind;
ac o s which
a e
a hes emo ed om onesel , such as he
mys icisms
o
he gold p ice, Reagonomics, he black wo k-
o ce,
o
he poli ical policies
o
he s a e.
I
is
also in e es ing
o
no e ha hese ac o s a e usually pe cei ed as phenomena
o e which
we
ha e no con ol; phenomena which exis
au onomously
o
ou
con ol. The eason why hese explana-
ions a e so easily accep ed
is
p ecisely he ac ha hey make
i
possible o
us
o say ha
we
do ha e no con ol o e hem;
we a e simply he ic ims
o
des iny.
I would, howe e , like
o
a gue ha we
do
ha e con ol
o e ou li es;
we
c ea e
ou
own wo ld and con ol
ou
own
des iny. The bligh
o
he p esen dep essiona y s a e
o
a ai s
is, he e o e, o
be
ound wi hin ou sel es. In his a icle I
p opose ha many
o
ou
p oblems a e a di ec esul
o
he
way in which
we
manage. The way
in
which
we
manage
is
an
exp ession
o
ou
iews
and
ideas
o
eali y; in o he wo ds,
o
managemen hough as a sys em
o
ideas which
shapes
social ac ion.
The basic p oblem in managemen hough can bes be
cha ac e ized by he e m
adical
a ionaliw ion. Radical
a ionaliza ion means ha means a e seen as ends-in- hem-
sel es, o , in mo e p ac ical e ms, ha echniques (as means)
a e absolu ized
o
he ex en ha ends a e los om sigh .
This
way
o
managing
is
no only ine ec i e bu
also
immo al.
The c i ique
o
he o hodox way
o
managing, o , as i
is
be e known, scien i ic managemen ,
is
a amilia one.
One
o
he cen al con ibu ions
o
his a icle
is
o
a i e a
an
explana ion o he pe se e ance
o
scien i ic managemen in
he ace
o
pe sis en c i icism o e he las i e decades. Why
is
i
ha
ou
ac ions a e
in
di ec opposi ion o ou in en ions?
I sugges ha he eason o he pe se e ance
o
scien i ic
managemen
is
o
be ound in he na u e
o
science
and
he
bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion.
The
a ionalis ic
e hos
The mos d ama ic change expe ienced
in
his o y was p obably
8
he
shi om a basically eligious wo ld- iew
o
a
mo e
secula
o
a ional wo ld- iew. Ge h & Mills (1970:51) saw
a ionaliza ion as a p ocess
o
disenchan men ;
'The
ex en
and
di ec ion
o
" a ionaliza ion"
is
hus measu ed nega i ely
in e ms
o
he deg ee
o
which magical elemen s
o
hough
a e
displaced,
o
posi i ely by he ex en
o
which ideas gain
in sys ema ic cohe ence
and
na u alis ic consis ency'. This
a ionalis ic amewo k
o
hough de eloped his o ically in o
he mos compelling
and
uni e sally applied amewo k ha
has e e exis ed.
We can dis inguish be ween h ee meanings
o
he concep
o
a ionali y. Swidle (1973) sugges ed ha he dis inc ion
be ween
a ionalism,
a ionaliza ion
and
a ionali y,
as i was
used by
Max
Webe , illus a es he h ee impo an seman ic
dimensions
o
he gene ic e m a ionali y.
Ra ionalism
Ra ionalism e e s
o
an
a i ude
o
p agma ic
o ien a ion
o
he a ainmen
o
immedia e
goals.
'I
ollows ules
o
ex-
pe ience, hough
i
is
no necessa ily ac ion in acco dance wi h
a means-end schema. Rubbing will elici spa ks om pieces
o
wood, and in like ashion he mime ical ac ions
o
a
magician will e oke ain om he hea ens' (Webe , 1978a:
400). Ra ionalism, hen, e e s
o
he applica ion
o
'e ec i e
ways'
o
doing hings in e e yday li e.
Ra ionali y
Ra ionali y, in con as
o
a ionalism, in ol es
he
whole
meaning
o
li e. I
is
seen as a sys em
o
hough in which
he means, ends,
and
seconda y consequences
o
ac ion
a e
aken in o accoun . Ra ionali y, hen, e e s
o
he ex en
o
which ac ion is con olled by
conscious
ideas.
Max
Webe 's
analysis
o
P o es an asce icism as espoused by Cal in ex-
p essed his delibe a eness in ac ion go e ned by conscious
ideas mos clea ly:
'Fo
only by a undamen al change in he
whole meaning
o
li e
a
e e y
momen
and
in e e y ac ion
could he e ec s
o
g ace ans o ming a
man
om he s a us
na u ae o he s a us
g a iae
be p o ed' (Webe , 1978b:
ll8).
This implies he impo ance
o
he uni ied
and
o al con ol
o
ac ion by conscious ideas which unde lies he P o es an
wo k e hic - he e hic which
can
be seen as he
dominan
o ma i e o ce
o
ou
p esen -day wo k e hic in capi alism.
Ra ionaliza ion
Ra ionaliza ion e e s
o
he
p ocess
o
he sys ema iza ion
o
ideas. The sys ema iza ion
o
ideas
may
mean a
numbe
o
hings.
In
i s mos gene al sense i would simply
mean
he
o de ing
o
a numbe
o
disc e e elemen s
o
a i e
a
a mo e
p ecise
and
in e nally consis en (logical) whole.
Ano he
meaning
o
a ionaliza ion ela es
o
he capaci y
o
in eg a e
new,
o
i a ional ideas, in o a sys em
o
ideas by inding new,
and
mo e abs ac , p inciples
o
which hese ideas a e ela ed.
The
hi d meaning
o
he p ocess
o
a ionaliza ion conce ns
he abili y
o
ex end a sys em
o
ideas so
ha
i
may
be
applicable
o
a whole ange
o
si ua ions.
The
abili y
o
o de ,
o
in eg a e
and
o
ex en inhe en in
he p ocess
o
a ionaliza ion, implies
ha
a sys em
o
ideas
can
con inuously de elop in e ms
o
he needs
o
p ac ical
eali y (by being lexible
and
dynamic). Such a ele an ,
conscious
and
gene alized sys em
o
ideas
can
hus in luence
and
gi e o m
o
social ac ion.
Gi en he capaci y
o
a ionaliza ion
o
shape social ac ion
and
hus
o
become embedded in
bo h
he ab ic
o
social
ac ion
and
he ins i u ions
o
socie y means
ha
such
an
idea
sys em has a 'ma e ial base'. This closely connec ed ela ion-
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1986,
17(1)
ship be ween ideas
and
ma e ial eali y would, in
um,
gua an-
ee he con inued ' ele ance'
o
such
an
idea sys em.
F om
ou
discussion hus a , i is clea
ha
a ionali y
(in
i s gene ic sense) p o ided a new base o social ac ion.
Ra ionali y mus he e o e be seen as he
dominan
sys em
o
ideas in
modem
socie y,
and
as eplacing he anscenden al
o
eligious amewo ks
o
p e-indus ialized socie y. I
is
he e o e also clea
ha
managemen science
and
hough a e
o
be seen as a
p oduc
o
his gene al sys em
o
ideas.
The
bu eauc a ic
o m
o
o ganiza ion in pa icula , could
be seen as he 'ma e ial base'
o
he a ionalis ic e hos. The
a ionalis ic e hos
is
exp essed in
he
ma e ial a angemen s
and
p inciples
ound
in he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. These
wo
phenomena,
he a ionalis ic
e hos
and
he
bu eauc a ic
o ganiza ion could he e o e, in a simpli ied way, be seen as
mi o
images
o
each o he .
Radical
a ionaliza ion
F om
he
a gumen
abo e, i would
appea
ha
an
unde -
s anding
o
he gene ic
e m
a ionali y in ol es
an
unde -
s anding
o
he means-end
na u e
o
social ac ion. Social
ac ion mus
be
seen as in en ional; we ac in
o de
o
achie e
ce ain goals
o
ends. These ends
a e
mos ly seen in e ms
o
a sa is ac ion
o
needs scheme.
The
indi idual
human
being
mus be seen as he ul ima e
end.
This
means
ha
eedom
om wan s, sel -de e mina ion, indi idual
au onomy,
and
he
digni y
o
he indi idual in socie y
mus
be
iewed as he
ul ima e
pu pose
which
any
sys em
o
ideas
o
o m
o
o ganiza ion (as means) should se e.
The
a ionalis ic e hos can, in heo y, be said
o
'se e' his
end mos e ec i ely. Max Webe associa ed
'.
. . he s onges
" eeling
o
eedom"
wi h p ecisely hose ac ions which
we
know
ou sel es
o
ha e accomplished a ionally, i.e. in he
absence
o
physical
o
psychic
"compulsion";
ac ions in which
we
"pu sue"
a clea ly conscious
"pu pose"
by
wha
o
ou
knowledge a e he mos
adequa e
means'
(Lowi h, 1982:45).
In p ac ice, howe e , he opposi e occu ed.
Man
has become
he se an
o
ideas
and
o ganiza ions; he has los con ol o e
ideas
and
o ganiza ions.
They
(ideas
and
o ganiza ions) ha e
begun
o
de e mine he des iny
o
man.
This p ocess
is
gene ally
known
as he de-humaniza ion
and
impe sonaliza-
ion
o
social li e. I means ha he means
o
li e ha e become
he end; whe e
man
once
wo ked
(means) in
o de
o
sa is y
his wan s (end), he has
now
absolu ized
wo k,
as measu ed
by p o i s.
He
has also o ganized
wo k
in such a way ha
o ganiza ional needs anscend indi idual needs. This p ocess
is
wha
we call
adical
a ionaliza ion. This also
means
ha
ideas ha e acqui ed
an
au onomous
posi ion - hey ha e
become di o ced
om
p ac ice
o
he ex en
ha
man
is
caugh in
an
'i on
cage'. This
'i on
cage' is pe pe ua ed
h ough he ma e ial base ( he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion) and
gi en legi imacy
and
powe
'o e '
he people in i .
Ou
abili y
o
sol e new p oblems
and
o
be c ea i e
is
se e ely limi ed
by
his
'i on
cage'. This
is
he
p ima y
hesis
o
his a icle.
We
may,
howe e , ask
how
his 'i a ional'
e hos exp esses i sel in
managemen
hough
and
wha
i
means in p ac ical e ms. Le us s a wi h
he
la e .
The
Implica ions
o
adical
a ionaliza ion
Some
o
he ecen li e a u e
on
managemen hough employs
a c i ique
o
he a ional model
o
managemen as a heo e ical
basis o i s a gumen s. Pe e s &
Wa e man,
in hei
book
In
Sea ch
o
Excellence
(1982), seemed
o
sugges
ha
he
a i udes
o
Ame ican companies
owa ds
he a ional model
cons i u es he s onges disc imina ing ac o be ween success-
S.
A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1986, 17(1)
ul
and unsuccess ul companies. McCo mack (1984) and
Naisbi
(1984)
also appea ed o sugges ha he ul ima e cause
o many
o
ou
p oblems
is
o be ound in
ou
unquali ied
accep ance
o
he a ional model as he only alid sys em
o
managemen hough . This c i ique
is
in no way new
o
unique.
This c i ique has been moun ing s eadily since he days
o
F ede ick W. Taylo (1856-1917). Taylo 's wo k culmina ed
in he mo emen known as scien i ic managemen o , as he
some imes called i , ' he science
o
sho elling'. Taylo called o
a pu ely scien i ic app oach
o
wo k whe e he ask i sel , he
selec ion and aining
o
people o pe o m he ask, and he
compensa ion o he execu ion
o
he ask should be de e -
mined
by
scien i ic me hods ( he highes o m
o
a ionali y).
The consis en c i ique
o
Taylo ism appea s no o ha e
a ec ed he p ac ice
o
managemen signi ican ly; my a gu-
men
will
p opose an explana ion o his. Howe e ,
i
is
i s
necessa y
o
look a he elemen
o
his a ional model.
Quan i ica ion and o he limi s
o
science
The scien i ic mode
o
hinking, as he highes o m
o
a ionali y, places g ea s ess on he sys ema ic
and
disciplined
app oach
o
unde s anding eali y. Reali y,
i
mus be e-
membe ed, com.is s
o
a complex web
o
a mul i ude
o
elemen s and o ces.
The
unc ion
o
science
is
o
desc ibe
eali y and
is
limi ed by he me hods
i
employs o desc ibe
eali y. Eins ein once ema ked ha i
is
no he unc ion
o
science
o
ep oduce he as e
o
soup because science canno
ep oduce
eali y;
i
can me ely o e pa ochial desc ip ions
o
i . A desc ip ion
o
he as e
o
soup
is
no he same hing
as
he as e
o
soup i sel . The poin
is
ha
we
mus accep
he ac ha he scien i ic endea ou can ne e ully come
o g ips wi h he o ali y
o
a phenomenon.
Scien i ic analysis can only p oduce accoun s
o
eali y
in
e ms
o
i s ins umen s. These ins umen s
(o
measu emen ,
o example) can only measu e ha which
is
empi ically
obse able and hus quan i iable. The high p emium placed
on disciplined inqui y also means ha he ep oducibili y
o
esul s
is
highly alued. Unde lying he ep oducibili y
o
esea ch indings
is
he idea ha gene al laws go e n all
si ua ions and ha
i
is
he unc ion
o
science o disco e
hese gene al laws ( he unc ion
o
ex ending ideas as
discussed
abo e unde he p ocess
o
a ionaliza ion).
The end- esul
is
ha science has c ea ed a no ion
o
he
' u h' whe e only ha which
is
quan i ied, s anda dized and
sys ema ic
is
ue. The poin is, howe e , ha eali y also
includes quali a i e componen s; ha some phenomena a e
a imes unique (si ua ionally-bound) and a imes ex emely
unsys ema ic
and
chao ic. Science, in i s o hodox sense, is,
a bes , only able o p oduce pa ial and limi ed desc ip ions
o
eali y. I should ne e , in he absolu e sense, be seen as
ou only ins umen o unde s anding eali y.
Bu science no only p oduces a na ow and some imes
dis o ed pic u e
o
eali y, i also ep oduces a
conse a i e
and o malis ic app oach o !i
e.
The ules
o
he scien i ic
me hod a e highly o malized
and
no e y lexible. The
eason o his
is
o
be ound in he high p emium placed
upon he ep oducibili y
o
esul s. These ules a e also
ansmi ed o s uden s
o
science in such a way as
o
make
hei alidi y unques ionable. No only his bu also he my h
ha he conscien ious applica ion
o
hese ules
will
'au o-
ma ically' p oduce he
' u h'
gi es he scien i ic me hod an
au a
o
legi imacy. The esul
o
his
is
ha science, especially
as
i
is
applied in he sphe e
o
business, has become
an
unc i ical and hus conse a i e mode
o
hinking. I
will
e u n
o his poin
a
a la e s age.
9
Subs an i e e sus o mal a ionali y
Subs an i e a ionali y '
...
is
he deg ee o which he p o-
isioning
o
gi en g oups
o
pe sons . . . wi h goods
is
shaped
by
economically-o ien ed social ac ion unde some c i e ia
...
o
ul ima e alues' (Webe , 1978a:85). Fo mal a ionali y, in
cons as , ela es o '
...
he ex en
o
quan i a i e calcula ion
o
accoun ing which
is
echnically possible and which
is
ac ually applied . . . he deg ee in which he p o ision o
needs
...
is
capable
o
being exp essed in nume ical, cal-
culable e ms' (Webe , 1978a:85).
I
is
he e o e clea ha he means in subs an i e a ionali y
will
be de e mined by ul ima e alues. These ul ima e alues
a e ela ed o he ull ange
o
needs
o
he indi idual.
An
analy ic dis inc ion be ween means and ends
is
d awn wi hou
nega ing he impo an connec ion ha exis s be ween hose
wo sphe es
o
social ac ion. In o mal a ionali y, we ind
no clea dis inc ion be ween means and ends. The means and
he ends a e in no way clea ly dis inguished because he c i e ia
o assessing needs (ends) and he means o p o ide o hese
ends a e he same. We know ha he indi idual human being
canno be educed
o
'nume ical calculable e ms'. Fo mal
a ionali y, hen,
is
blind
o
he ull meaning
o
human
exis ence.
Mode n managemen hough ollows he lines
o
o mal
a ionali y a he han subs an i e a ionali y. The eason o
his, in a heo e ical sense,
is
ha means ha e come
o
be
seen as ends wi h he esul s ha he echnological
and
cal-
culable needs
o
he o ganiza ion anscend he needs
o
he
indi idual.
The na u e
o
he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion
I ha e a gued ha he 'ma e ial base'
o
he a ionalis ic e hos
is, in pa icula , o be ound in he mode n bu eauc a ic
o ganiza ion. The bu eauc a ic o m
o
o ganiza ion has
become he single mos impo an s uc u al a angemen in
modem
socie y. Sou h A ica
is
no
excep ion. I,
and
many
o he w i e s, ha e indica ed he ex en
o
bu eauc a iza ion
in Sou h A ica (see Human,
1984).
The conclusion a i ed
a
abou he concen a ion
o
economic powe in Sou h
A ica,
is
ha he majo i y
o
he popula ion a e employed
by la ge bu eauc a ic o ganiza ions. The way
o
hinking
exp essed
by
such o ganiza ions su ely mus ha e
an
e ec
on
he way
o
hinking
o
hose who wo k in hem.
The bu eauc a ic e hos will
exp es!I
he in e es s
o
he
bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. Calculabili y, e iciency, con ol
specializa ion ( h ough he agmen a ion
o
asks as he mos
a ional me hod
o
p oduc ion), hie a chical dis ibu ion
o
powe , e c. a e all
alues
highly ega ded by he bu eauc a ic
o ganiza ion. Any o ganiza ion p oduces ce ain in e es s
which i would wish o ep oduce and ex end. This
is
only
possible by he c ea ion
o
ideas which suppo
and
u he
he in e es s
o
he o ganiza ion.
I
one con as s he ideal na u e
o
he indi idual wi h ha
o
he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion in e ms
o
a numbe
o
dimensions de eloped hus a (Table
1),
you can ob ain some
' eeling' o he p oblems acing indus ialized socie y.
These wo eali ies a e necessa y p e equisi es o he p o-
duc ion
o
goods
and
se ices; o ganiza ions canno exis
wi hou indi iduals
in
he same way as indi iduals canno
exis
wi hou o ganiza ions. The answe
o
many
o
ou
p oblems
lies
in he way in which hese wo eali ies a e combined.
Ou
a gumen so a , has been ha managemen hough
has o e -accen ua ed o ganiza ional eali y
a
he expense
o
indi idual eali y. The o ganiza ion has become
an
end in
i sel . A way
o
hinking has de eloped (an 'i on cage') which
10
Table
1 Compa ison be ween he na u e o he
in-
di idual
and
ha
o
he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion
The indi idual
Subs an i e a ionali y
Subjec i e need sa is ac ion
Conc e e expec a ions
Decisions as o ends
Quali a i e
F ee
will
Holis ic
iew
o
eali y
Pe sonal
In e nal locus
o
con ol
Pe sonal powe
The o ganiza ion
Fo mal a ionali y
Objec i e need sa is ac ion
Abs ac ed expec a ions
Decisions as o means
Quan i a i e
De e minism
F agmen ion
o
eali y
(Specializa ion)
Impe sonal
Ex e nal locus
o
con ol
Posi ional powe
agmen s and dis o s eali y by i s exclusi e ixa ion on
specializa ion and quan i ica ion. The conse a i e and o m-
alis ic na u e
o
his way
o
hinking inhibi s he abili y
o
manage s o
unde s and
he ue na u e
o
hei business, in
he i s place, and, in he second place, o be
c ea i e
and
uly p oblem-sol ing. The sou ce
o
his way
o
hinking
is
o be ound in he a ionalis ic e hos which
is
o malized in
science
and exp essed
in
he na u e
o
he o mal o ganiza ion.
The appa en legi imacy
o
science as
well
as he na u e
o
he o mal o ganiza ion ensu es he ep oduc ion
o
he 'i on
cage' way
o
hinking.
Familia
'i on
cages'
S a egic planning
Lenz
(l
983)
w o e ha hype a ionali y
'.
. .
is
a condi ion
in which he en ep eneu ial spi i essen ial o planning
is
supplan ed
by
igidi y,
excessi e
quan i ica ion and o mali y.
Once hype - a ionali y exis s, he capaci y
o
he planning
p ocess o insu e inno a i e adap a ion
is
los . Wi h his loss
comes a diminished capaci y
o
an o ganiza ion o achie ing
long- e m compe i i e success'. Lenz discussed ou causes o
he 'hype - a ional' s a e
o
s a egic
planning.
The i s
is
he
p o essionaliza ion
o
he planne 's job. In days gone by, no
such p o ession exis ed. Wi h he g ow h in he need o
specializa ion
in
he la ge bu eauc acies, business schools and
la ge business i ms we e quick o single ou s a egic planning
as a ca ee .
'A
equi emen o main aining he p o essional
mys ique
o
planning
is
o cas
i
in o he mold
o
an exac
science . . . Fi s came he necessa y ja gon. Te ms such
as s a egic business uni , g ow h-sha e ma ix, and
GAP
analysis became buzz wo ds
o
he planning p o essional'
(Lenz, 1983:4). The g ow h
o
he subjec ,
as
a mul i-dis-
ciplina y one, quickly degene a ed in o a body
o
obscu e
e ms and ancy echniques.
This
ob iously se ed he
in e es s
o
planne s, who,
as
s a
is-a- is
line manage s, el ulne -
able wi h
espec
o
hei o ganiza ional s a us. The esul s
was ha he subjec s a egic planning became inc easingly
obscu e and a me e collec ion
o
echniques. The echniques
became absolu ized a he expense
o
he end -and ha
is
o
plan o achie e a speci ic end. This
is
also ue o many
o he specialized s a unc ions in business p ac ice. Lenz
also
men ioned he
quan i ica ion
equals
ce ain y
allacy, he
ins i u ionaliza ion
o
planning,
and he
unquali ied
accep ance
o
analy ical
echniques
as he o he h ee causes o 'hype -
a ionali y'. The poin
is
ha inc easing echnical sophis ica-
ion can b eed inc easing i ele ance.
Indus ial ela ions
The p ac ice
o
indus ial
ela ions
in Sou h A ica
is
ano he
amilia
'i on-cage'. Indus ial ela ions
is
a mul i-disciplina y
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1986,
17(1)
subjec which has as goal he egula ion
o
he ela ionship
be ween labou and managemen . The legal aspec
o
in-
dus ial ela ions
is
only one aspec
o
he o ali y o
he
ela ionship. Howe e , a endency exis s in he indus ial
ela ions sphe e o educe his ela ionship
o
i s legal
dimen-
sion. This
is
e iden in Sou h A ica in he high p opo ion
o
legal people in ol ed in he indus ial ela ions unc ion.
This implies a numbe
o
dange s, in e alia:
• he legal aspec s
o
he ela ionship be ween employe
and
employee a e absolu ized.
• he legal machine y (as exp essed in he Ac on Labou
Rela ions)
is
seen as he only amewo k in e ms
o
which
his ela ionship
is
o be egula ed.
• dispu es be ween labou and managemen can
be
'sol ed'
in a win-lose manne .
We know ha he legal dimension
o
indus ial ela ions
is
only one and no he only egula o y mechanism.
To
educe
indus ial ela ions o he legalis ic amewo k
is
o dis o
he
' eal' na u e
o
he ela ionship. This educ ion also
exce ba es
a he han amelio a es he ela ionship be ween labou
and
managemen . Gi en he in e dependency be ween labou
and
managemen ,
i
is
clea ha any hough s
o
ul ima ely
'sol ing' p oblems in a legalis ic win-lose manne
is,
o
say
he leas , absu d. Bu his
is
exac ly wha
is
happening;
he
unnecessa y legalis ic bias buil in o indus ial ela ions
p ac ice
has c ea ed he belie ha dispu es can be ul ima ely 'sol ed'.
The accen ua ion
o
he legal aspec s in indus ial ela ions
is
pe haps a e lec ion
o
he imma u i y
o
indus ial ela ions
p ac ice in his coun y.
O o
Kahn-F eund once ema ked
ha : 'The e exis s . . . some hing like an
in e se
co ela ion
be ween he p ac ical signi icance
o
legal sanc ion and
he
deg ee o which indus ial ela ions ha e eached a s a e o
ma u i y . . . Reliance
on
legisla ion and
on
legal sanc ions
o he en o cemen
o
igh s and du ies be ween employe s
and employees may
be
a symp om
o
an ac ual o impending
b eakdown and, especially
on
he side
o
he unions,
e-
quen ly a sign
o
weakness,
ce ainly
no a sign
o
s eng h'
(Wedde bu n, Lewis & Cla k, 1983:41). This imma u i y
is,
in my eyes, di ec ly ela ed
o
a limi ed and conse a i e
('na ow') concep ion
o
indus ial ela ions amongs p ac i-
ione s.
Beha iou al modelling
Beha iou modelling
is
a popula echnique used by manage-
men o inc ease he e ec i eness
o
employees. The a gumen
is
ha
i
is
easie o change he beha iou
o
he employees
han hei a i udes. I one can change beha iou success ully,
hen a i ude change
will
ollow, acco ding o dissonance
heo y. The
aim
o
beha iou modelling
is
no
o'
...
di ec ly
a emp o change he a i udes
o
he pa icipan s;
i
a he
aims
o
o
e hem wi h a b oade beha iou al epe oi e
by
p o iding hem wi h knowledge and p ac ice
o
al e na i e,
mo e adap i e beha iou in a a ie y
o
job- ele an si ua ions
(Ho mey , 1983:14).
The gene al idea
is
basically sound
(see
Bumaska,
1976
and
Schneie ,
1973).
I is, howe e , a he in he applica ion o
his echnique ha many unin ended nega i e consequences
a ise. Pa y & Reich (1984) examine some
o
hese sho -
comings. The model as
i
is
applied
is
oo
simplis ic.
The
model
is
seen by ins uc o s as an end-all a he han he
s a ing poin
i
was in ended o be. The model
is
seen
as
o
gene al
use and no sensi i e o speci ic si ua ional condi ions.
I u he mo e only concen a es
on
co ec
beha iou
-
much can be lea ned om inco ec
o
inapp op ia e beha-
iou . In sho , i would seem ha he model
is
seen
as
an

s.
A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1986, 17(1)
end
in
i sel ;
i
is
na ow
and
he skills lea ned by pa icpan s
a e no always app op ia e
o
he si ua ion.
The pe sonal
compu e
and ' echno ix'
The eno mous g ow h in he use
o
compu e s
in
he business
wo ld cons i u es
one
o
he mos impo an obse able
changes ha ha e aken place in he wo k sphe e
in
he las
decade.
I
is, howe e , ques ionable whe he hei popula i y
co ela es wi h hei use ulness.
I
is
my con en ion ha he
use ulness
o
compu e s
is
o e es ima ed and ha he g ow h
in compu e usage
may
in ac ha e had ce ain nega i e
e ec s
on
ou
abili y
o
manage e ec i ely. S e en Wozniak,
he co- ounde membe
o
he Apple Compu e Company,
ecen ly said: 'People belie e ha because compu e s
do
hings
di e en ly hey
do
hem be e .
I
akes a ew yea s
o
playing
wi h hem
o
ind ou
i
isn' ue' (The S a ,
28
Janua y,
1985).
Bu he poin
is
no only ha compu e s a e no
necessa ily able
o
do
hings be e ; hey may ac ually encumbe
a he han assis . In educa ion, o example, c i ics a gue ha
he compu e as
an
educa ional ool may ac ually be ha m ul
inasmuch as i c owds
ou
he eal subs ance
o
lea ning wi h
ime-was ing p ocedu es and gadge s. This
is
also ue o he
applic ion
o
compu e s
in
business. Naisbi (1984:51) w o e:
'Man
is
a cle e animal. The e
is
no
way
o
keep him om
de ising new ools. The e o lies in hinking ha new ools
a e he solu ion.
I
could be a a al e o '.
Compu e s, and o ha ma e , all echniques and echno-
logies, should be seen as me e ex ensions
o
ou
physical and
men al abili ies; ha
is
exac ly wha hey a e. They a e as such
no
mo e han ools which
may
assis us; hey may make li e
easie by e adica ing epe i ious and ime-consuming asks.
Compu e s, howe e , in
no
way ep esen an al e na i e
o
ou
abili ies.
The
poin
is
he e o e ha he aul
is
no
o
be ound
in
he compu e pe
se,
bu
in
ou
a i udes owa ds
compu e s.
Job e alua ion
Job e alua ion schemes ins i u ed by managemen in indus y
a e ega ded as impo an by a pe sonnel manage in e iewed
by Ma hews (1985:28), because hey '
...
sys ema ise(s) he
whole pe sonnel unc ion'. Such schemes, acco ding
o
his
esponden , a e also in aluable in he ace
o
union agi a ion
inasmuch as hey gene a e a de ensible, logical, scien i ic pay
s uc u e which he hoped would, o hese easons, no be
challenged by wo ke s
o
he union. Managemen ,
in
his
ins ance, seek legi imacy o hei ac ions in he name
o
scien i ic alidi y. We all know, howe e , ha any
job
e alua-
ion scheme
is
limi ed in e ms
o
he numbe
o
a iables
i
can ake in o accoun in assessing he
eal
alue
o
a wo ke .
These a iables a e also based upon ce ain assump ions
which, collec i ely, de ine
ou
no ion
o
he alue
o
a wo ke .
Gi en he abs ac , almos philosophical, basis
o
job
e alua-
ion schemes
i
is
clea ha he scien i ic a gumen o hei
legi imacy
is,
o
say he leas , suspec . The e exis s, o example,
no way in which
one
can adequa ely quan i y assump ions
such as decision-making, a ie y
o
asks, wo k p essu e, e c.
I
is
clea ha
job
e alua ion schemes a e, in p ac ice, quan i-
ied concep ions
o
he alue
o
wo ke s.
Gi en he a iance
one
expec s
o
ind in he subjec i e
expe iences
o
people
o
simila si ua ions,
i
is
clea ha any
job
e alua ion scheme will only be a ough app oxima ion
o
he alue
o
wo ke s
and
no
gua an ee o subs an i e
ai ness.
We would all ag ee
on
he necessi y
o
some scheme
o
e alua e jobs. Such e alua ion
is
a p e-condi ion o
bo h
he
11
e iciency
o
p oduc ion
and
he ai ness
o
compensa ion.
I
is, howe e , w ong
o
assume ha :
•
job
e alua ion sys ems would sol e all
ou
p oblems ela ed
o
he g ading
o
employees;
• hey would be pe cei ed as ' ai ' because hey a e scien i ic.
We should a he see such sys ems as gene al guidelines in
ou
assessmen
o
jobs which a e,
o
hemsel es, no he only
means by which his goal could be achie ed. These schemes
a e
scien i ically suspec , limi ed
o
quan i iable aspec s
and
some imes unnecessa ily complica ed. Ma hews (1985:28)
s a ed
in
he case s udy
on
he in oduc ion
o
he Pa e son
scheme in a ac o y in Cape Town ha :
'Fa
om elimina ing
con lic
in
collec i e ba gaining, managemen he e o e in-
c eased he e ain
o
disag eemen be ween hem
and
he
union by he in oduc ion
o
he Pa e son sys em'.
Wha
is
o
be done?
I
has been a gued ea lie ha he c i ique agains he a ional-
scien i ic model seems
o
be well-known and accep ed by many
as alid. The p oblem
is,
howe e , ha he a ional-scien i ic
managemen app oach seems
o
s ill domina e managemen
hinking in spi e
o
his c i ique. I sugges ha he eason o
his could be
an
insu icien unde s anding
o
he bases
and
causes unde lying his way
o
hinking. Mos analyses seem
o
ail
o
come
o
g ips wi h he his o ical and s uc u al
easons o i s exis ence. These analyses end o a gue ha
'i
is
he e and should be a oided'.
I
is
my con en ion ha
no
p oblem can be 'sol ed' un il i
is
ully unde s ood.
So when asked
'Wha
is
o
be
done?',
my answe
is
ha
one
should add ess his p oblem
in
wo ways:
The
i s way
is
o
c ea e
an
'awa eness' ha
many
o
ou
p oblems a e
ela ed
o
adical a ionaliza ion. This awa eness
will
lead
o
a ques ioning
o
ou
assump ions abou managemen hough ;
a c i ical mind always p esupposes
an
awa eness
ha
'all
is
no well'. This awa eness
will
na u ally lead
o
a ques o ,
in he i s place, he causes o his unhappy condi ion,
and
secondly, o al e na i es.
We ha e al eady sugges ed wo p ima y causes o he
pe sis ence
o
scien i ic managemen , namely
science
and
he
la ge
bu eauc a ic
o ganiza ion. As a as science i sel is
conce ned,
i
is
o
u mos impo ance
o
ealize ha he body
o
knowledge p oduced by scien is s
is
no as alid
and
as
clea -cu as i would appea
o
be. Mos scien is s would
eadily admi o his.
The
p oblem is, howe e , ha he
language
o
science
is
highly obscu e
and
scien i ic ' ac s' a e
gene ally accep ed pu ely because e y ew people unde s and
wha hey eally mean. In hei obscu i y lies much
o
hei
ma ke abili y! The p oblem wi h scien is s
is
ha hey
do
no
p oduce hei ideas in eadily applicable e ms - his
is
done
by o he s, such as consul an s, who a e
no
amilia wi h he
peculia i ies
o
he scien i ic language.
The
way in which science is ansmi ed
and
hose ins i u-
ions which ansmi science ep oduce he c ippling e ec s
o
adical a ionaliza ion. Le
us
look b ie ly a Business
Schools. Business schools a e semi-academic and semi-p ac ic-
al ins i u ions. Academics
a e
o ien ed owa ds he disco e y
o
he
' u h'
whils p ac ical eali y
is
conce ned wi h he
'use ulness'
o
phenomena.
The
business school
is
hus o n
be ween hese wo o ien a ions;
i
has
o
be 'academic' because
i
is
pa ly dependen upon he uni e si y o i s exis ence
and
i also has
o
be 'p ac ical' because
i
d aws s uden s om
he wo ld
o
business.
One
can a gue ha he na u al eac ion
o
he business school would
be
o
play hese wo in e es s
o
agains each o he . By his I mean
o
ei he sa is y he
needs
o
business by p o iding hem wi h p oblem-sohing
12
echniques
d essed
in
an academic cloak,
o
o
each s uden s
heo y and y
o
ansla e his heo y in o p ac ice. The
o me
is,
howe e , he leas axing on
ou
in ellec ual and
physical abili ies.
Business schools should ask hemsel es (again) wha business
hey a e in? Do
we
wan o ain people
o
do
we
wan
o
educa e hem? A e
we
no
oo
eac i e
o
he demands
o
business? Should
we
no lead he business communi y a he
han me ely equipping
i
wi h he skills and echniques which
i
demand? I belie e ha he u u e
o
ou business schools
will
be de e mined by he ex en
o
which hey clea ly o mu-
la e hei ole in he business communi y and when hey s a
leading he business communi y a he han ollowing i .
Business schools
will
only be able o lead, howe e ,
i
he
alues
o
c ea i i y and inno a ion a e again ins i u ed as
c ucially impo an academic alues. Rela ed o his
is
he
ins i u ionaliza ion
o
a esea ch-o ien ed cul u e - ha is,
a cul u e
in
which inquisi i eness and a c i ical ques o
unde s anding a e he dominan alues.
The second eason why adical a ionaliza ion pe se e es
is
o
be ound
in
he la ge
bu eauc a ic
o ganiza ion.
I
is
a
ac
o
li e ha one
is
(and ha would include he way in
which
we
hink) a p oduc ,
o
some ex en ,
o
one's en i on-
men . The la ge bu eauc acy p oduces a way
o
hinking
which
is
agmen ed, o malized and igid. I p oduces a way
o
hinking di ec ly opposed o ha
o
he en ep eneu ial way
o
hinking.
I
absolu izes ules and p ocedu es, sup esses ee
will
and c ea i i y, and
i
abho s expe imen a ion.
I
is
no he
size
o
he o ganiza ion i sel which
is
he culp i
bu a he he lack
o
awa eness
on
he pa
o
i s 'inma es'
o
he c ippling e ec s hei en i onmen may ha e
on
hei
men al capaci ies.
Apa om hese wo majo causes
o
adical a ionaliza-
ion
o
which
we
should
gi e
ou a en ion, I also belie e ha
he indi idual
in
he o ganiza ion can e ec i ely esis adical
a ionaliza ion. The s a ing poin
is
ob iously
o
be awa e
o
he causes and na u e
o
adical a ionaliza ion. This
is
a p econdi ion o he cul i a ion
o
an
in ap eneu ia/
(Times,
4 Feb ua y
1985)
way
o
hinking. In ap eneu ial hinking
e e s
o
he cul i a ion
o
an en ep eneu ial spi i wi hin he
la ge bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion.
This means ha he indi idual should ede ine him/he sel
as a ee and an au onomous pe son as opposed
o
someone
comple ely de e mined by his en i onmen . The same would
apply
o
he o ganiza ion as a li ing o ganism. Some
o
he
ques ions bo h he indi idual and he o ganiza ion should ask
hemsel es include:
• Do
we
unde s and wha ou ends a e?
By
his, a concep ual
dis inc ion be ween ends and means
is
also implied;
do
we
apply he mos e ec i e means
o
achie e a speci ic goal?
Is his echnique
o
skill eally c ucial
o
he a ainmen
o
a goal?
• A e
we
compe en when
i
comes
o
he basics?
• Do
we
ha e a sound pic u e
o
he whole? A e
we
su e
S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl.
1986,
17(1)
ha
we
ha e aken all he ele an in o ma ion
(quali a i e
as well as quan i a i e) in o accoun ?
• Do
we
encou age
and
ewa d en ep eneu ial
ini ia i e?
Conclusion
In his a icle I ha e a gued
ha
he adical a ionaliza ion
o
managemen hough s ongly co ela es wi h ou
inabili y
o
be c ea i e manage s.
Many
o
ou
p oblems a e
also
a
di ec unc ion
o
his way
o
hinking.
The
e m
adical
a ionaliza ion e e s
o
a way
o
hinking which
is
igid,
o malized, agmen ed, na ow, quan i a i e, and
in
which
means a e seen as ends in hemsel es. I ha e also a gued
ha
he p ima y cause o his way
o
hinking should be
sough
in he na u e
o
science
and
in he bu eauc a ic
o m
o
o ganiza ion;
i
is
also h ough hese wo phenomena ha
his
way
o
hinking
is
ep oduced
and
main ained.
As ega ds
ou
app oach
o
ec i y his si ua ion, I
ha e
a gued ha he solu ion lies, i s ly, in
an
awa eness
o
he
na u e
o
he p oblem
and,
secondly, in he na u e
o
science
and
he bu eauc a ic o m
o
o ganiza ion.
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