The radical rationalization of management thought: Its causes and consequences

Human, P. A icle The adical a ionaliza ion o managemen hough : I s causes and consequences Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen P o ided in Coope a ion wi h: Uni e si y o S ellenbosch Business School (USB), Bell ille, Sou h A ica Sugges ed Ci a ion: Human, P. (1986) : The adical a ionaliza ion o managemen hough : I s causes and consequences, Sou h A ican Jou nal o Business Managemen , ISSN 2078-5976, A ican Online Scien i ic In o ma ion Sys ems (AOSIS), Cape Town, Vol. 17, Iss. 1, pp. 7-12, h ps://doi.o g/10.4102/sajbm. 17i1.1027 This Ve sion is a ailable a : h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/217914 S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen: Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den. Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen. So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen (insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en, gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e. Te ms o use: Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal and schola ly pu poses. You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public. I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/ The adical a ionaliza ion o managemen hough : i s causes and consequences P. Human School o Business Leade ship, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica Radical a ionaliza ion e e s o he phenomenon whe e means a e seen as ends-in- hemsel es. T ansla ed o he p ac ice o managemen his would mean ha he exe cise o echniques is absolu ized o he ex en ha ends (goals) a e los om sigh . In his a icle we enqui e in o he causes as well as he consequences o his phenomenon. I is a gued ha he na u e o science as well as he na u e o he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion can be seen as causal ac o s o he 'i on cage' o adical a ionaliza ion. Some o hose amilia 'i on cages' such as s a egic planning, indus ial ela ions, beha iou modelling and he pe sonal compu e a e discussed. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1986, 17: 7 -12 Die konsep adikale asionalisasie e wys na die e skynsel waa middele gesien wo d as doele-in-sig-sel . Di be eken da egnieke e absolu ee wo d en kos e an doele in die bes uu sp ak yk. In hie die a ikel wo d die oo sake en ge olge an hie die e skynsel onde soek. Daa wo d gea gumen ee da die wese an die we enskap en die bu ok a iese o ganisasie o 'n g oo ma e die oo saak is an hie die 's aalhok' e skynsel. Bekende 's aalhokke' an adikale asionalisasie soos s a egiese beplanning, indus iele e houdinge, ged agsmodelle ing en die pe soonlike ekenaa , wo d besp eek. S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1986, 17: 7-12 P. Human School o Business Leade ship, Uni e si y o Sou h A ica, P .0. Box 392, P e o ia, 0001 Republic o Sou h A ica Accep ed No embe I 98S In a ecen su ey (Ba clays Business B ie , Ap il 1985:1) o Sou h A ican businessmen, i was epo ed ha 'No less han 72 pe cen o esponden s indica ed ha hey iew p ospec s o he nex h ee mon hs wi h pessimism, while 28 pe cen we e easonably op imis ic o he immedia e u u e. The e was no unquali ied op imism amongs he businessmen su - eyed'. A yea ago, app oxima ely 75% o businessmen we e s ill op imis ic. Things do seem o be ' alling apa '. Who o wha should be ega ded as he culp i o his dep essed s a e o a ai s? A popula (and na u al) eac ion o c ises such as his is o accuse ac o s ex e nal o onesel . I is also much easie o accuse ac o s o an abs ac kind; ac o s which a e a hes emo ed om onesel , such as he mys icisms o he gold p ice, Reagonomics, he black wo k- o ce, o he poli ical policies o he s a e. I is also in e es ing o no e ha hese ac o s a e usually pe cei ed as phenomena o e which we ha e no con ol; phenomena which exis au onomously o ou con ol. The eason why hese explana- ions a e so easily accep ed is p ecisely he ac ha hey make i possible o us o say ha we do ha e no con ol o e hem; we a e simply he ic ims o des iny. I would, howe e , like o a gue ha we do ha e con ol o e ou li es; we c ea e ou own wo ld and con ol ou own des iny. The bligh o he p esen dep essiona y s a e o a ai s is, he e o e, o be ound wi hin ou sel es. In his a icle I p opose ha many o ou p oblems a e a di ec esul o he way in which we manage. The way in which we manage is an exp ession o ou iews and ideas o eali y; in o he wo ds, o managemen hough as a sys em o ideas which shapes social ac ion. The basic p oblem in managemen hough can bes be cha ac e ized by he e m adical a ionaliw ion. Radical a ionaliza ion means ha means a e seen as ends-in- hem- sel es, o , in mo e p ac ical e ms, ha echniques (as means) a e absolu ized o he ex en ha ends a e los om sigh . This way o managing is no only ine ec i e bu also immo al. The c i ique o he o hodox way o managing, o , as i is be e known, scien i ic managemen , is a amilia one. One o he cen al con ibu ions o his a icle is o a i e a an explana ion o he pe se e ance o scien i ic managemen in he ace o pe sis en c i icism o e he las i e decades. Why is i ha ou ac ions a e in di ec opposi ion o ou in en ions? I sugges ha he eason o he pe se e ance o scien i ic managemen is o be ound in he na u e o science and he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. The a ionalis ic e hos The mos d ama ic change expe ienced in his o y was p obably 8 he shi om a basically eligious wo ld- iew o a mo e secula o a ional wo ld- iew. Ge h & Mills (1970:51) saw a ionaliza ion as a p ocess o disenchan men ; 'The ex en and di ec ion o " a ionaliza ion" is hus measu ed nega i ely in e ms o he deg ee o which magical elemen s o hough a e displaced, o posi i ely by he ex en o which ideas gain in sys ema ic cohe ence and na u alis ic consis ency'. This a ionalis ic amewo k o hough de eloped his o ically in o he mos compelling and uni e sally applied amewo k ha has e e exis ed. We can dis inguish be ween h ee meanings o he concep o a ionali y. Swidle (1973) sugges ed ha he dis inc ion be ween a ionalism, a ionaliza ion and a ionali y, as i was used by Max Webe , illus a es he h ee impo an seman ic dimensions o he gene ic e m a ionali y. Ra ionalism Ra ionalism e e s o an a i ude o p agma ic o ien a ion o he a ainmen o immedia e goals. 'I ollows ules o ex- pe ience, hough i is no necessa ily ac ion in acco dance wi h a means-end schema. Rubbing will elici spa ks om pieces o wood, and in like ashion he mime ical ac ions o a magician will e oke ain om he hea ens' (Webe , 1978a: 400). Ra ionalism, hen, e e s o he applica ion o 'e ec i e ways' o doing hings in e e yday li e. Ra ionali y Ra ionali y, in con as o a ionalism, in ol es he whole meaning o li e. I is seen as a sys em o hough in which he means, ends, and seconda y consequences o ac ion a e aken in o accoun . Ra ionali y, hen, e e s o he ex en o which ac ion is con olled by conscious ideas. Max Webe 's analysis o P o es an asce icism as espoused by Cal in ex- p essed his delibe a eness in ac ion go e ned by conscious ideas mos clea ly: 'Fo only by a undamen al change in he whole meaning o li e a e e y momen and in e e y ac ion could he e ec s o g ace ans o ming a man om he s a us na u ae o he s a us g a iae be p o ed' (Webe , 1978b: ll8). This implies he impo ance o he uni ied and o al con ol o ac ion by conscious ideas which unde lies he P o es an wo k e hic - he e hic which can be seen as he dominan o ma i e o ce o ou p esen -day wo k e hic in capi alism. Ra ionaliza ion Ra ionaliza ion e e s o he p ocess o he sys ema iza ion o ideas. The sys ema iza ion o ideas may mean a numbe o hings. In i s mos gene al sense i would simply mean he o de ing o a numbe o disc e e elemen s o a i e a a mo e p ecise and in e nally consis en (logical) whole. Ano he meaning o a ionaliza ion ela es o he capaci y o in eg a e new, o i a ional ideas, in o a sys em o ideas by inding new, and mo e abs ac , p inciples o which hese ideas a e ela ed. The hi d meaning o he p ocess o a ionaliza ion conce ns he abili y o ex end a sys em o ideas so ha i may be applicable o a whole ange o si ua ions. The abili y o o de , o in eg a e and o ex en inhe en in he p ocess o a ionaliza ion, implies ha a sys em o ideas can con inuously de elop in e ms o he needs o p ac ical eali y (by being lexible and dynamic). Such a ele an , conscious and gene alized sys em o ideas can hus in luence and gi e o m o social ac ion. Gi en he capaci y o a ionaliza ion o shape social ac ion and hus o become embedded in bo h he ab ic o social ac ion and he ins i u ions o socie y means ha such an idea sys em has a 'ma e ial base'. This closely connec ed ela ion- S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1986, 17(1) ship be ween ideas and ma e ial eali y would, in um, gua an- ee he con inued ' ele ance' o such an idea sys em. F om ou discussion hus a , i is clea ha a ionali y (in i s gene ic sense) p o ided a new base o social ac ion. Ra ionali y mus he e o e be seen as he dominan sys em o ideas in modem socie y, and as eplacing he anscenden al o eligious amewo ks o p e-indus ialized socie y. I is he e o e also clea ha managemen science and hough a e o be seen as a p oduc o his gene al sys em o ideas. The bu eauc a ic o m o o ganiza ion in pa icula , could be seen as he 'ma e ial base' o he a ionalis ic e hos. The a ionalis ic e hos is exp essed in he ma e ial a angemen s and p inciples ound in he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. These wo phenomena, he a ionalis ic e hos and he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion could he e o e, in a simpli ied way, be seen as mi o images o each o he . Radical a ionaliza ion F om he a gumen abo e, i would appea ha an unde - s anding o he gene ic e m a ionali y in ol es an unde - s anding o he means-end na u e o social ac ion. Social ac ion mus be seen as in en ional; we ac in o de o achie e ce ain goals o ends. These ends a e mos ly seen in e ms o a sa is ac ion o needs scheme. The indi idual human being mus be seen as he ul ima e end. This means ha eedom om wan s, sel -de e mina ion, indi idual au onomy, and he digni y o he indi idual in socie y mus be iewed as he ul ima e pu pose which any sys em o ideas o o m o o ganiza ion (as means) should se e. The a ionalis ic e hos can, in heo y, be said o 'se e' his end mos e ec i ely. Max Webe associa ed '. . . he s onges " eeling o eedom" wi h p ecisely hose ac ions which we know ou sel es o ha e accomplished a ionally, i.e. in he absence o physical o psychic "compulsion"; ac ions in which we "pu sue" a clea ly conscious "pu pose" by wha o ou knowledge a e he mos adequa e means' (Lowi h, 1982:45). In p ac ice, howe e , he opposi e occu ed. Man has become he se an o ideas and o ganiza ions; he has los con ol o e ideas and o ganiza ions. They (ideas and o ganiza ions) ha e begun o de e mine he des iny o man. This p ocess is gene ally known as he de-humaniza ion and impe sonaliza- ion o social li e. I means ha he means o li e ha e become he end; whe e man once wo ked (means) in o de o sa is y his wan s (end), he has now absolu ized wo k, as measu ed by p o i s. He has also o ganized wo k in such a way ha o ganiza ional needs anscend indi idual needs. This p ocess is wha we call adical a ionaliza ion. This also means ha ideas ha e acqui ed an au onomous posi ion - hey ha e become di o ced om p ac ice o he ex en ha man is caugh in an 'i on cage'. This 'i on cage' is pe pe ua ed h ough he ma e ial base ( he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion) and gi en legi imacy and powe 'o e ' he people in i . Ou abili y o sol e new p oblems and o be c ea i e is se e ely limi ed by his 'i on cage'. This is he p ima y hesis o his a icle. We may, howe e , ask how his 'i a ional' e hos exp esses i sel in managemen hough and wha i means in p ac ical e ms. Le us s a wi h he la e . The Implica ions o adical a ionaliza ion Some o he ecen li e a u e on managemen hough employs a c i ique o he a ional model o managemen as a heo e ical basis o i s a gumen s. Pe e s & Wa e man, in hei book In Sea ch o Excellence (1982), seemed o sugges ha he a i udes o Ame ican companies owa ds he a ional model cons i u es he s onges disc imina ing ac o be ween success- S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1986, 17(1) ul and unsuccess ul companies. McCo mack (1984) and Naisbi (1984) also appea ed o sugges ha he ul ima e cause o many o ou p oblems is o be ound in ou unquali ied accep ance o he a ional model as he only alid sys em o managemen hough . This c i ique is in no way new o unique. This c i ique has been moun ing s eadily since he days o F ede ick W. Taylo (1856-1917). Taylo 's wo k culmina ed in he mo emen known as scien i ic managemen o , as he some imes called i , ' he science o sho elling'. Taylo called o a pu ely scien i ic app oach o wo k whe e he ask i sel , he selec ion and aining o people o pe o m he ask, and he compensa ion o he execu ion o he ask should be de e - mined by scien i ic me hods ( he highes o m o a ionali y). The consis en c i ique o Taylo ism appea s no o ha e a ec ed he p ac ice o managemen signi ican ly; my a gu- men will p opose an explana ion o his. Howe e , i is i s necessa y o look a he elemen o his a ional model. Quan i ica ion and o he limi s o science The scien i ic mode o hinking, as he highes o m o a ionali y, places g ea s ess on he sys ema ic and disciplined app oach o unde s anding eali y. Reali y, i mus be e- membe ed, com.is s o a complex web o a mul i ude o elemen s and o ces. The unc ion o science is o desc ibe eali y and is limi ed by he me hods i employs o desc ibe eali y. Eins ein once ema ked ha i is no he unc ion o science o ep oduce he as e o soup because science canno ep oduce eali y; i can me ely o e pa ochial desc ip ions o i . A desc ip ion o he as e o soup is no he same hing as he as e o soup i sel . The poin is ha we mus accep he ac ha he scien i ic endea ou can ne e ully come o g ips wi h he o ali y o a phenomenon. Scien i ic analysis can only p oduce accoun s o eali y in e ms o i s ins umen s. These ins umen s (o measu emen , o example) can only measu e ha which is empi ically obse able and hus quan i iable. The high p emium placed on disciplined inqui y also means ha he ep oducibili y o esul s is highly alued. Unde lying he ep oducibili y o esea ch indings is he idea ha gene al laws go e n all si ua ions and ha i is he unc ion o science o disco e hese gene al laws ( he unc ion o ex ending ideas as discussed abo e unde he p ocess o a ionaliza ion). The end- esul is ha science has c ea ed a no ion o he ' u h' whe e only ha which is quan i ied, s anda dized and sys ema ic is ue. The poin is, howe e , ha eali y also includes quali a i e componen s; ha some phenomena a e a imes unique (si ua ionally-bound) and a imes ex emely unsys ema ic and chao ic. Science, in i s o hodox sense, is, a bes , only able o p oduce pa ial and limi ed desc ip ions o eali y. I should ne e , in he absolu e sense, be seen as ou only ins umen o unde s anding eali y. Bu science no only p oduces a na ow and some imes dis o ed pic u e o eali y, i also ep oduces a conse a i e and o malis ic app oach o !i e. The ules o he scien i ic me hod a e highly o malized and no e y lexible. The eason o his is o be ound in he high p emium placed upon he ep oducibili y o esul s. These ules a e also ansmi ed o s uden s o science in such a way as o make hei alidi y unques ionable. No only his bu also he my h ha he conscien ious applica ion o hese ules will 'au o- ma ically' p oduce he ' u h' gi es he scien i ic me hod an au a o legi imacy. The esul o his is ha science, especially as i is applied in he sphe e o business, has become an unc i ical and hus conse a i e mode o hinking. I will e u n o his poin a a la e s age. 9 Subs an i e e sus o mal a ionali y Subs an i e a ionali y ' ... is he deg ee o which he p o- isioning o gi en g oups o pe sons . . . wi h goods is shaped by economically-o ien ed social ac ion unde some c i e ia ... o ul ima e alues' (Webe , 1978a:85). Fo mal a ionali y, in cons as , ela es o ' ... he ex en o quan i a i e calcula ion o accoun ing which is echnically possible and which is ac ually applied . . . he deg ee in which he p o ision o needs ... is capable o being exp essed in nume ical, cal- culable e ms' (Webe , 1978a:85). I is he e o e clea ha he means in subs an i e a ionali y will be de e mined by ul ima e alues. These ul ima e alues a e ela ed o he ull ange o needs o he indi idual. An analy ic dis inc ion be ween means and ends is d awn wi hou nega ing he impo an connec ion ha exis s be ween hose wo sphe es o social ac ion. In o mal a ionali y, we ind no clea dis inc ion be ween means and ends. The means and he ends a e in no way clea ly dis inguished because he c i e ia o assessing needs (ends) and he means o p o ide o hese ends a e he same. We know ha he indi idual human being canno be educed o 'nume ical calculable e ms'. Fo mal a ionali y, hen, is blind o he ull meaning o human exis ence. Mode n managemen hough ollows he lines o o mal a ionali y a he han subs an i e a ionali y. The eason o his, in a heo e ical sense, is ha means ha e come o be seen as ends wi h he esul s ha he echnological and cal- culable needs o he o ganiza ion anscend he needs o he indi idual. The na u e o he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion I ha e a gued ha he 'ma e ial base' o he a ionalis ic e hos is, in pa icula , o be ound in he mode n bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. The bu eauc a ic o m o o ganiza ion has become he single mos impo an s uc u al a angemen in modem socie y. Sou h A ica is no excep ion. I, and many o he w i e s, ha e indica ed he ex en o bu eauc a iza ion in Sou h A ica (see Human, 1984). The conclusion a i ed a abou he concen a ion o economic powe in Sou h A ica, is ha he majo i y o he popula ion a e employed by la ge bu eauc a ic o ganiza ions. The way o hinking exp essed by such o ganiza ions su ely mus ha e an e ec on he way o hinking o hose who wo k in hem. The bu eauc a ic e hos will exp es!I he in e es s o he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. Calculabili y, e iciency, con ol specializa ion ( h ough he agmen a ion o asks as he mos a ional me hod o p oduc ion), hie a chical dis ibu ion o powe , e c. a e all alues highly ega ded by he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. Any o ganiza ion p oduces ce ain in e es s which i would wish o ep oduce and ex end. This is only possible by he c ea ion o ideas which suppo and u he he in e es s o he o ganiza ion. I one con as s he ideal na u e o he indi idual wi h ha o he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion in e ms o a numbe o dimensions de eloped hus a (Table 1), you can ob ain some ' eeling' o he p oblems acing indus ialized socie y. These wo eali ies a e necessa y p e equisi es o he p o- duc ion o goods and se ices; o ganiza ions canno exis wi hou indi iduals in he same way as indi iduals canno exis wi hou o ganiza ions. The answe o many o ou p oblems lies in he way in which hese wo eali ies a e combined. Ou a gumen so a , has been ha managemen hough has o e -accen ua ed o ganiza ional eali y a he expense o indi idual eali y. The o ganiza ion has become an end in i sel . A way o hinking has de eloped (an 'i on cage') which 10 Table 1 Compa ison be ween he na u e o he in- di idual and ha o he bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion The indi idual Subs an i e a ionali y Subjec i e need sa is ac ion Conc e e expec a ions Decisions as o ends Quali a i e F ee will Holis ic iew o eali y Pe sonal In e nal locus o con ol Pe sonal powe The o ganiza ion Fo mal a ionali y Objec i e need sa is ac ion Abs ac ed expec a ions Decisions as o means Quan i a i e De e minism F agmen ion o eali y (Specializa ion) Impe sonal Ex e nal locus o con ol Posi ional powe agmen s and dis o s eali y by i s exclusi e ixa ion on specializa ion and quan i ica ion. The conse a i e and o m- alis ic na u e o his way o hinking inhibi s he abili y o manage s o unde s and he ue na u e o hei business, in he i s place, and, in he second place, o be c ea i e and uly p oblem-sol ing. The sou ce o his way o hinking is o be ound in he a ionalis ic e hos which is o malized in science and exp essed in he na u e o he o mal o ganiza ion. The appa en legi imacy o science as well as he na u e o he o mal o ganiza ion ensu es he ep oduc ion o he 'i on cage' way o hinking. Familia 'i on cages' S a egic planning Lenz (l 983) w o e ha hype a ionali y '. . . is a condi ion in which he en ep eneu ial spi i essen ial o planning is supplan ed by igidi y, excessi e quan i ica ion and o mali y. Once hype - a ionali y exis s, he capaci y o he planning p ocess o insu e inno a i e adap a ion is los . Wi h his loss comes a diminished capaci y o an o ganiza ion o achie ing long- e m compe i i e success'. Lenz discussed ou causes o he 'hype - a ional' s a e o s a egic planning. The i s is he p o essionaliza ion o he planne 's job. In days gone by, no such p o ession exis ed. Wi h he g ow h in he need o specializa ion in he la ge bu eauc acies, business schools and la ge business i ms we e quick o single ou s a egic planning as a ca ee . 'A equi emen o main aining he p o essional mys ique o planning is o cas i in o he mold o an exac science . . . Fi s came he necessa y ja gon. Te ms such as s a egic business uni , g ow h-sha e ma ix, and GAP analysis became buzz wo ds o he planning p o essional' (Lenz, 1983:4). The g ow h o he subjec , as a mul i-dis- ciplina y one, quickly degene a ed in o a body o obscu e e ms and ancy echniques. This ob iously se ed he in e es s o planne s, who, as s a is-a- is line manage s, el ulne - able wi h espec o hei o ganiza ional s a us. The esul s was ha he subjec s a egic planning became inc easingly obscu e and a me e collec ion o echniques. The echniques became absolu ized a he expense o he end -and ha is o plan o achie e a speci ic end. This is also ue o many o he specialized s a unc ions in business p ac ice. Lenz also men ioned he quan i ica ion equals ce ain y allacy, he ins i u ionaliza ion o planning, and he unquali ied accep ance o analy ical echniques as he o he h ee causes o 'hype - a ionali y'. The poin is ha inc easing echnical sophis ica- ion can b eed inc easing i ele ance. Indus ial ela ions The p ac ice o indus ial ela ions in Sou h A ica is ano he amilia 'i on-cage'. Indus ial ela ions is a mul i-disciplina y S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1986, 17(1) subjec which has as goal he egula ion o he ela ionship be ween labou and managemen . The legal aspec o in- dus ial ela ions is only one aspec o he o ali y o he ela ionship. Howe e , a endency exis s in he indus ial ela ions sphe e o educe his ela ionship o i s legal dimen- sion. This is e iden in Sou h A ica in he high p opo ion o legal people in ol ed in he indus ial ela ions unc ion. This implies a numbe o dange s, in e alia: • he legal aspec s o he ela ionship be ween employe and employee a e absolu ized. • he legal machine y (as exp essed in he Ac on Labou Rela ions) is seen as he only amewo k in e ms o which his ela ionship is o be egula ed. • dispu es be ween labou and managemen can be 'sol ed' in a win-lose manne . We know ha he legal dimension o indus ial ela ions is only one and no he only egula o y mechanism. To educe indus ial ela ions o he legalis ic amewo k is o dis o he ' eal' na u e o he ela ionship. This educ ion also exce ba es a he han amelio a es he ela ionship be ween labou and managemen . Gi en he in e dependency be ween labou and managemen , i is clea ha any hough s o ul ima ely 'sol ing' p oblems in a legalis ic win-lose manne is, o say he leas , absu d. Bu his is exac ly wha is happening; he unnecessa y legalis ic bias buil in o indus ial ela ions p ac ice has c ea ed he belie ha dispu es can be ul ima ely 'sol ed'. The accen ua ion o he legal aspec s in indus ial ela ions is pe haps a e lec ion o he imma u i y o indus ial ela ions p ac ice in his coun y. O o Kahn-F eund once ema ked ha : 'The e exis s . . . some hing like an in e se co ela ion be ween he p ac ical signi icance o legal sanc ion and he deg ee o which indus ial ela ions ha e eached a s a e o ma u i y . . . Reliance on legisla ion and on legal sanc ions o he en o cemen o igh s and du ies be ween employe s and employees may be a symp om o an ac ual o impending b eakdown and, especially on he side o he unions, e- quen ly a sign o weakness, ce ainly no a sign o s eng h' (Wedde bu n, Lewis & Cla k, 1983:41). This imma u i y is, in my eyes, di ec ly ela ed o a limi ed and conse a i e ('na ow') concep ion o indus ial ela ions amongs p ac i- ione s. Beha iou al modelling Beha iou modelling is a popula echnique used by manage- men o inc ease he e ec i eness o employees. The a gumen is ha i is easie o change he beha iou o he employees han hei a i udes. I one can change beha iou success ully, hen a i ude change will ollow, acco ding o dissonance heo y. The aim o beha iou modelling is no o' ... di ec ly a emp o change he a i udes o he pa icipan s; i a he aims o o e hem wi h a b oade beha iou al epe oi e by p o iding hem wi h knowledge and p ac ice o al e na i e, mo e adap i e beha iou in a a ie y o job- ele an si ua ions (Ho mey , 1983:14). The gene al idea is basically sound (see Bumaska, 1976 and Schneie , 1973). I is, howe e , a he in he applica ion o his echnique ha many unin ended nega i e consequences a ise. Pa y & Reich (1984) examine some o hese sho - comings. The model as i is applied is oo simplis ic. The model is seen by ins uc o s as an end-all a he han he s a ing poin i was in ended o be. The model is seen as o gene al use and no sensi i e o speci ic si ua ional condi ions. I u he mo e only concen a es on co ec beha iou - much can be lea ned om inco ec o inapp op ia e beha- iou . In sho , i would seem ha he model is seen as an s. A . J. Bus. Mgm . 1986, 17(1) end in i sel ; i is na ow and he skills lea ned by pa icpan s a e no always app op ia e o he si ua ion. The pe sonal compu e and ' echno ix' The eno mous g ow h in he use o compu e s in he business wo ld cons i u es one o he mos impo an obse able changes ha ha e aken place in he wo k sphe e in he las decade. I is, howe e , ques ionable whe he hei popula i y co ela es wi h hei use ulness. I is my con en ion ha he use ulness o compu e s is o e es ima ed and ha he g ow h in compu e usage may in ac ha e had ce ain nega i e e ec s on ou abili y o manage e ec i ely. S e en Wozniak, he co- ounde membe o he Apple Compu e Company, ecen ly said: 'People belie e ha because compu e s do hings di e en ly hey do hem be e . I akes a ew yea s o playing wi h hem o ind ou i isn' ue' (The S a , 28 Janua y, 1985). Bu he poin is no only ha compu e s a e no necessa ily able o do hings be e ; hey may ac ually encumbe a he han assis . In educa ion, o example, c i ics a gue ha he compu e as an educa ional ool may ac ually be ha m ul inasmuch as i c owds ou he eal subs ance o lea ning wi h ime-was ing p ocedu es and gadge s. This is also ue o he applic ion o compu e s in business. Naisbi (1984:51) w o e: 'Man is a cle e animal. The e is no way o keep him om de ising new ools. The e o lies in hinking ha new ools a e he solu ion. I could be a a al e o '. Compu e s, and o ha ma e , all echniques and echno- logies, should be seen as me e ex ensions o ou physical and men al abili ies; ha is exac ly wha hey a e. They a e as such no mo e han ools which may assis us; hey may make li e easie by e adica ing epe i ious and ime-consuming asks. Compu e s, howe e , in no way ep esen an al e na i e o ou abili ies. The poin is he e o e ha he aul is no o be ound in he compu e pe se, bu in ou a i udes owa ds compu e s. Job e alua ion Job e alua ion schemes ins i u ed by managemen in indus y a e ega ded as impo an by a pe sonnel manage in e iewed by Ma hews (1985:28), because hey ' ... sys ema ise(s) he whole pe sonnel unc ion'. Such schemes, acco ding o his esponden , a e also in aluable in he ace o union agi a ion inasmuch as hey gene a e a de ensible, logical, scien i ic pay s uc u e which he hoped would, o hese easons, no be challenged by wo ke s o he union. Managemen , in his ins ance, seek legi imacy o hei ac ions in he name o scien i ic alidi y. We all know, howe e , ha any job e alua- ion scheme is limi ed in e ms o he numbe o a iables i can ake in o accoun in assessing he eal alue o a wo ke . These a iables a e also based upon ce ain assump ions which, collec i ely, de ine ou no ion o he alue o a wo ke . Gi en he abs ac , almos philosophical, basis o job e alua- ion schemes i is clea ha he scien i ic a gumen o hei legi imacy is, o say he leas , suspec . The e exis s, o example, no way in which one can adequa ely quan i y assump ions such as decision-making, a ie y o asks, wo k p essu e, e c. I is clea ha job e alua ion schemes a e, in p ac ice, quan i- ied concep ions o he alue o wo ke s. Gi en he a iance one expec s o ind in he subjec i e expe iences o people o simila si ua ions, i is clea ha any job e alua ion scheme will only be a ough app oxima ion o he alue o wo ke s and no gua an ee o subs an i e ai ness. We would all ag ee on he necessi y o some scheme o e alua e jobs. Such e alua ion is a p e-condi ion o bo h he 11 e iciency o p oduc ion and he ai ness o compensa ion. I is, howe e , w ong o assume ha : • job e alua ion sys ems would sol e all ou p oblems ela ed o he g ading o employees; • hey would be pe cei ed as ' ai ' because hey a e scien i ic. We should a he see such sys ems as gene al guidelines in ou assessmen o jobs which a e, o hemsel es, no he only means by which his goal could be achie ed. These schemes a e scien i ically suspec , limi ed o quan i iable aspec s and some imes unnecessa ily complica ed. Ma hews (1985:28) s a ed in he case s udy on he in oduc ion o he Pa e son scheme in a ac o y in Cape Town ha : 'Fa om elimina ing con lic in collec i e ba gaining, managemen he e o e in- c eased he e ain o disag eemen be ween hem and he union by he in oduc ion o he Pa e son sys em'. Wha is o be done? I has been a gued ea lie ha he c i ique agains he a ional- scien i ic model seems o be well-known and accep ed by many as alid. The p oblem is, howe e , ha he a ional-scien i ic managemen app oach seems o s ill domina e managemen hinking in spi e o his c i ique. I sugges ha he eason o his could be an insu icien unde s anding o he bases and causes unde lying his way o hinking. Mos analyses seem o ail o come o g ips wi h he his o ical and s uc u al easons o i s exis ence. These analyses end o a gue ha 'i is he e and should be a oided'. I is my con en ion ha no p oblem can be 'sol ed' un il i is ully unde s ood. So when asked 'Wha is o be done?', my answe is ha one should add ess his p oblem in wo ways: The i s way is o c ea e an 'awa eness' ha many o ou p oblems a e ela ed o adical a ionaliza ion. This awa eness will lead o a ques ioning o ou assump ions abou managemen hough ; a c i ical mind always p esupposes an awa eness ha 'all is no well'. This awa eness will na u ally lead o a ques o , in he i s place, he causes o his unhappy condi ion, and secondly, o al e na i es. We ha e al eady sugges ed wo p ima y causes o he pe sis ence o scien i ic managemen , namely science and he la ge bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. As a as science i sel is conce ned, i is o u mos impo ance o ealize ha he body o knowledge p oduced by scien is s is no as alid and as clea -cu as i would appea o be. Mos scien is s would eadily admi o his. The p oblem is, howe e , ha he language o science is highly obscu e and scien i ic ' ac s' a e gene ally accep ed pu ely because e y ew people unde s and wha hey eally mean. In hei obscu i y lies much o hei ma ke abili y! The p oblem wi h scien is s is ha hey do no p oduce hei ideas in eadily applicable e ms - his is done by o he s, such as consul an s, who a e no amilia wi h he peculia i ies o he scien i ic language. The way in which science is ansmi ed and hose ins i u- ions which ansmi science ep oduce he c ippling e ec s o adical a ionaliza ion. Le us look b ie ly a Business Schools. Business schools a e semi-academic and semi-p ac ic- al ins i u ions. Academics a e o ien ed owa ds he disco e y o he ' u h' whils p ac ical eali y is conce ned wi h he 'use ulness' o phenomena. The business school is hus o n be ween hese wo o ien a ions; i has o be 'academic' because i is pa ly dependen upon he uni e si y o i s exis ence and i also has o be 'p ac ical' because i d aws s uden s om he wo ld o business. One can a gue ha he na u al eac ion o he business school would be o play hese wo in e es s o agains each o he . By his I mean o ei he sa is y he needs o business by p o iding hem wi h p oblem-sohing 12 echniques d essed in an academic cloak, o o each s uden s heo y and y o ansla e his heo y in o p ac ice. The o me is, howe e , he leas axing on ou in ellec ual and physical abili ies. Business schools should ask hemsel es (again) wha business hey a e in? Do we wan o ain people o do we wan o educa e hem? A e we no oo eac i e o he demands o business? Should we no lead he business communi y a he han me ely equipping i wi h he skills and echniques which i demand? I belie e ha he u u e o ou business schools will be de e mined by he ex en o which hey clea ly o mu- la e hei ole in he business communi y and when hey s a leading he business communi y a he han ollowing i . Business schools will only be able o lead, howe e , i he alues o c ea i i y and inno a ion a e again ins i u ed as c ucially impo an academic alues. Rela ed o his is he ins i u ionaliza ion o a esea ch-o ien ed cul u e - ha is, a cul u e in which inquisi i eness and a c i ical ques o unde s anding a e he dominan alues. The second eason why adical a ionaliza ion pe se e es is o be ound in he la ge bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. I is a ac o li e ha one is (and ha would include he way in which we hink) a p oduc , o some ex en , o one's en i on- men . The la ge bu eauc acy p oduces a way o hinking which is agmen ed, o malized and igid. I p oduces a way o hinking di ec ly opposed o ha o he en ep eneu ial way o hinking. I absolu izes ules and p ocedu es, sup esses ee will and c ea i i y, and i abho s expe imen a ion. I is no he size o he o ganiza ion i sel which is he culp i bu a he he lack o awa eness on he pa o i s 'inma es' o he c ippling e ec s hei en i onmen may ha e on hei men al capaci ies. Apa om hese wo majo causes o adical a ionaliza- ion o which we should gi e ou a en ion, I also belie e ha he indi idual in he o ganiza ion can e ec i ely esis adical a ionaliza ion. The s a ing poin is ob iously o be awa e o he causes and na u e o adical a ionaliza ion. This is a p econdi ion o he cul i a ion o an in ap eneu ia/ (Times, 4 Feb ua y 1985) way o hinking. In ap eneu ial hinking e e s o he cul i a ion o an en ep eneu ial spi i wi hin he la ge bu eauc a ic o ganiza ion. This means ha he indi idual should ede ine him/he sel as a ee and an au onomous pe son as opposed o someone comple ely de e mined by his en i onmen . The same would apply o he o ganiza ion as a li ing o ganism. Some o he ques ions bo h he indi idual and he o ganiza ion should ask hemsel es include: • Do we unde s and wha ou ends a e? By his, a concep ual dis inc ion be ween ends and means is also implied; do we apply he mos e ec i e means o achie e a speci ic goal? Is his echnique o skill eally c ucial o he a ainmen o a goal? • A e we compe en when i comes o he basics? • Do we ha e a sound pic u e o he whole? A e we su e S.-A . Tydsk . Bed y sl. 1986, 17(1) ha we ha e aken all he ele an in o ma ion (quali a i e as well as quan i a i e) in o accoun ? • Do we encou age and ewa d en ep eneu ial ini ia i e? Conclusion In his a icle I ha e a gued ha he adical a ionaliza ion o managemen hough s ongly co ela es wi h ou inabili y o be c ea i e manage s. Many o ou p oblems a e also a di ec unc ion o his way o hinking. The e m adical a ionaliza ion e e s o a way o hinking which is igid, o malized, agmen ed, na ow, quan i a i e, and in which means a e seen as ends in hemsel es. I ha e also a gued ha he p ima y cause o his way o hinking should be sough in he na u e o science and in he bu eauc a ic o m o o ganiza ion; i is also h ough hese wo phenomena ha his way o hinking is ep oduced and main ained. As ega ds ou app oach o ec i y his si ua ion, I ha e a gued ha he solu ion lies, i s ly, in an awa eness o he na u e o he p oblem and, secondly, in he na u e o science and he bu eauc a ic o m o o ganiza ion. Re e ences Ba clays Business B ie . Ap il 1985. Johannesbu g: Ba clays Bank. Bu naska, R.G. 1976. The e ec s o beha io modeling aining upon manage 's beha io s and employees' pe cep ions. Pe s. Psycho/. ol. 29, 329- 335. Ge h, H.H. & Mills, C.W. 1970. F om Max Webe : Essays in Sociology. London: Rou ledge and Kegan Paul. Ho mey , K. 1983. The ole o he ins uc o in beha iou modelling. Manpowe J., ol. 2(8), 14- 17. Human, P. 1984. Bu eauc acy and he Need o En ep eneu ship in Sou h A ica. S. A . J. Bus. Mgm . ol. 15(4), 212-219. Lenz, R.T. 1983. 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