Bo ojo, Dinkneh Geb e; Weimin, Huang
A icle
F om click o Ca go: The ole o digi aliza ion, c oss-bo de
e-comme ce, and logis ics in deepening he China-A ica
ade
Economies
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MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bo ojo, Dinkneh Geb e; Weimin, Huang (2025) : F om click o Ca go: The ole
o digi aliza ion, c oss-bo de e-comme ce, and logis ics in deepening he China-A ica ade,
Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 13, Iss. 6, pp. 1-33,
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Ci a ion: Bo ojo, D. G., & Weimin, H.
(2025). F om Click o Ca go: The Role
o Digi aliza ion, C oss-Bo de
E-Comme ce, and Logis ics in
Deepening he China–A ica T ade.
Economies,13(6), 171. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/economies13060171
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A icle
F om Click o Ca go: The Role o Digi aliza ion, C oss-Bo de
E-Comme ce, and Logis ics in Deepening he China–A ica T ade
Dinkneh Geb e Bo ojo * and Huang Weimin *
Yiyang Voca ional and Technical College, Yiyang 413049, China
*Co espondence: [email p o ec ed] (D.G.B.); [email p o ec ed] (H.W.)
Abs ac : Enhancing digi al connec i i y, ad ancing c oss-bo de e-comme ce (CE), and
op imizing logis ics pe o mance (LP) a e undamen al pilla s o boos ing ade lows
be ween ading pa ne s. Howe e , he mul i ace ed impac s o digi aliza ion, CE, and
LP on China–A ica (C-A) ade emain unde explo ed. The e o e, employing he g a i y
model, his s udy examines he impac s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade using
da a on Chinese ade low o 53 A ican coun ies om 2007 o 2023. Fu he analysis
is conduc ed by accoun ing o A ican coun ies’ income, popula ion, esou ces, and
ins i u ional he e ogenei y. We also con ol o he impac o digi aliza ion and logis ics
pe o mance dis ance be ween China and A ican coun ies on C-A ade. The indings
p o ide e idence ha he digi aliza ion o A ican coun ies and China signi ican ly en-
hances C-A ade. Mo eo e , CE and LP imp o emen s in China posi i ely a ec C-A
ade, e ealing ha p omo ing he sus ainable de elopmen o CE and LP can lead o
inc eased ade in eg a ion be ween China and A ican coun ies. Fu he mo e, he e ec s
o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade a e in luenced by he e ogenei y in he income
le el, popula ion size, and ins i u ional pe o mance o A ican coun ies, e ealing mo e
bene icial e ec s in middle-income coun ies, mo e popula ed coun ies, and coun ies
wi h be e ins i u ional quali y. Policy sugges ions a e o wa ded based on he indings.
Keywo ds: digi aliza ion; c oss-bo de e-comme ce; logis ics pe o mance; China–A ica
ade; g a i y model
1. In oduc ion
China has eme ged as A ica’s la ges ading pa ne , su passing he con inen ’s
adi ional ade allies (M. Miao e al.,2020;Usman & Tang,2024;Shao e al.,2025).
Al hough ade ela ions be ween A ica and China da e back many yea s, he pas wo
decades ha e wi nessed unp eceden ed g ow h in hei ade exchanges (M. Miao e al.,
2020). T ade be ween China and A ica has expanded a he mos apid pace since 2000
(M. Miao e al.,2020). Mo e speci ically, he speed and scale o China–A ica (C-A) ade
g ow h ha e ou paced hose o he Uni ed S a es (US) and mos o he Eu opean Union
(EU) economies, eshaping he con inen ’s economic landscape. The olume o C-A ade
ou paced US–A ica (US-A) ade and is app oaching su passing A ica’s ade wi h he
EU membe coun ies (Figu e 1). Consequen ly, he C-A ade ela ionship has achie ed
a ema kable compound annual g ow h a e o 24.7% o e his pe iod, exceeding USD
260 billion in o al bila e al ade. Mo e speci ically, Chinese expo s o A ica egis e ed
USD 172.45 billion, impo s o A ican coun ies egis e ed USD 89.77 billion, and o al
ade exceeded USD 261 billion in 2023 (Figu e A1). Mo eo e , China has p og essi ely
Economies 2025,13, 171 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies13060171
Economies 2025,13, 171 2 o 33
es ablished ade ela ionships wi h o e 50 A ican na ions and egions, o malizing
bila e al ade ag eemen s wi h mo e han 40 coun ies (Ya & Pei,2022).
-
50.00
100.00
150.00
200.00
250.00
300.00
350.00
400.00
450.00
To al ade T ade in blT ade USD)
Yea
C-A EU-A US-A
Figu e 1. Compa ison o C-A ade wi h majo ade pa ne s (US and EU). Sou ce: Au ho s’
compu a ion using da a om he China–A ica Resea ch Ini ia i e and EUROSTAT.
While A ica’s expo s o China emain la gely domina ed by aw commodi ies, he
composi ion o hese expo s is unde going a no able shi . Fo ins ance, China’s oil
impo s om A ica a e dec easing as he coun y inc easingly sou ces c ude oil om
Gul Coope a ion Council s a es, Russia, and o he Asian na ions. Addi ionally, a g owing
end ha could signi ican ly in luence he A-C ade dynamic is he ising expo o
semi-p ocessed ag icul u al p oduc s om A ican coun ies (Usman & Tang,2024).
Mo eo e , exis ing s udies a gued ha C-A ade dynamics and inc eased g ow h
o C-A ade a e explained by esou ces, ins i u ional, geog aphical, economic size, and
o he socio-economic de e minan s (Ya & Pei,2022;Gold & Rasiah,2022;Land y,2024).
Howe e , he dynamics o C-A ade low can also be de e mined by ecen echnological
de elopmen s such as digi aliza ion, c oss-bo de e-comme ce (CE) de elopmen , and
ading coun ies’ logis ics pe o mance (LP). The e o e, C-A ade low can be explained
by hese a iables, as in e na ional ade is mainly elian on he a iables ha acili a e
ade and lowe ade cos s, including communica ion echnology, e-comme ce, and LP
(Buga ˇci´c e al.,2020).
Empi ical esea ch con ended ha he inc ease and adop ion o digi al echnologies (he e-
a e digi aliza ion) is one o he mos i al echnological ans o ma ions in his o y, impac ing
economic ac i i ies wo ldwide (Labha d & Leh imäki,2022). I e e s o applying digi al
echnologies, including mobile phones, lap ops, compu e s, and o he digi al de ices, ac oss
a ious domains such as economic and comme cial ac i i ies, inancial and banking ope a-
ions, public adminis a ion, and se ice deli e y (Ke e & Zongo,2023). The e o e, he apid
ad ancemen o in o ma ion and communica ion echnology (ICT) and he p og ession o
digi aliza ion ha e signi ican ly in luenced ade ela ionships be ween coun ies, p omo ing
access o o eign ma ke s (Bellucci e al.,2023;He man & Oli e ,2023).
Fu he mo e, as a speci ic o m o digi aliza ion, CE has been a signi ican de elopmen
end in in e na ional ade. CE e e s o c oss-bo de logis ics ansac ions in ol ing
mul iple pa ies om di e en cus oms egions acili a ed h ough e-comme ce pla o ms
and ep esen s a con empo a y model o in e na ional ade (Ai e al.,2016;Peji´c-Bach,
2021). Global CE ansac ions ha e expe ienced signi ican g ow h in ecen yea s (Li & Li,
Economies 2025,13, 171 3 o 33
2024). The shi owa d bo de less ade will also ha e a signi ican impac on global ade
pa e ns (Y. Chen e al.,2022). Thus, wi h he con inuous de elopmen o digi aliza ion,
ade be ween coun ies has g own close and con ibu ed o he de elopmen o coun ies
(Y. Chen e al.,2022).
F om a p ac ical s andpoin , digi aliza ion is ad ancing apidly in China and A ica,
wi h A ica making ema kable p og ess o e he pas decade. Hund eds o millions ha e
gained in e ne access and emb aced digi al se ices like mobile paymen s (WB,2024).
This ans o ma ion began wi h he in oduc ion o M-PESA in Kenya in 2007 (Ke e &
Zongo,2023) and has been ueled by widesp ead sma phone adop ion, which eached 64%
in 2021, alongside o he mixed echnologies (Ke e & Zongo,2023). These ad ancemen s
signi ican ly bols e digi aliza ion and acili a e ade lows. In e ne usage in A ica has
also isen d ama ically, om less han 0.1% in 2005 o 40% in 2022 (ITU,2022), posi i ely
in luencing China–A ica ade. Consequen ly, digi aliza ion is ecognized as a ca alys
o economic g ow h and a signi ican oppo uni y o A ican ade (Ke e & Zongo,2023).
China, he wo ld’s la ges e-comme ce ma ke , has seen annual ansac ion g ow h o 32%
(H. Wang & Liu,2022;C. Wang,2021), playing a i al ole in expanding o eign ade (Mou
e al.,2019;Holslag,2017). F om 2012 o 2023, China’s CE ma ke g ew om 2.1 illion o
CNY 16.8 illion (K. Chen e al.,2024). Ad ances in In e ne and in o ma ion echnology
ha e enabled businesses o access global ma ke s, d i ing economic and ade in eg a ion
(Lee & Shen,2020). Pla o ms like Kilimall, Alibaba, JD.com, and Kikuu a e ans o ming
China–A ica ade, p o iding A ican supplie s access o a as ma ke . No ably, sales o
A ican p oduc s, including Kenyan black ea and E hiopian co ee, su ged by 409% and
143% du ing Chinese shopping es i als in 2022 (Usman & Tang,2024).
Empi ically, se e al esea ch wo ks add essed he e ec s o digi aliza ion on he ade
pe o mance o coun ies (López González e al.,2023;He man & Oli e ,2023;Bellucci
e al.,2023;Añón Higón & Bon in,2024;Yin & Choi,2024;Fan,2021) and CE on he ade
pe o mance o a g oup o coun ies o indi idual coun ies (Xing,2018;Liang e al.,2021;
Yin & Choi,2023;He,2024;H. Wu e al.,2024). Howe e , empi ical s udies ocusing on
he ole o digi aliza ion and CE in C-A ade a e sca ce. Consequen ly, he p ecise impac
o digi aliza ion and CE on C-A ade emains la gely unexplo ed despi e hei c i ical
impo ance o p omo ing ade low.
Fu he mo e, LP is c ucial o suppo ing ade g ow h and is a p ima y de e minan
o a coun y’s economic de elopmen (Cui e al.,2022;Bhukiya & Pa el,2023). LP e lec s a
coun y’s connec i i y o in e na ional logis ics ne wo ks by e alua ing he o e all logis ics
condi ions, which ep esen he a e age o six sub-dimensions (Chakame a & Pisa,2021;
Song & Lee,2022). I is used o analyze a ia ions be ween coun ies ega ding logis ics
cos s and he quali y o in as uc u e o bo h o e land and ma i ime anspo (Ma í
e al.,2014). Thus, enhancemen s in LP con ibu e o p omo ing ade openness and he
educ ion in ade cos s (Ba aka e al.,2023;Jaya hilaka e al.,2022). Con e sely, inadequa e
logis ics in as uc u e can signi ican ly hinde global ade in eg a ion (Gani,2017). F om
a heo e ical s andpoin , highly e icien logis ics se ices educe ade cos s, p omo e
p oduc mo emen , and ensu e p oduc sa e y and deli e y speed (Jaya hilaka e al.,2022).
Consis en wi h he heo e ical unde pinnings om empi ical esea ch p ospec s, se e al
s udies ha e been conduc ed on he e ec s o LP on ade low (Jaya hilaka e al.,2022;
Ba aka e al.,2023;Buga ˇci´c e al.,2020;Gó ecka e al.,2022;Mish i e al.,2024;W. Wang
e al.,2024;Cui e al.,2022;Bhukiya & Pa el,2023) and ound ha p omo ing LP posi i ely
in luences ade low among coun ies. Howe e , he e is limi ed empi ical li e a u e on
he C-A ade and LP nexus, so his s udy in es iga es he impac o LP on C-A ade.
Mo eo e , he impac o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade pe o mance can
be shaped by ac o s such as income he e ogenei y, demog aphics, and esou ces, as well
Economies 2025,13, 171 4 o 33
as he ins i u ional quali y o A ican coun ies. The impac s o hese ac o s a y wi h
di e se income le els, go e nance, and popula ion sizes o ading coun ies (Labha d
& Leh imäki,2022;Yin & Choi,2024). The e o e, demog aphic shi s, income a ia ion,
esou ces, and go e nance he e ogenei y in luence ade pa e ns, as popula ion g ow h in
pa ne coun ies boos s demand o impo s, shaping he ole o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP
in ade.
The e o e, his esea ch add esses he ollowing ques ions, d awing upon he a o e-
men ioned analy ical discou se, heo e ical base, and p ac ical insigh s. Fi s , wha a e he
oles o digi aliza ion in China and ade pa ne A ican coun ies in C-A ade? Second,
wha a e he impac s o CE dynamics in China on C-A ade? Thi d, wha a e he oles
o he LP o China and he ade des ina ion o A ican coun ies in C-A ade? Finally,
how does he he e ogenei y in income, demog aphics, esou ces, and ins i u ional quali y
o ade pa ne coun ies a ec C-A ade? Based on hese guiding esea ch ques ions,
his s udy aims o examine he complex impac o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on ade
be ween China and 53 A ican coun ies o he pe iods be ween 2007 and 2023, applying
he obus echniques o andom e ec (RE), Hausman–Tylo (H-T), and he Poisson pseudo
maximum likelihood (PPML) s a egies. Mo eo e , he analysis is epea ed, con olling
o income, popula ion, esou ces, and ins i u ional he e ogenei y. Fu he analysis is
conduc ed o inco po a e he e ec s o digi aliza ion and LP dis ance be ween China and
A ican coun ies on C-A ade. Ou indings demons a e ha digi aliza ion, CE, and LP
consis en ly posi i ely in luence C-A ade. Mo eo e , hese ou comes di e subjec o
income, go e nance, and demog aphic he e ogenei y among A ican coun ies.
We ocus on he ole o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade o he ollowing
easons. Fi s , he C-A ade pa e n di e s om A ica’s ade wi h i s con en ional
ade pa ne s, such as he US and EU economies. China’s engagemen wi h A ica is
cha ac e ized by a ocus on in as uc u e de elopmen and esou ce-d i en pa ne ships,
di e ing om he colonial legacies and de elopmen aid amewo ks ha his o ically
shaped A ica’s ade wi h he US and EU. Mo eo e , compa ed o o he ade allies o
A ica, China’s ade wi h A ica has a p onounced upwa d ajec o y and is mo e dynamic.
C-A ade has expe ienced he mos apid g ow h compa ed o he US-A and EU-A ade
(Figu e 1). Fu he mo e, he EU emains A ica’s la ges adi ional ade pa ne , and
China is closing he gap quickly due o he inc easing wo-way ade low. US-A ade is
declining and ob aining a mo e limi ed ole in ecen A ican ade g ow h ends compa ed
o C-A ade (see Figu e 1).
Second, a dis inc i e ea u e o China–A ica ade is i s s ong ounda ion in sou h–
sou h coope a ion, ein o ced by China’s Bel and Road Ini ia i e (BRI) and he Digi al
Silk Road. These s a egic ini ia i es ha e signi ican ly enhanced connec i i y and ade
lows, in eg a ing A ica mo e deeply in o eme ging global alue chains (Asan e,2018;Y.
Wu e al.,2024). This unique pa ne ship has d i en subs an ial g ow h in wo-way ade,
p opelled by a su ge in Chinese p i a e in es men and he implemen a ion o di e se
p ojec s, including expo di e si ica ion e o s and expansi e in as uc u e p og ams,
pa icula ly unde he amewo k o he BRI (Asan e,2018;Y. Wu e al.,2024).
Thi d, China’s echnology le el is close o ha o A ican coun ies han ha o
Wes e n coun ies and adi ional ade allies (Xu e al.,2016), and i s economic model
and o eign policy amewo k a ac mos de eloping economies. Unlike o he s, China’s
model o coope a ion emphasizes economic de elopmen o e poli ics (Zhang & Huang,
2023). As a esul , China’s policy app oach is mo e a ac i e o A ican leade s han ha o
o he coun ies, pa icula ly Wes e n coun ies, leading o inc eased economic coope a ion
(Huang & Cao,2023).
Economies 2025,13, 171 5 o 33
Fou h, he C-A ade ela ionship is accompanied by in es men s in economic and
ade coope a ion zones, as China has success ully es ablished a o al o 25 economic and
ade coope a ion zones ac oss 16 A ican na ions, wi h in es men lows and inancial
aid suppo ing in as uc u e de elopmen (Bo e al.,2024). T ade low, complemen ed by
in es men , inancial aid, and con ac ed p ojec s, can di e om A ica’s ade wi h o he s
in e ms o i s e iciency and low (W. Chen e al.,2024).
Finally, unlike o he con en ional ade pa ne s, digi al ans o ma ion plays a c ucial
ole in China’s inno a ion model and ans o ma ion, including ade lows (Ha di e al.,
2024). Rapidly expanding digi al in as uc u e is enhancing supply chain e iciency and
making CE mo e s eamlined. China, he wo ld’s la ges e-comme ce ma ke (H. Wang &
Liu,2022), plays a i al ole in expanding o eign ade by le e aging i s ad anced digi al
in as uc u e and ex ensi e online pla o ms. Simila ly, In e ne usage in A ica has also
isen d ama ically (ITU,2022), which can a ec C-A ade dynamics.
The e o e, his s udy makes se e al aluable con ibu ions o he exis ing li e a u e and
he cu en academic unde s anding o he mul i ace ed connec ion be ween digi aliza ion,
CE, LP, and ade pe o mance in C-A ade. Fi s , ou esea ch highligh s he ole o
digi aliza ion in China and ade des ina ion A ican coun ies as a key componen o
ac o s a ec ing C-A ade. Subsequen ly, his s udy is he i s a emp o assess he ole
o digi aliza ion in C-A ade, which is an unde explo ed a ea in he con ex o ade low
be ween China and A ica. Second, his s udy syn hesizes he oles o CE in C-A ade,
o e ing esh insigh s in o he collec i e in luence o e-comme ce on China’s expo s o
A ican coun ies. Thus, ou s udy ex ends his pe spec i e by explici ly linking CE o ade
pe o mance in he C-A ade con ex . Thi d, i se es as a aluable addi ion o heo e ical
esea ch and empi ical wo ks on he logis ics ade nexus by examining he impac o LP on
C-A ade. The e o e, his p o ides a comp ehensi e unde s anding o how LP acili a es
ade lows be ween China and A ica, which is unexplo ed in he p io empi ical wo ks.
Fou h, complemen ing he exis ing li e a u e, his s udy’s esul s seem o p o ide u -
he e idence o he impo an ole o he e ogenei y o go e nance, income, demog aphic,
and esou ce aspec s o A ican coun ies in he oles o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP in C-A
ade. The e o e, he indings o his s udy can se e as a e e ence o coun ies wi h
di e en income, demog aphic, esou ces, and ins i u ional le els o de elop ailo ed ade
de elopmen s a egies o p omo e digi aliza ion, CE, and LP. Finally, obus ade g a i y
model speci ica ion app oaches such as H-T and PPML s a egies a e applied o con ol
o endogenei y conce ns, he e ogenei y, and ze o- alued obse a ions conce ns in C-A
ade da a.
The e o e, his pape se es as a p ima y s ep in examining he e ec s o digi aliza-
ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade ac oss he a o emen ioned dimensions. Collec i ely, hese
elemen s o he esea ch p o ide esh insigh s in o he complex in e play be ween ade,
digi aliza ion, CE, and LP wi hin he con ex o C-A ade dynamics. These indings a e
especially aluable o policymake s and business leade s seeking o unde s and and na i-
ga e he challenges and oppo uni ies eme ging om China’s changing ade landscape
and he e ol ing pa e n o C-A ade.
The s uc u e o he pape is as ollows: Sec ion 2 e iews he ele an li e a u e;
Sec ion 3ou lines he heo e ical amewo k o model cons uc ion, da a, and me hod o
analysis; Sec ion 4p esen s he indings and esul s; and Sec ion 5p o ides discussions
and policy implica ions.
Economies 2025,13, 171 6 o 33
2. Li e a u e Re iew
2.1. Digi al Connec i i y, CE, and T ade Flow
Adop ing and ad ancing digi al echnology can lowe bo h ixed and a iable cos s
in ade, he eby os e ing ade g ow h (Fan,2021). The heo e ical ela ionship be ween
digi al connec i i y, CE, and ade low is ypically ca ied ou om he s andpoin o ade
cos s. I can educe he cos o ade h ough se e al mechanisms. Fi s , digi aliza ion dimin-
ishes he need o physical p oximi y and in-pe son in e ac ions in business ela ionships.
Second, digi aliza ion leads o lowe communica ion cos s, wi h au oma ic ansla ion
ools helping o b idge language gaps and u he educe hese cos s (Bellucci e al.,2023).
Thi d, digi al echnologies enhance ade e iciency by imp o ing logis ics and cus oms
p ocesses. Fo ins ance, acking sys ems and he au oma ion o ai po and po ope a ions
sho en ansi imes, while digi alized cus oms p ocedu es minimize he ime goods spend
a bo de s and educe adminis a i e cos s (Bellucci e al.,2023). Addi ionally, he ise
o e-paymen s and e-comme ce pla o ms has lowe ed he cos s o business ansac ions,
especially when acqui ing p oduc s om ab oad (Bellucci e al.,2023). Simila ly, F eund
and Weinhold (2004) p o ided a ounda ion o he heo e ical ela ionship be ween ade
and digi aliza ion, a guing ha in e ne access has a posi i e in luence on ade lows.
Based on hese heo e ical ounda ions, se e al empi ical s udies ha e examined he
impac o digi aliza ion on ade cos s and ade lows, u ilizing a ious digi aliza ion
measu es. Fo example, using da a om 37 coun ies, Rubíno á and Seb i (2021) ound ha
ICT, p oxied by he p opo ion o he popula ion wi h mobile phone subsc ip ions and he
sha e o he popula ion wi h access o he In e ne , signi ican ly educes ade cos s ac oss
ade pa ne s. Aligned wi h he indings o He man and Oli e (2023), López González
e al. (2023) and Rubíno á and Seb i (2021) p o ided eliable e idence ha digi aliza ion
and he inc easing sha e o he popula ion using he In e ne o business boos ade low.
Addi ionally, Bellucci e al. (2023) in es iga ed he impac o digi aliza ion, measu ed by he
amoun o ac i e mobile b oadband subsc ip ions pe capi a, on a comp ehensi e measu e
o cos s o ade. Thei indings sugges ha ad ancemen s in digi aliza ion can lowe
ade cos s h ough a ious channels, including imp o ed access o in o ma ion, educed
ansac ion cos s, less eliance on business a el, mo e e icien cus oms and logis ics
p ocesses, and enhanced communica ion capabili ies.
Mo eo e , Rod íguez-C espo and Ma ínez-Za zoso (2019) analyzed he ole o he
In e ne on ade low using bila e al goods expo da a om 120 coun ies. The indings
showed ha u ilizing he In e ne p omo es bila e al goods expo s. Likewise, Fan (2021)
analyzed he impac o digi al economy de elopmen in impo ing coun ies on China’s
expo s. The indings indica e ha de eloping a digi al economy in impo ing coun ies can
subs an ially mi iga e China’s expo e iciency losses and enhance he o e all e iciency
o i s expo ade. This e ec is pa icula ly p onounced in China’s expo s o low- and
middle-income coun ies. Besides using Spanish manu ac u ing i ms, Añón Higón and
Bon in (2024) examined he e ec s o digi aliza ion on en e p ises’ pa icipa ion in expo
and impo ac i i ies. The esul s sugges ha i ms’ digi aliza ion posi i ely impac s hei
likelihood o engaging in bo h expo ing and impo ing ac i i ies, ei he di ec ly o by
enhancing p oduc i i y. Addi ionally, some s udies ha e linked digi al connec i i y wi h
se ice ade. Fo example, a s udy by Kong e al. (2024) examined he ole o digi al
echnology in se ice expo s and ound ha digi al echnology signi ican ly p omo es
se ice expo s. Also, applying he g a i y model, Yin and Choi (2024) analyzed he ole
o digi aliza ion in he ade o se ices and goods in he G-20 coun ies. The esul s
e ealed ha digi aliza ion exe s a mo e subs an ial posi i e impac on ade in se ices
han in goods.
Economies 2025,13, 171 7 o 33
Rega ding A ican coun ies, applying he g a i y model, Sawadogo and Wandaogo
(2020) analyzed he impac o mobile money se ice adop ion on ade among 48 A ican
coun ies. Thei indings indica e ha coun ies adop ing mobile money se ices expe ience
a signi ican inc ease in he sha e o goods ade as a pe cen age o GDP. Simila ly, Abendin
e al. (2022) explo ed he ole o digi aliza ion in A ica’s ade, wi h a speci ic ocus on
in a-ECOWAS ade. Using da a om ECOWAS coun ies spanning hei s udy, hey
demons a e ha digi aliza ion has a posi i e and signi ican e ec on bila e al ade wi hin
he ECOWAS egion. Enhanced digi aliza ion o he economy no ably boos s ade among
ECOWAS membe s a es. Addi ionally, Ke e and Zongo (2023) in es iga ed he impac
o digi aliza ion on in a-A ican ade o 48 A ican coun ies. The esul s indica e ha
he use o ICT, pa icula ly he In e ne , has a posi i e and signi ican impac on expo s.
Addi ionally, he in oduc ion o mobile paymen se ices in Sub-Saha an A ican coun ies
s imula es p oduc expo s.
Fu he mo e, as consume demand in he in e na ional ma ke becomes inc easingly
di e si ied and he In e ne con inues o e ol e apidly, he nume ous ad an ages o CE
as an eme ging ade model ha e become inc easingly e iden (C. Wang,2021). Se e al
s udies ha e assessed he in luences o CE on he ade pe o mance o a ious economies.
Fo example, Xing (2018) assessed he impac o he In e ne and e-comme ce adop ion on
ade lows among 21 de eloping and 30 OECD coun ies. The indings indica ed ha be e
access o mode n ICT and he adop ion o e-comme ce s imula e ade lows. Simila ly,
G ego y e al. (2019) a gued ha e-comme ce is c ucial in educing in o ma ion asymme y
du ing ade p ocesses, enabling he op imal alloca ion o esou ces ac oss coun ies.
As China is a he o e on o e-comme ce echnology, se e al s udies ha e ocused
on he e ec s o CE on Chinese ade wi h a ious coun ies. Fo example, Y. Miao e al.
(2019) highligh ed ha CE plays a signi ican ole in he Bel and Road (B&R) ini ia i e.
Special CE policies ha e encou aged Chinese en e p ises o expand hei p oduc expo s o
in e na ional ma ke s. Liang e al. (2021) in es iga ed he ole o CE ansac ions be ween
China and coun ies along he RBI as he co e o he s udy using he GMM me hod and
p o ided e idence ha ma ine and land anspo in as uc u e ha e he mos decisi e
impac on ade. Mo eo e , C. Wang e al. (2021) in es iga ed he e ec s o in e na ional
elec onic comme ce on he expo ade in China. The indings indica ed ha in e na ional
e-comme ce de elopmen has signi ican ly p omo ed China’s expo ade expansion.
Addi ionally, Yin and Choi (2023) in es iga ed he oles o China’s CE in i s expo s o B&R
coun ies and ound ha CE has a mo e subs an ial posi i e impac on ade in se ices
han on goods. Also, He (2024) explo ed he dynamic in e ac ion be ween e-comme ce and
China’s expo g ow h, and he indings highligh ed he subs an ial ole o e-comme ce
in ade pe o mance. H. Wu e al. (2024) analyzed he link be ween China’s CE, ade
digi iza ion, and en e p ise expo esilience. They ound ha he p og ession o CE can
imp o e en e p ise expo esilience.
Addi ionally, he ole o digi aliza ion and CE on coun ies’ ade pe o mance can be
a ec ed by se e al ac o s. Fo example, app op ia e go e nance policies lead o anspa -
en ins i u ions suppo ing digi al connec i i y and CE ac i i ies and lowe ing he isks
o pa icipa ing in digi al connec i i y and e-comme ce (OECD,2019). In con as , weak
ins i u ional quali y and policy amewo ks unde pinned by ine icien egula o y and
legal en o cemen can ad e sely a ec economic ac i i y (Doh e al.,2017) and supple-
men he isks o digi aliza ion and e-comme ce (Jean e al.,2020). This sugges s ha he
g ow h bene i s o digi aliza ion a e likely o be mo e subs an ial in en i onmen s whe e
ins i u ions and go e nance a e o high quali y (Labha d & Leh imäki,2022).
Simila ly, he e ec s o digi aliza ion and CE will be subjec o income he e ogenei y. In
his ega d, Yin and Choi (2024) a gued ha he ole o digi aliza ion is income-dependen ;
Economies 2025,13, 171 8 o 33
high-income economies end o posi i ely impac se ices ade. Also, Kong e al. (2024)
ound ha he ade impac o digi al echnology is mo e p onounced in de eloped coun-
ies. Likewise, he demog aphic s uc u e can a ec he pa e n o ade be ween economies
h ough he ma ke change in demand o goods and se ices (Tao e al.,2021). The la ge
popula ion inc ease in ade pa ne coun ies can inc ease he demand o he impo
o goods and se ices. I can in luence he ole o digi aliza ion and CE on ade low.
The e o e, he ollowing hypo heses a e de eloped.
Hypo hesis 1 (H1). Digi aliza ion in China and i s ade des ina ion coun ies has a posi i e bu
he e ogeneous impac on C-A ade.
Hypo hesis 2 (H2). CE de elopmen in China has posi i e and a ied impac s on C-A ade.
2.2. LP and T ade Flow
LP is a i al ins umen o d i ing ade g ow h and se es as a c i ical de e minan o
a coun y’s economic de elopmen (Cui e al.,2022). Theo e ically, LP is concep ualized as
capi al esou ces and echnology ha lowe he cos o logis ics se ices, p omo ing ade
low among coun ies. LP signi ican ly p omo es in e na ional ade (Bhukiya & Pa el,
2023). Indeed, he olume o goods aded be ween wo coun ies is p ima ily de e mined
by he a ailabili y and quali y o logis ics se ices and o he ac o s in expo ing and
impo ing coun ies. The e o e, he quali y and e iciency o logis ics se ices can ma e
o ade low among coun ies, as a weak logis ics in as uc u e and ope a ional p ocesses
can be a signi ican obs acle o ade in eg a ion (Gani,2017).
Based on he a o emen ioned heo e ical unde pinnings, Gani (2017) explo ed he
e ec o LP on ade low. The indings implied ha LP is posi i ely co ela ed wi h bo h
expo s and impo s. Besides using he g a i y model, Buga ˇci´c e al. (2020) in es iga ed
he e ec s o LP on ade low in some Eu opean coun ies and he Wes e n Balkans, and he
indings indica ed ha logis ics has a posi i e impac on bila e al ade be ween coun ies.
Mo eo e , Jaya hilaka e al. (2022) examined he impac s o LP on ade and indica ed ha
LP posi i ely p omo es ade low. Likewise, Gó ecka e al. (2022) in es iga ed he impac s
o LP on he ade o ene gy p oduc s in EU coun ies and ound ha LP posi i ely a ec s
he expo o ene gy p oduc s. Addi ionally, Ba aka e al. (2023) in es iga ed he ole o
LP in ade openness in Eu opean coun ies. The esul s showed ha he LP signi ican ly
a ec s ade pe o mance. Also, Lu e al. (2024) used he me a-analysis o in eg a e he
impac o LP on ade. The indings show ha p omo ing logis ics de elopmen , especially
in he B&R coun ies, has a meaning ul impac on ade.
Fu he mo e, a ecen s udy by Mish i e al. (2024) assessed he ole o logis ics and
supply chains in bo h in e na ional and domes ic ade wi hin a de eloping coun y. The
esul s p o ed ha de eloping coun ies should enhance logis ics and p omo e supply
chain in as uc u e o enhance ading ac i i ies. Addi ionally, using he g a i y model,
W. Wang e al. (2024) analyzed he impac o LP in coun ies pa icipa ing in he BRI on
China’s ade. Thei empi ical indings indica e ha enhancing he LP o coun ies along
he B&R ou e signi ican ly boos s China’s ade olume wi h hese na ions.
Mo eo e , he e ec s o LP on ade low can be a ec ed by he economic size o
A ican coun ies, including di e ences in income le el and demog aphic he e ogenei y.
This a gumen is alid, as he impac o LP a ies ac oss coun ies wi h di e se income
le els and popula ion sizes (Fan & Yu,2015). Fo ins ance, Kuma i and Bha i (2021)
explo ed he ole o coun y size in he ela ionship be ween ade and LP, ocusing on
popula ion size di e ences. Thei indings e ealed ha he e ec o LP on ade olume is
mos p onounced in medium-sized coun ies.
Economies 2025,13, 171 15 o 33
e ec on China–A ica ade, implying ha economic expansion in bo h China and ade
pa ne A ican coun ies posi i ely in luences ade low be ween A ican coun ies and
China. The e o e, economic ans o ma ion and ad ancemen posi i ely con ibu e o C-A
ade, among o he s (Omonijo & Zhang,2025). Simila ly, he coe icien s o ins i u ional
quali y o China and A ican coun ies a e posi i e and s a is ically signi ican , implying
ha imp o ing go e nance pe o mance indica ed by he agg ega e index in bo h China
and ade pa ne A ican coun ies enhances ade low be ween China and A ica. Also,
he WTO membe ship o China and i s ade des ina ion, A ican coun ies, has a signi ican
posi i e e ec on he C-A ade.
In con as , he e ec o physical dis ance be ween China and i s ade pa ne s in
A ica on C-A ade is s a is ically signi ican and nega i e, indica ing ha g ea e physical
dis ance hinde s ade lows be ween China and A ican coun ies. Mo eo e , diploma ic
disag eemen s nega i ely a ec ade lows be ween China and A ican coun ies. The ind-
ings a e consis en wi h Visse ’s (2019) indings ha diploma ic ep esen a ion signi ican ly
in luences he ade pe o mance o coun ies.
Rega ding a iables o ou in e es , digi aliza ion in bo h China and i s ade des i-
na ion, A ican coun ies, posi i ely in luences C-A ade pe o mance. Mo e speci ically,
a pe cen inc ease in he digi aliza ion index in China and A ican coun ies inc eases
C-A ade by 0.603% and 0.423%, espec i ely. The esul s aligned wi h Hypo hesis 1
(H1). These indings a e logical, as hey suppo he iew ha imp o emen s in digi al
echnology enhance ade lows among coun ies. The esul s suppo he indings o Ke e
and Zongo (2023), Yin and Choi (2024), Sawadogo and Wandaogo (2020), and Abendin
e al. (2022), which p o ide e idence ha an inc ease in digi aliza ion among coun ies
leads o a signi ican ise in ade among ading pa ne coun ies.
Likewise, China’s CE coe icien is posi i e and s a is ically signi ican , implying ha
an inc ease in China’s CE ade obus ly enhances C-A ade. The coe icien implies
ha a pe cen imp o emen in CE ade inc eases C-A ade by 0.393% (Table 1). The
esul s suppo Hypo hesis 2 (H2), a icula ing a posi i e link be ween CE and C-A ade.
These indings a e logical and jus i ied, as p omo ing CE suppo s i ms in a oiding high
compe i ion in hei local ma ke s and opening oppo uni ies o access o eign ma ke s
(Guo e al.,2018).
Fu he mo e, China’s LP coe icien is posi i e and obus ly signi ican a a subs an ial
le el o signi icance, implying ha he LP o China posi i ely impac s he C-A ade.
No ably, he co esponding coe icien s o he LP o China display he an icipa ed signs
and a e consis en wi h Hypo hesis 3 (H3). The e o e, a ailabili y and imp o emen in
he quali y o logis ics pe o mance o ading coun ies ma e o p omo ing ade low.
The indings a e cong uen wi h he indings o Buga ˇci´c e al. (2020) and W. Wang e al.
(2024) in he case o ade low o Cen al and Eas e n Eu opean coun ies and he Wes e n
Balkans and Chinese ade wi h he B&R ini ia i e coun ies, espec i ely.
Fu he mo e, he benchma k analysis is epea ed using he H-T model o con ol o
endogenei y conce ns, which is an app op ia e al e na i e o he RE model o un a g a i y
model. In he H-T me hod, we ea ed digi aliza ion indica o s, CE, and LP indica o s as
endogenous a iables, as he associa ions be ween digi al echnology and ade will be
endogenous because o he po en ial exis ence o e e se causali y (Yin & Choi,2023). The
esul s a e epo ed in Table 2below.
The esul s gene ally align wi h he baseline indings, wi h only mino a ia ions
in he magni ude and signi icance o some es ima es. Digi aliza ion o China and ade
pa ne coun ies in A ica has a obus posi i e e ec on C-A ade. Addi ionally, he
e ec s o China’s CE ha e a posi i e in luence on ade lows be ween China and A ican
coun ies. Finally, he LP o China has a posi i e e ec on C-A ade.
Economies 2025,13, 171 16 o 33
Table 2. The e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade.
Va iables (I) (II) (III) (IV) (V)
lnGDPCij 1.308 ***
(0.231)
1.317 ***
(0.157)
1.380 ***
(0.225)
1.557 ***
(0.165)
1.796 ***
(0.070)
lnDDij
−0.252 **
(0.108)
−0.182 *
(0.105)
−0.234 **
(0.108)
−0.193 *
(0.102)
−0.097
(0.098)
lnDij
−0.013
(0.077)
0.053
(0.079)
−0.020
(0.077)
−0.033
(0.077)
−0.031
(0.080)
lnIQj 0.254 **
(0.102)
0.148
(0.111)
0.247 **
(0.102)
0.228 **
(0.100)
0.163
(0.109)
WTOij 1.254 **
(0.602)
1.047 *
(0.619)
1.229 **
(0.606)
1.177 *
(0.613)
1.391 **
(0.647)
lnDGi 0.379 **
(0.165)
lnDGj 0.385 ***
(0.114)
lnCEi 0.120 **
(0.059)
lnLPi 0.686 *
(0.396)
lnLPj 0.035
(0.083)
_cons 25.428 **
(9.866)
19.477 **
(9.547)
23.456 **
(9.725)
17.785 **
(8.831)
10.814
(8.814)
Obs. 714 714 714 714 714
No e: *** signi icance a 1%, ** signi icance a 5%, * signi icance a 10%; s anda d e o s a e epo ed in pa en-
heses; ime- ixed e ec s a e con olled; i ep esen s he expo ing coun y (China), and jdepic s ade pa ne
A ican coun ies.
4.3. Robus ness Analysis
4.3.1. He e oscedas ici y Issue
Ano he impo an issue ha should be conside ed in g a i y model speci ica ion is
he e ogenei y and ze o- alued obse a ions conce ns. A p ac ical app oach o add essing
ze o ade lows is o es ima e he g a i y model in i s mul iplica i e o m a he han
he loga i hmic o m. Addi ionally, he p esence o he e oscedas ici y in he o iginal non-
linea g a i y model speci ica ion a ises om he assump ion o a mul iplica i e e o e m,
which equi es he adop ion o an al e na i e es ima ion me hod. Sil a and Ten ey o (2006)
sugges an easy solu ion o handling conce ns ela ed o he e oscedas ici y using PPML.
Thus, we epea he exe cises using he PPML me hod o un he g a i y speci ica ion o he
impac s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade pe o mance. I can sol e he e ogenei y
and ze o alues in he C-A ade da a. The esul s a e gi en in Table 3.
The indings a e cong uen wi h hose p esen ed in Tables 1and 2. The e ec s o
digi aliza ion o o igin and des ina ion a e obus ly posi i e, s eng hening he baseline
esul s. Likewise, he coe icien o CE o o igin is signi ican a a 1% le el o signi icance.
Also, he LP o ade o igin and des ina ion A ican coun ies is s ongly posi i e.
4.3.2. Fu he Robus ness Analysis
Mo eo e , we excluded A ican coun ies wi h he highes ade olume wi h China.
Mo e speci ically, Angola, Sou h A ica, Nige ia, and Egyp ha e been excluded o as-
sess sensi i i y o ou lie s (see Figu e A2). The ou comes a e p esen ed in Table A4 in
Appendix A. The indings a e consis en wi h he baseline esul s in Table 1.
Mo eo e , we u ilized ime se ies da a o LP, employing da a in e pola ion in he
baseline analysis. To check he sensi i i y o he esul s, we epea ed he analysis using
Economies 2025,13, 171 17 o 33
da a wi h in e als ins ead o da a pooled o e consecu i e yea s because da a o LP a e
a ailable o 2007, 2010, 2012, 2014, 2016, 2018, and 2023. The esul s a e p esen ed in
Table A5 in Appendix Aand a e no signi ican ly di e en om he baseline esul s.
Table 3. The ole o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade.
Va iables (I) (II) (III) (IV) (V)
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 1.100 ***
(0.217)
lnDGj 0.782 **
(0.206)
lnCEi 0.732 ***
(0.152)
lnLPi 2.774 ***
(0.565)
lnLPj 0.335 **
(0.146)
Obs. 714 656 714 714 676
R2 0.954 0.951 0.953 0.948 0.852
Ramsey (p- alue)
0.293 0.495 0.428 0.188 0.540
No e: *** signi icance a 1%, ** signi icance a 5%; coun y-pai clus e ed s anda d e o s a e epo ed in pa en he-
ses; coun ies and ime- ixed e ec s a e con olled; i ep esen s he expo ing coun y (China), and jdepic s ade
pa ne A ican coun ies. Ramsey is he es o model speci ica ion.
4.4. He e ogenei y Analysis
4.4.1. The Role o Income and Demog aphic He e ogenei y
We e-examined he ole o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade on he no ion
ha hei impac on C-A ade low may a y depending on he economic size o A ican
coun ies, including a ia ions in income le els and demog aphic he e ogenei y. Hence, he
sample o A ican coun ies is ca ego ized as middle-income and low-income economies
based on hei income le el ollowing WB coun ies’ classi ica ions (see Appendix B).
2
Besides, highly popula ed and less popula ed A ican coun ies a e sepa a ely ea ed o
examine he ole o demog aphic a ia ion in he e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on
C-A ade (see Appendix B). The esul s a e epo ed in Tables 4and 5, espec i ely.
Table 4. The ole o income he e ogenei y.
Panel A: Middle-Income A ican Coun ies
Va iables (I) (II) (III) (IV) (V)
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 0.547 **
(0.249)
lnDGj 0.633 ***
(0.229)
lnCEi 0.353 **
(0.174)
lnLPi 1.355 **
(0.647)
lnLPj
−0.006
(0.109)
Obs. 392 392 419 419 391
R2 0.601 0.535 0.590 0.590 0.574
Economies 2025,13, 171 18 o 33
Table 4. Con .
Panel B: Low-Income A ican Coun ies
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 0.824
(0.996)
lnDGj 0.275 *
(0.142)
lnCEi
−0.904
(0.717)
lnLPi 0.473
(0.787)
lnLPj 0.089
(0.126)
Obs. 295 264 295 295 285
R2 0.646 0.643 0.647 0.608 0.610
No e: *** signi icance a 1%, ** signi icance a 5%, * signi icance a 10%; s anda d e o s a e epo ed in pa en-
heses; ime- ixed e ec s a e con olled; i ep esen s he expo ing coun y (China), and jdepic s ade pa ne
A ican coun ies.
Table 5. The ole o popula ion he e ogenei y.
Panel A: C-A T ade (Highly Popula ed A ican Coun ies)
Va iables I II III IV V
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 0.960 **
(0.490)
lnDGj 0.547 ***
(0.241)
lnCEi 0.627 ***
(0.169)
lnLPi 0.701
(0.816)
lnLPj 0.423 ***
(0.149)
Obs. 271 250 271 435 375
R2 0.566 0.564 0.600 0.588 0.500
Panel B: C-A ade (Less-popula ed A ican coun ies)
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 0.473 ***
(0.182)
lnDGj 0.371 ***
(0.131)
lnCEi 0.100
(0.066)
lnLPi 0.959 ***
(0.463)
lnLPj
−0.106
(0.108)
Obs. 443 406 443 443 360
Wald es 0.540 0.543 0.542 0.505 0.530
No e: *** signi icance a 1%, ** signi icance a 5%; s anda d e o s a e epo ed in pa en heses; ime- ixed e ec s
a e con olled; i ep esen s he expo ing coun y (China), and jdepic s ade pa ne A ican coun ies.
The esul s show ha he e ec s o digi aliza ion in China and A ican coun ies, CE o
China, and LP index o China on LC a e obus ly posi i e a subs an ial le els o middle-
Economies 2025,13, 171 19 o 33
income A ican coun ies (Table 4). Howe e , excep o China’s digi aliza ion le el, he es
o he a ge a iables a e insigni ican o A ican coun ies wi h low incomes. Mo eo e ,
he e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade a e popula ion size dependen , ha ing
a highe magni ude o he coe icien s o each a ge a iable o A ican coun ies wi h a
high popula ion size compa ed o less popula ed A ican coun ies (Table 5). Hence, he
indings a e consis en wi h he hypo heses pos ula ed.
4.4.2. The Role o IQ and Resou ces He e ogenei y
The s udy u he conside s he ins i u ional and esou ce he e ogenei y o sample
A ican coun ies o in es iga e he ole o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade low on he
p oposi ion ha e ec i e go e nance suppo s digi aliza ion and CE ac i i ies. Addi ionally,
A ican coun ies exhibi signi ican he e ogenei y in e ms o esou ces, and a ia ions in
hese esou ces can impac he e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade dynamics. The
IMF classi ies a coun y as ‘ esou ce- ich’ when expo s o non- enewable na u al esou ces,
such as oil, mine als, and me als, comp ise mo e han 25% o he coun y’s o al expo alue.
Based on hese backg ounds, we e-e alua e he e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A
ade, di iding coun ies in o coun ies wi h weak ins i u ional quali y (below he a e age)
and s ong ins i u ional quali y (g ea e han he sample a e age) and based on hei alue o
esou ces expo . The esul s a e p esen ed in Tables 6and 7.
Table 6. The e ec s o IQ he e ogenei y.
Panel A: A ican Coun ies wi h IQ G ea e han he A e age
Va iables I II III IV V
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 1.143 ***
(0.316)
lnDGj 0.349 ***
(0.175)
lnCEi 0.764 **
(0.221)
lnLPi 2.896 ***
(0.824)
lnLPj 0.033
(0.111)
Obs. 426 410 426 714 398
R2 0.589 0.582 0.568 0.589 0.565
Panel B: A ican Coun ies wi h IQ Less han he A e age
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 0.435
(0.275)
lnDGj 0.627 ***
(0.185)
lnCEi 0.280
(0.191)
lnLPi 1.075
(0.715)
lnLPj
−0.016
(0.137)
Obs. 288 246 288 288 278
R2 0.633 0.661 0.632 0.632 0.631
No e: *** signi icance a 1%, ** signi icance a 5%; s anda d e o s a e epo ed in pa en heses; ime- ixed e ec s
a e con olled; i ep esen s he expo ing coun y (China), and jdepic s ade pa ne A ican coun ies.
Economies 2025,13, 171 20 o 33
Table 7. The in luence o esou ce he e ogenei y.
Panel A: Resou ce-Rich A ican Coun ies
Va iables II II III IV V
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 0.728 ***
(0.261)
lnDGj 0.617 ***
(0.173)
lnCEi 0.485 ***
(0.183)
lnLPi 1.839 ***
(0.681)
lnLPj 0.074
(0.127)
Obs. 435 392 435 435 375
R2 0.589 0.595 0.588 0.588 0.500
Panel B: Non-Resou ce A ican Coun ies
Con ol a iables
Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
lnDGi 1.377 ***
(0.378)
lnDGj 0.262
(0.176)
lnCEi 0.901 ***
(0.265)
lnLPi 3.443 ***
(0.989)
lnLPj 0.109
(0.112)
Obs. 279 264 279 279 231
R2 0.683 0.668 0.680 0.681 0.641
No e: *** signi icance a 1%, s anda d e o s a e epo ed in pa en heses; ime- ixed e ec s a e con olled; i
ep esen s he expo ing coun y (China), and jdepic s ade pa ne A ican coun ies.
The indings implied ha he e ec s o digi aliza ion in China and A ican coun ies,
CE o China, and he LP indica o o China ha e a obus posi i e e ec on C-A ade
o A ican coun ies wi h IQ g ea e han he a e age quali y o ins i u ions (Table 6).
Con e sely, excep o he digi aliza ion le el o China, all a ge a iables a e insigni ican
when A ican coun ies wi h ins i u ions wi h a quali y less han he a e age a e conside ed.
The e o e, he indings imply ha he e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP a e subjec
o he le el o ins i u ional quali y o ade des ina ion coun ies. Mo eo e , he e is no
signi ican a ia ion in he e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade when esou ce
he e ogenei y is conside ed, excep o sligh a ia ions in he magni ude and le el o
signi icance o he a iables (Table 7).
4.5. The Role o Digi aliza ion and LP Dis ance
The dis ance be ween wo coun ies is much g ea e han he dis ance be ween ge-
og aphies; i can be due o echnological di e ences (Bellucci e al.,2023). Thus, di e ences
in digi al connec i i y and logis ics inno a ion among ading pa ne s may indi ec ly
a ec ade be ween coun ies. Mo eo e , ela i ely be e connec i i y in one o he ade
pa ne s does no educe ade cos s wi h a poo ly connec ed pa ne , which can be jus i ied
in he case o C-A ade, as China is ela i ely be e han A ican coun ies in e ms o
digi aliza ion and LP. China s ands 19 h in he LP ank o 2023 among wo ld coun ies,
Economies 2025,13, 171 21 o 33
and A ican coun ies s and signi ican ly lowe compa ed o China, excep Sou h A ica,
which is anked 19 h. The e o e, we epea ou analysis con olling o digi al connec i i y
and LP di e ences be ween China and ade des ina ion A ican coun ies. The esul s a e
epo ed in Table 8below.
Table 8. The ole o digi aliza ion and LP dis ance on C-A ade.
Va iables I II
Con ol a iables Yes Yes
Digi al_dis anceij
−0.302 **
(0.147)
LP_dis anceij
−0.055
(0.087)
Obs. 656 606
R2 0.557 0.529
No e: ** signi icance a 5%; s anda d e o s a e epo ed in pa en heses; ime- ixed e ec s a e con olled; i
ep esen s he expo ing coun y (China), and jdepic s ade pa ne A ican coun ies.
The indings implied ha he digi aliza ion dis ance be ween China and A ican
coun ies nega i ely and signi ican ly a ec s C-A ade. The e o e, he esul s show ha
he di e ence be ween digi aliza ion le els in he sample A ican ading pa ne s and
China can p omo e C-A ade, whe eas a highe di e ence in digi aliza ion be ween China
and A ican coun ies nega i ely a ec s ade low be ween coun ies.
5. Discussions and Theo e ical and P ac ical Implica ions
5.1. Discussions
Among key pilla s o p omo e ade low among ading pa ne s a e scaling up digi al
connec i i y, de elopmen in e-comme ce, and logis ics and supply chain imp o emen s in
he coun ies. Gi en he as g ow h o ade be ween China and A ican coun ies, as well
as he demog aphic, income, ins i u ional pe o mance, and esou ce he e ogenei y wi hin
A ican coun ies, his s udy examines he impac s o he digi aliza ion o China and ade
pa ne A ican coun ies, he CE o China, and he LP o China and A ican coun ies on
C-A ade, aking da a om Chinese ade o 53 A ican coun ies o he pe iods 2007 o
2023. Se e al econome ic app oaches a e applied.
The indings o his s udy e eal a posi i e associa ion be ween digi aliza ion in ade
pa ne A ican coun ies and China, sugges ing ha a highe deg ee o in es men in
digi aliza ion in bo h ade o igin and des ina ion coun ies is ul ima ely mo e bene icial
o p omo ing C-A ade. These indings can be loosely explained by he ac ha he
applica ion and de elopmen o digi al echnology can educe cos s in ade and p omo e
ade g ow h. Mo eo e , he indings unde sco e ha CE imp o emen in China posi i ely
in luenced i s ade ela ions wi h A ican coun ies. The e o e, he indings p o ide
e idence ha be e access o mode n digi al echnology and he adop ion o e-comme ce
applica ions s imula e bila e al ade lows be ween China and A ica.
Theo e ically, he indings a e aligned wi h he heo e ical jus i ica ion ha imp o ing
he digi aliza ion le el o ade o igin and des ina ion coun ies se es as a ans o ma i e
o ce in educing ade cos s h ough di e se channels. Fo example, i dec eases he need
o physical p oximi y and in-pe son in e ac ions in comme cial ac i i ies, os e ing g ea e
lexibili y. Fu he mo e, digi al inno a ions signi ican ly cu communica ion cos s, wi h
ools like au oma ed ansla ion se ices b idging language di ides and easing he inancial
and logis ical challenges o c oss-bo de communica ion. Addi ionally, digi al echnologies
e olu ionize he e iciency o goods ade by op imizing logis ics and cus oms p ocedu es.
Ad anced acking sys ems and au oma ed ope a ions a po s and ai po s educe an-
Economies 2025,13, 171 22 o 33
si imes, while digi alized cus oms p ocesses minimize bo de delays and bu eauc a ic
hu dles. Likewise, he ise o elec onic paymen sys ems and e-comme ce pla o ms has
simpli ied ansac ions, enabling cos -e ec i e p ocu emen om in e na ional supplie s
(Bellucci e al.,2023).
Addi ionally, he s udy’s indings align wi h he digi aliza ion- ade empi ical li e -
a u e, such as Ke e and Zongo (2023), Bellucci e al. (2023), He man and Oli e (2023),
López González e al. (2023), Rubíno á and Seb i (2021), and Abendin e al. (2022), which
a gued ha imp o ing digi al echnology signi ican ly educes ade cos s ac oss ade
pa ne s and boos s in e na ional ade among coun ies. Simila ly, he indings o his
s udy a e suppo ed by some empi ical wo ks on he link be ween CE and ade low. Mo e
speci ically, he indings a e cong uen wi h he esul s o Yin and Choi (2023), C. Wang
e al. (2021), He (2024), and H. Wu e al. (2024) in he case o China and Xing (2018) in he
case o OECD and some de eloping coun ies.
F om a p ac ical pe spec i e, he indings o his s udy a e jus i ied, as imp o ing
digi aliza ion in A ican coun ies and China can play a c ucial ole in gua an eeing he
cu o ade cos s and he p omo ion o ade low. Mo e speci ically, he indings o
his s udy a e jus i iable as digi aliza ion is ad ancing apidly in China and A ica. Fo
ins ance, o e he pas decade, A ica has achie ed signi ican p og ess, wi h millions
gaining in e ne access and adop ing digi al se ices like mobile paymen s (WB,2024).
Since 2007, ini ia i es such as Kenya’s M-PESA ha e d i en he use o ICT, mobile money,
and digi al paymen s (Ke e & Zongo,2023). Sma phone pene a ion eached 64% in 2021,
and in e ne use s ose om 0.1% in 2005 o 40% in 2022 (ITU,2022). Mo eo e , China, he
wo ld’s la ges e-comme ce ma ke , has seen ansac ions g ow 32% annually, os e ing
o eign ade and global ma ke access (H. Wang & Liu,2022;Mou e al.,2019). Be ween
2012 and 2023, i s CE scale su ged o CNY 16.8 illion (K. Chen e al.,2024). Pla o ms like
Kilimall, Tmall, JD.com, and Kikuu a e now enabling A ican supplie s o each Chinese
consume s, boos ing sales o p oduc s such as Kenyan ea and E hiopian co ee (Usman &
Tang,2024). The e o e, he indings suppo he no ion ha in o ma ion and ansac ion
cos s in goods lows a e he mos signi ican ac o s a e anspo cos s. They eshape he
economics o c oss-bo de business by educing he cos s associa ed wi h communica ions
and ansac ions ac oss bo de s (WTO,2018).
Fu he mo e, he indings p o ide e idence ha he LP o China is an impo an
de e minan o C-A ade. I posi i ely in luences he C-A ade a a subs an ial le el.
The e o e, he imp o ing quali y and e iciency o logis ics se ices ma e o ade low
be ween China and A ican coun ies, as a weak LP and ope a ional p ocesses can be a
signi ican obs acle o ade in eg a ion (Gani,2017). The esul s p o ided e idence ha
de eloping coun ies should de elop logis ics and supply chain in as uc u e o enhance
ading and comme cial ac i i ies.
The indings a e consis en and in line wi h he jus i ica ion ha logis ics echnology
o e s a compe i i e edge by enhancing a coun y’s economic e iciency in managing
p oduc mo emen and s o age wi h g ea e e ec i eness. This ou come is expec ed
o con ibu e o unde s anding he po en ial e ec s o LP on C-A ade dynamics, as
logis ics cos s a e also c ucial o he ade o goods and se ices, ep esen ing 11% o
o e all ade cos s (WTO,2018). I imp o es deli e y capabili ies and p o ides inc eased
isibili y h oughou he global supply chain (Shiku ,2022). The e o e, he indings p o ide
insigh s ha i is c ucial o enhance LP in o de o p omo e ade in eg a ion, implying
ha imp o ing LP is one o he e ec i e app oaches o eme ging economies o enhance
economic ac i i ies (Yeo e al.,2020).
Economies 2025,13, 171 23 o 33
Howe e , he esul s implied ha he ole o LP o A ican coun ies in C-A ade
is negligible. I can be a gued ha e en hough logis ic in as uc u e has imp o ed
signi ican ly ac oss some A ican coun ies (Ku eyi & Winkle ,2022), he con inen s ill
lags in e ms o LP compa ed o o he egions o he wo ld. Mos A ican coun ies a e
acing ade challenges due o weak LP. Excep o Sou h A ica, he op- anked A ican
coun y ha is placed 19 h globally, o he A ican na ions ank much lowe . Many o hese
coun ies ace cumbe some and ine icien cus oms clea ing p ocedu es ha add o cos s,
along wi h poo ly main ained oad ne wo ks ha cause se e e a ic conges ion a po s
and u he delays, inc easing he o e all cos o ade (Ku eyi & Winkle ,2022).
The indings o he he e ogenei y analysis u he implied ha he e ec s o digi aliza-
ion, CE, and LP on C-A ade a e he e ogeneous and subjec o income and demog aphic
a ia ion. The indings p o ide e idence ha he e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on
C-A ade depend on he economic size o A ican coun ies, ha ing a mo e obus e ec
in middle-income A ican coun ies and A ican coun ies wi h highe popula ion sizes.
These esul s can be aligned wi h he jus i ica ion o Fan and Yu (2015) and Kuma i and
Bha i (2021), who ound he in luence o coun y size on he ade-LP ela ionship by
conside ing popula ion size and ound ha LP’s e ec i eness in boos ing ade g ow h is
highe in medium-income coun ies.
Mo eo e , he indings implied ha he e ec s o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP on C-A
ade a e condi ional on di e ences in he he e ogenei y o ins i u ional quali y in A ican
coun ies. The indings a e logical because e ec i e go e nance policies os e anspa en
ins i u ions ha enhance digi al connec i i y and CE ac i i ies while educing he isks
associa ed wi h digi al connec i i y and e-comme ce pa icipa ion (OECD,2019). Con-
e sely, poo ins i u ional quali y and weak policy amewo ks, cha ac e ized by ine ec i e
legal and egula o y en o cemen , can hinde economic ac i i ies and exace ba e he isks
associa ed wi h digi al connec i i y and e-comme ce (Jean e al.,2020;Doh e al.,2017). This
sugges s ha he g ow h bene i s o digi aliza ion and CE a e likely o be mo e p onounced
when ins i u ions and go e nance a e obus (Labha d & Leh imäki,2022). Addi ionally,
s ong ins i u ions play a c ucial ole in imp o ing logis ics and s eamlining policies ela ed
o bo de and cus oms clea ance (Po ugal-Pe ez & Wilson,2009), posi i ely in luencing
he ole o LP in he C-A ade.
5.2. Theo e ical Con ibu ions
This s udy makes signi ican heo e ical con ibu ions o unde s anding he dynamics
o C-A ade by in es iga ing he in e ac ion o digi aliza ion, CE, and LP while accoun ing
o A ican coun ies’ he e ogenei y in income, demog aphics, ins i u ional amewo ks,
and esou ce endowmen s. The e o e, he indings o his s udy b idge he gap in he
exis ing li e a u e and con ibu e o he heo e ical amewo k by demons a ing how digi-
aliza ion, CE, and LP se e as ans o ma i e ools ha educe ade cos s and acili a e
ma ke access among de eloping coun ies. Digi al echnology, such as CE pla o ms and
ICT echnology, allows ading coun ies o be e exploi hei compa a i e ad an age by
accessing global ma ke s mo e e icien ly, op imizing p oduc ion p ocesses, and ma ching
supplie s wi h he demand o he goods and se ices hey p oduce, aligned wi h com-
pa a i e ad an age heo y. Addi ionally, he esea ch indings con ibu e o global alue
chain heo y by showing how CE and LP enable deepe ade in eg a ion o China and
A ican economies. The e o e, by inco po a ing hese mode n ade de e minan s, he
esea ch e ines exis ing heo ies and p o ides a obus amewo k o explain e ol ing
ade pa e ns, pa icula ly in de eloping and eme ging ma ke con ex s.
Economies 2025,13, 171 24 o 33
Mo eo e , by in eg a ing he he e ogenei y o ade pa ne coun ies, he s udy en-
iches heo ies on in e na ional ade, o e ing a mo e nuanced unde s anding o ade
dynamics unde a ying economic, demog aphic, and ins i u ional condi ions. The heo e -
ical con ibu ion o he esul s is o p o ide a comp ehensi e amewo k ha in eg a es
digi aliza ion, CB, and LP wi h socio-economic ac o s and he abso p i e capaci y o
ading pa ne A ican coun ies, enhancing ou unde s anding o C-A ade dynamics
and o e ing heo e ical insigh s ailo ed o di e se domes ic con ex s o A ican coun ies.
To sum up, his s udy o e s a no el amewo k o e alua e how digi al echnological ad-
ancemen s, CE, and e icien LP educe ade cos s, enhance ma ke access, and op imize
supply chain managemen , p omo ing ade low among ading coun ies subjec o hei
socio-economic con ex s.
5.3. P ac ical Implica ions
The ou comes o his esea ch o e aluable insigh s o go e nmen s and policy-
make s in China and A ican coun ies and unde sco e p ac ical policies and s a egies
o p og essing sus ainable digi al inno a ion, CE, and LP o p omo e C-A ade. Fi s ,
he indings o he s udy highligh he c i ical ole o digi aliza ion o China and i s ade
pa ne A ican coun ies in imp o ing C-A ade pe o mance, sugges ing he need o
obus digi al in as uc u e, including mobile and b oadband pene a ion, high-speed
In e ne , and secu e digi al pla o ms in bo h ade o igin and des ina ion coun ies. The e-
o e, go e nmen s and policymake s in China and A ican coun ies should collabo a e on
ini ia i es o de elop sha ed digi al ecosys ems aligned wi h he Digi al Silk Road Ini ia i e,
which aims o os e digi al connec i i y, enhance digi al in as uc u e, and p omo e CE
ac oss coun ies.
Second, despi e no able ad ancemen s in digi al echnology ac oss A ican coun ies,
digi al connec i i y and ICT in as uc u e in many pa s o A ica emain no iceably un-
de de eloped compa ed o global s anda ds and China. This dispa i y e lec s a signi ican
digi al di ide, wi h a la ge po ion o he A ican popula ion ha ing limi ed access o e en
basic elephone se ices, while u ban a eas a e sa u a ed wi h high-speed In e ne and
ad anced digi al elecommunica ions sys ems (Ku eyi & Winkle ,2022). Hence, A ica’s
digi aliza ion equi es a holis ic app oach combining in es men s, skills, policies, and pa -
ne ships. The e o e, go e nmen s should p io i ize policies o expand digi al in as uc u e,
p omo e a o dable mobile In e ne , enhance digi al li e acy h ough educa ional p og ams,
and encou age in es men in elecommunica ions and digi al se ices o boos C-A ade.
Thi d, he indings implied ha China’s CE signi ican ly and posi i ely in luences C-A
ade, implying ha p omo ing CE can signi ican ly educe ba ie s o ade low and en-
hance ade pa icipa ion. The e o e, go e nmen s and policymake s should de elop i al
policies and s a egies o p omo e in es men in scalable e-comme ce pla o ms ha connec
A ican supplie s wi h Chinese buye s. In his ega d, policymake s should incen i ize
pa ne ships be ween Chinese in ech i ms and local A ican paymen se ice p o ide s.
Fo ins ance, in eg a ing Chinese digi al inance pla o ms like Alipay o WeCha Pay wi h
widely used A ican mobile money sys ems can simpli y paymen s o CE ansac ions and
p omo e C-A ade.
Fou h, he s udy highligh s he ole o LP in p omo ing C-A ade by educing delays
and enhancing supply chain eliabili y. To imp o e LP, in es men s in in as uc u e such
as oads, ailways, po s, and ai po s a e c ucial o educing ansi imes and boos ing
connec i i y. This includes enhancing logis ics compe i i eness h ough capi al in es men
o lowe ade cos s. The e o e, his s udy calls o in es ing in bo h physical and logis ics
in as uc u e o p omo e LP in A ican coun ies. Mo eo e , collabo a i e in es men s
in po s, anspo ne wo ks, and wa ehousing a e especially impo an o landlocked
Economies 2025,13, 171 31 o 33
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