Ma ko á, Pe a; V ecko á, Dominika; M´lk a, Mi osla a; Szabó, Pe e ; éCambál,
Miloš
A icle
The impac o e gonomic a ionalisa ion on he e iciency
and p oduc i i y o he p oduc ion p ocess
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ma ko á, Pe a; V ecko á, Dominika; M´lk a, Mi osla a; Szabó, Pe e ; éCambál,
Miloš (2025) : The impac o e gonomic a ionalisa ion on he e iciency and p oduc i i y o he
p oduc ion p ocess, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 15, Iss. 2, pp. 1-18,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020062
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Published: 13 Feb ua y 2025
Ci a ion: Ma ko á, P., V ecko á, D.,
M´
lk a, M., Szabó, P., & ˇ
Cambál, M.
(2025). The Impac o E gonomic
Ra ionalisa ion on he E iciency and
P oduc i i y o he P oduc ion
P ocess. Adminis a i e Sciences,15(2),
62. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci15020062
Copy igh : © 2025 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
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licenses/by/4.0/).
A icle
The Impac o E gonomic Ra ionalisa ion on he E iciency and
P oduc i i y o he P oduc ion P ocess
Pe a Ma ko á , Dominika V ecko á, Mi osla a M´
lk a * , Pe e Szabó and Miloš ˇ
Cambál
Ins i u e o Indus ial Enginee ing and Managemen , Facul y o Ma e ials Science and Technology in T na a,
Slo ak Uni e si y o Technology in B a isla a, Jána Bo u ˇc. 2781/25, 917 24 T na a, Slo akia;
[email p o ec ed] (P.M.); [email p o ec ed] (D.V.); pe e [email p o ec ed] (P.S.);
[email p o ec ed] (M. ˇ
C.)
*Co espondence: mi [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : This pape is aimed a unde s anding he possibili y o applying e gonomics in
he eo ganisa ion o he wo k en i onmen wi h he aim o imp o e wo king condi ions
and o inc ease he p oduc i i y o he examined wo kplace in an indus ial company. Due
o cons an changes in ma ke s, indus ial companies a e o ced o seek new me hods and
pa adigms o planning and managing inno a ions in o de o ensu e hei compe i i eness.
An essen ial pa o his p ocess is he emphasis on imp o ing p oduc ion p ocesses, whe e
a ious me hods wi h di e en ocuses can be used. These me hods no only op imise
wo k p ocesses, bu also allow companies o minimise he esou ces needed o p oduc ion
and inc ease o e all p oduc i i y. Ano he use ul ool o indus ial en e p ises can be
e gonomic a ionalisa ion. The impo ance o e gonomics in imp o ing employee wo king
condi ions and p oduc ion p ocess e iciency has been he subjec o s udies p omo ing
a ious concep s. This s udy ocuses in pa icula on examining he possibili y o ex ending
he ou pu s ob ained by he REFA me hod o ou pu s ob ained h ough e gonomic analysis.
To achie e he objec i es o he pape , he case s udy me hod was chosen, gi en ha i was
necessa y o apply he REFA me hod in combina ion wi h e gonomic a ionalisa ion in he
speci ic condi ions o he indus ial company o he possibili y o iden i ying bo lenecks in
he p oduc ion p ocess om he poin o iew o i s p oduc i i y, e iciency, and wo k o ce
in ol emen . Based on he esul s, i was possible o p opose measu es o inc ease he
e iciency o he p oduc ion p ocess while espec ing he p inciples o e gonomics. As
pa o he solu ion, he au ho eam concluded ha he indings ob ained by combining
bo h me hods do no show signi ican di e ences, bu a he complemen each o he and
p o ide a b oade iew o he issue unde s udy. A he same ime, i can be s a ed ha he
solu ion canno be conside ed de ini i e due o possible dynamic changes in he indus ial
en i onmen (changes in he composi ion o he wo k o ce and he scale o p oduc ion and
e ol ing echnology, e.g., AI). The subjec o u u e esea ch will be o adap he applied
combina ion o me hods so ha i is uni e sally applicable o any indus ial sec o , wi h
minimal equi ed adjus men s o mee he speci ics o indi idual indus ies.
Keywo ds: a ionalisa ion; e gonomics; p oduc i i y; employees
1. In oduc ion
Indus ial en e p ises a e cons an ly seeking new me hods and pa adigms o planning
and managing inno a ion o e ec i ely se e new and exis ing ma ke s wi h new and/o
changed p oduc s and se ices. Pa o his p ocess is an emphasis on imp o ing he
p oduc ion p ocesses ha o m he basis o e icien business ope a ions. Gi en he need
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci15020062
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 2 o 18
o keep pace wi h he cu en challenges o he imes, i is essen ial o pu pose ully seek
ou bo lenecks and was e wi hin he p oduc ion p ocess and, ideally, elimina e hem. This
can be achie ed by implemen ing mode n manu ac u ing echnologies such as au oma ion
(Ajiga e al.,2024;Ka umban e al.,2023), digi alisa ion (Lee e al.,2021;Pihi e al.,2018),
and lean manu ac u ing p inciples (Va ela e al.,2019;Lai e al.,2019). These me hods no
only op imise wo k p ocesses, bu also allow companies o minimise he esou ces needed
o p oduc ion and inc ease o e all p oduc i i y. Ra ionalisa ion can also be ano he use ul
ool o indus ial en e p ises.
Ra ionalisa ion o p oduc ion has i s jus i ica ion in he de elopmen o he company,
and hus, imp o es i s compe i i eness in he ma ke . These in e en ions in p oduc ion o -
e he possibili y o using new echnologies which a e bene icial bo h in e ms o imp o ing
wo king condi ions and in economic e ms (Dos al & Sadilek,2021).
Ra ionalisa ion can ake di e en o ms, depending on i s ocus and objec i e. In
gene al, a ionalisa ion can be de ined as a se o s a e-o - he-a knowledge, me hods,
echniques, and o ganisa ion ha a e designed o ensu e minimal was age o e o (human
e o ) o ma e ial (cos educ ion) in o de o inc ease bene i s (Rolande e al.,2013;
Szomba hyo á & K auszo á,2008).
The aim o he pape is o unde s and he po en ial o he comp ehensi e applica-
ion o e gonomics in he eo ganisa ion o he wo k en i onmen . The pu pose is o
imp o e wo king condi ions and o inc ease he p oduc i i y o he s udied wo kplace in
an indus ial en e p ise.
The esea ch ques ion guiding his s udy is as ollows:
Ques ion 1: Will he applica ion o ano he me hod en ich he esul s ob ained by
applying he REFA me hod?
When o mula ing he esea ch ques ion, we assumed ha by applying a combina ion
o me hods, mo e obus and comp ehensi e da a could be ob ained o in luence he
e iciency and p oduc i i y o he p oduc ion p ocess using e gonomic a ionalisa ion.
2. Theo e ical Backg ound—P oduc ion P ocesses and Possibili ies o
Thei Ra ionalisa ion o Inc ease E iciency and P oduc i i y
The classi ica ion o indi idual ypes o p oduc ion p ocesses acco ding o se e al
c i e ia allowed us o e eal some o hei cha ac e is ics ha can be gene alised o o he
ypes o p oduc ion p ocesses. S a ing om a a he gene al de ini ion o a p oduc , we
will e e o hese gene alised manu ac u ing sys ems as p oduc ion sys ems. I espec i e
o he subs an i e na u e o he p oduc , i is always a complex o pu pose ul ac i i ies o
o ganised g oups o people, which is di ided in o ope a ions and sub-p ocesses. I is a
gi en complex o ope a ions (examina ions a specialised wo kplaces) o be ca ied ou in a
ce ain o de (Souˇcko á,2017).
The manu ac u ing p ocess ep esen s he ac i i ies associa ed wi h he ac ual design
o he p oduc , he echnology o i s manu ac u e, he p oduc ion p ocess, assembly, es ing,
packaging, and shipping. In o de o ensu e ha he en i e p oduc ion p ocess is ca ied
ou co ec ly in a manu ac u ing en e p ise, he en i e p oduc ion s age mus be aken ca e
o in a imely manne . This is whe e he echnological changes o he s a ing ma e ials a e
made. This is also whe e he componen s and he whole p oduc a e gi en he shape o
composi ion speci ied by he designe in he echnical documen a ion in o de o achie e
he desi ed le el o quali y and u ili y a he minimum p oduc ion cos . F om he poin
o iew o business economics, he aim is o ealise economically op imal p oduc ion
(Souˇcko á,2017).
The connec ion be ween p oduc ion p ocesses and e gonomic a ionalisa ion is key o
op imising p oduc ion e iciency, imp o ing wo king condi ions, and inc easing employee
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 3 o 18
p oduc i i y (based on B i o e al.,2018). This app oach combines he echnical aspec s
o p oduc ion wi h e gonomic design p inciples, ensu ing ha p oduc ion p ocesses a e
e icien , sa e, and adap ed o human abili ies and cons ain s. Achie ing g ea e e iciency
h ough e gonomic a ionalisa ion equi es linking he scien i ic knowledge o human
pe o mance, job design, and wo k o ganisa ion.
In his case, a ionalisa ion can be de ined as he p ocess o s eamlining and im-
p o ing he p oduc i i y and e iciency o ac i i ies in an o ganisa ion h ough he use o
p ocess adjus men s, imp o ed ou pu s, be e planning and coo dina ion, mo e e icien
use o esou ces, he in oduc ion o new echnologies, and imp o ed managemen and
o ganisa ion o wo k (Vaa a e al.,2006).
I he wo k ac i i y is he subjec , a ionalisa ion may in ol e al e ed equi emen s o
how leade ship is exe cised and ea angemen s o wo k p ac ices and wo k asks, o en a
he cos o in ensi ying wo k h ough al e ed ime exposu e ac o s (Rolande e al.,2013).
The aim o a ionalisa ion can be o c ea e a be e and mo e e icien wo king en i on-
men o employees and o imp o e he pe o mance o he o ganisa ion as a whole.
When we need o make he in ol emen o he wo k o ce mo e e icien , we can de ine
a ionalisa ion as he imp o emen o human ac i i y, inc easing i s e iciency and economy,
i.e., he o ali y o measu es o he mos e icien use o manpowe and echnology on he
basis o he use o mode n knowledge o science and new echnologies. I is in his p ocess
ha e gonomics can be used, and i s applica ion is changing wi h he g ow h o esea ch
and knowledge abou e gonomics bu also in he ligh o new human p oblems a ising
a ound he wo ld (Koi ala & Nepal,2022).
The objec i es and bene i s ha can be achie ed h ough a ionalisa ion a e illus a ed
in Figu e 1.
Adm. Sci. 2025, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 o 19
achie e he desi ed le el o quali y and u ili y a he minimum p oduc ion cos . F om he
poin o iew o business economics, he aim is o ealise economically op imal p oduc ion
(Součko á, 2017).
The connec ion be ween p oduc ion p ocesses and e gonomic a ionalisa ion is key
o op imising p oduc ion e iciency, imp o ing wo king condi ions, and inc easing em-
ployee p oduc i i y (based on B i o e al., 2018). This app oach combines he echnical
aspec s o p oduc ion wi h e gonomic design p inciples, ensu ing ha p oduc ion p o-
cesses a e e icien , sa e, and adap ed o human abili ies and cons ain s. Achie ing
g ea e e iciency h ough e gonomic a ionalisa ion equi es linking he scien i ic
knowledge o human pe o mance, job design, and wo k o ganisa ion.
In his case, a ionalisa ion can be de ined as he p ocess o s eamlining and imp o -
ing he p oduc i i y and e iciency o ac i i ies in an o ganisa ion h ough he use o p o-
cess adjus men s, imp o ed ou pu s, be e planning and coo dina ion, mo e e icien use
o esou ces, he in oduc ion o new echnologies, and imp o ed managemen and o -
ganisa ion o wo k (Vaa a e al., 2006).
I he wo k ac i i y is he subjec , a ionalisa ion may in ol e al e ed equi emen s
o how leade ship is exe cised and ea angemen s o wo k p ac ices and wo k asks,
o en a he cos o in ensi ying wo k h ough al e ed ime exposu e ac o s (Rolande e
al., 2013).
The aim o a ionalisa ion can be o c ea e a be e and mo e e icien wo king en i-
onmen o employees and o imp o e he pe o mance o he o ganisa ion as a whole.
When we need o make he in ol emen o he wo k o ce mo e e icien , we can de-
ine a ionalisa ion as he imp o emen o human ac i i y, inc easing i s e iciency and
economy, i.e., he o ali y o measu es o he mos e icien use o manpowe and ech-
nology on he basis o he use o mode n knowledge o science and new echnologies. I
is in his p ocess ha e gonomics can be used, and i s applica ion is changing wi h he
g ow h o esea ch and knowledge abou e gonomics bu also in he ligh o new human
p oblems a ising a ound he wo ld (Koi ala & Nepal, 2022).
The objec i es and bene i s ha can be achie ed h ough a ionalisa ion a e illus-
a ed in Figu e 1.
Figu e 1. Objec i es and bene i s o a ionalisa ion (own p ocessing by Szomba hyo á & K auszo á,
2008).
Objec i es and Bene i s o Ra ionalisa ion
Exchange o expe ience
be ween en e p ises
C ea ion o op imal
wo king condi ions
O he s
Inc easing p oduc i i y
and quali y
Reduc ion in own cos s
Inc easing e enues
Elimina ing sou ces o loss
Risk educ ion
Aligning he in e es s o
p oduce s, e aile s, and
consume s
Figu e 1. Objec i es and bene i s o a ionalisa ion (own p ocessing by Szomba hyo á & K auszo á,
2008).
E gonomics in i s ocus can co e a wide ange o opics ela ed o he wo k o ce.
I s udies he ela ionship be ween wo ke s and jobs, which a ec s e e y pa o he
wo kplace. The subjec o e gonomics can be he design o he wo kplace i sel , he
equipmen o he p oduc , he en i onmen , and pe sonnel policies, aking in o accoun he
biomechanical, physical, and psychological needs o employees. When all aspec s a e aken
in o accoun , i is possible o imp o e he e iciency and p oduc i i y o he wo k sys em
while ensu ing wo ke heal h, sa e y, and sa is ac ion (Koi ala & Nepal,2022;Ono ejo á &
Šebo,2020).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 4 o 18
Like e gonomics i sel , pe spec i es on he wo king en i onmen ha e e ol ed o e
ime. In he wo k en i onmen , he ocus is no only on i s unc ionali y bu also on i s
aes he ic appeal, as a good-looking space can mo i a e, inspi e, and ul ima ely inc ease a
pe son’s wo k e iciency (Pe e i,2017).
Howe e , o many companies, e gonomics can be seen as an ex e nal ac o ha is
no pa o hei s a egy, planning, and con ol cycles (Koi ala & Nepal,2022). The ole o
e gonomics is o c ea e a com o able wo king en i onmen o he wo ke . On he o he
hand, wi h he ad ancemen o echnology, p og essi e echnologies such as simula ions,
i ual eali y, and augmen ed eali y a e o e ed in Indus y 4.0. The ad an age is he
abili y o c ea e a i ual en i onmen o any wo k p ocess. The e o e, in eg a ing Indus y
4.0 echnologies wi h e gonomics can inc ease wo kplace e iciency. E gonomis s can use
hese simula ions o iden i y isks o sou ces o discom o ha may a ec he ac ual wo ke
(Mos a a,2023).
The en i onmen in which employees wo k has a huge impac on wo k e iciency
as well as on com o and sa e y. I he wo k en i onmen is no designed co ec ly, he
employees compensa e o he de e io a ed condi ions, which in u n a ec s hei heal h
and com o , and ul ima ely, a ec s hei o e all p oduc i i y and e iciency. In such a
con ex , he wo kspace can also be seen as a place used o con inuously look o oom o
imp o emen . The e a e a numbe o app oaches ha add ess he unde lying de e minan s
o he wo k en i onmen . Villa ouco e al. s a e e gonomics as suppo ing he ollowing
(Villa ouco e al.,2012):
•Na u al com o —wa m h, ligh , o sui able acous ics;
•
The dimensions o he wo king en i onmen in ela ion o he ype o wo k o be
pe o med;
•The ma e ials used;
•Equipmen and u ni u e and hei dis ibu ion wi hin he space;
•Sa e y;
•Sus ainabili y.
Ra ionalisa ion o wo k is expec ed o inc ease e iciency, compe i i eness, and sus-
ainabili y in a dynamic business en i onmen . Wo k a ionalisa ion can be achie ed
h ough indi idual p ede e mined me hods and p ocedu es o be ollowed. Fo maxi-
mum e iciency in p oduc ion, a ionalisa ion measu es such as imp o emen in he spa ial
layou , wo k o ganisa ion, wo k p ocesses, wo k p oduc s, e c. a e used. This is mos ly
based on he sugges ions o objec ions o wo ke s, p elimina y economic calcula ions, e c.
(He man,2012).
Wi hin e gonomics, he e a e many ools and me hods ha a e used o assess he
wo k en i onmen and ensu e he sa e y and com o o employees. A numbe o mode n
echnologies (Table 1) in he o m o simula ion so wa e wi h he abili y o moni o a la ge
numbe o pa ame e s can be used o collec he da a needed o e alua e he in e ela ion-
ships be ween he employee, he wo k en i onmen , and he wo k ools. Al hough he
pe spec i e o he wo ke is ex emely impo an , he use o hese echnologies objec i ies
he o e ly subjec i e na u e o he assessmen . Impo an ly, i is desi able o combine
se e al o he abo e echnologies o objec i e da a collec ion and subsequen e alua ion.
F om he collec ed da a, a digi al wo king en i onmen can be modelled. We can inco po-
a e a digi al employee wi h speci ic physiological cha ac e is ics in o his en i onmen .
A numbe o es s and simula ions can hen be pe o med, and he e gonomic sui abili y
o he wo king en i onmen can be moni o ed. The ad an age is ha he e is no need o
isi eal wo k a eas, and he e is he possibili y o simula e di e en wo k asks (Be lin &
Adams,2017;Ho á ho á e al.,2018).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 5 o 18
Table 1. Tabula ep esen a ion o echnology ypes used o da a collec ion in e gonomic assessmen (Ho á ho á e al.,2018;Middleswo h,2024).
Technology Type Func ionali y
Basic E alua ed Pa ame e s Impac on he Wo k
Ac i i y Being
Moni o ed
*None
*Pa ial
Me hods and Ways
o E alua ion
Posi ion o
he Uppe
Limbs
Posi ion o
he Lowe
Limbs
To so
Posi ion
Head
and
Neck
Posi ion
Use o
Fo ce
F equency
o Mo e-
men s
Ene gy Ex-
pendi u e
Subjec i e
Assess-
men o
he Bu den
Wo kplace
Layou
Wea able senso
sys ems
Senso s o
measu ing
physiological
unc ions
* * * *Discom o caused by
wea ing senso s
Legisla i e,
he Ru le me hod,
Index me hod
Mo ion cap u e
Sensing human
posi ion and
mo emen * * * * * *Sensing wi hou
ma ke s
*Sensing wi h ma ke s
Legisla i e,
OWAS,
RULA,
REBA
CERRA
Augmen ed
eali y
wo kplace
sc eening
* * * * * *Obse e p esence a
he wo kplace Legisla i e,
OWAS
Simula ion
so wa e
Modelling and
simula ion o
wo k ac i i ies
and he
wo kplace
* * * * * * * *
Legisla i e,
OWAS,
RULA,
REBA,
NIOSH
Mobili y
applica ions Ques ionnai es
and checklis s * * *Legisla i e,
No dic
ques ionnai e
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 6 o 18
E icien p oduc ion de elopmen is a key aspec o a success ul business. Ra ionalisa-
ion, as a ool o op imising p oduc ion, in ol es a ional decision making, he p omo ion
o wo ke ini ia i e, and p o essional a ionalisa ion ac i i ies. Ra ional ac ion consis s
o he op imal use and c ea ion o he indi idual pa s o he sys em ha is subjec o
a ionalisa ion. I is c ucial o success ul de elopmen ha he objec i es o a ionalisa ion
and change a e p ope ly unde s ood and ha he condi ions o hei ealisa ion a e c ea ed.
The economic essence o a ionalisa ion e o s consis s o achie ing highe pe o mance
and e iciency h ough he knowledge and applica ion o mode n sys ems, concep s, and
wo king me hods.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
To inc ease he e iciency o he p oduc ion p ocess, emphasis is now being placed
on op imising and a ionalising p oduc ion schedules. In addi ion o ime analysis, i is
also necessa y o ake in o accoun he human ac o , which can be limi ing in e ms o he
success o he solu ion. In p ac ice, se e al me hods can be used o analyse p oduc ion
p ocesses o make p ocesses mo e e icien , educe was e o imp o e quali y, o ensu e he
smoo h ope a ion o he company. Time and mo ion s udy (TMS), Value S eam Mapping
(VSM), Six Sigma Analysis, DMAIC, Wo k Sampling, Failu e Mode and E ec s Analysis
(FMEA), S a is ical P ocess Con ol (SPC), he REFA me hod, lean manu ac u ing, and
Bo leneck Analysis a e he mos commonly used me hods o he analysis o manu ac u ing
p ocesses, and hei esul s a e mainly ansla ed in o indica o s such as O e all Equipmen
E ec i eness (OEE), P ocess Capabili y Analysis (Cp/Cpk), and o he s.
The selec ion o he app op ia e me hod o analysing he p oduc ion p ocess depends
on he desi ed objec i es and he indus y in which i will be used. O en, i is necessa y
o use a combina ion o se e al me hods o ake a holis ic iew o he p ocess and ensu e
con inuous imp o emen .
Due o he na u e o manu ac u ing and he indus y in which he case s udy was
add essed, he REFA me hod, which is based on de ailed ime measu emen and includes
analysis o iden i y ine icien mo emen s o s eps, was used o he analysis. I ocuses on
s uc u ing wo k asks o inc ease p oduc i i y.
The REFA me hod (Reichsausschuß ü A bei szei e mi lung) (Bu es & Pi odo a,
2015;Vlˇceko á,2024) is a me hod o di ec measu emen o wo k wi h he abili y o assess
wi h wha in ensi y and e iciency he wo k is pe o med. I is applicable o bo h cyclical and
non-cyclical wo k. The REFA me hod (REFA,2003) de ails he s eps in ol ed in conduc ing
ime s udies. I is widely used wi hin indus ial enginee ing o imp o e he e iciency o
manu ac u ing p ocesses (based on ˇ
Colo i´c e al.,2024). I is pa o he b oade ield o
ime and mo ion s udies and in ol es sys ema ic analysis o op imise wo k lows, educe
was e, and inc ease p oduc i i y. The me hod elies hea ily on he de ailed eco ding
and obse a ion o wo k p ocesses and is use ul o designing be e wo k en i onmen s
and o ganising asks mo e e icien ly. In pa icula , i includes an unambiguous sys em o
nomencla u e and di ision o ime, pe o mance a ing, and special eco ding o ms.
We ha e he e o e used he REFA me hod o analyse wo k p ocesses in de ail and
iden i y a eas whe e e iciency and p oduc i i y can be imp o ed. Compa ison o he
ou pu s wi h legisla ion will ensu e compliance wi h s anda ds and egula ions ela ing o
wo ke s’ wo king condi ions, complemen ing he esul s om he CERAA applica ion.
Fo he pu pose o he analysis, he wo k o all wo k ac i i ies a each wo ks a ion
wi hin p oduc ion lines A and B o he p oduc ion plan was measu ed in he mon hs
om July o Sep embe in 2023. The pa en company o he company examined in he
s udy is loca ed in Ge many, whe e he REFA me hod is s anda dly used o s udy wo k
ac i i ies. The company hus has a da abase o ime snapsho s o he p oduc ion lines,
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 7 o 18
which made i possible o choose a quan i a i e app oach. Measu emen s o he needs
o he case s udy we e ca ied ou in he b anch company unde s udy. The ollowing
me hodological p ocedu e was applied when implemen ing he REFA me hod. As pa
o he p epa a ion o he analysis, i s goal was chosen, in his case, educing wo king
ime. Wo k ac i i ies wi hin he p oduc ion p ocess we e selec ed o he needs o he
analysis. Subsequen ly, all ele an da a on he p ocess ( ime, cos s, ools, and me hods)
we e collec ed. As pa o he wo k p ocess analysis, he p ocess was mapped o ob ain a
comple e o e iew o all i s s eps. In o de o iden i y asks and ope a ions, he p ocess
was di ided in o smalle asks and ope a ions pe o med by he wo ke . Then, he imes o
indi idual ope a ions we e measu ed using s opwa ches. Da a collec ion was ca ied ou
using a Casio s opwa ch HS-80TW-IEF (Casio Compu e Company, Limi ed, Sibuji, Tokio,
Japan) and a p e-p epa ed REFA ime ame in he company’s p oduc ion hall du ing he
ele an p oduc ion ope a ions on he line. Indi idual ac i i ies on he p oduc ion line
we e measu ed be ween 25 and 30 imes, depending on he ype o ac i i y measu ed. As
long as an ope a ion pe o med on one piece was measu ed, i was measu ed 30 imes,
and as long as di e en ac i i ies wi hin one ope a ion we e measu ed on se e al modules
a he same ime, he measu emen was epea ed 25 imes. The analysis o wo king
condi ions was p ocessed using he REFA o m, whe e in o ma ion abou he wo k ask,
wo k ime, and wo ke we e eco ded (wi h espec o GDPR); he wo k p ocess was
also summa ised, he in luences ac ing du ing he measu emen we e eco ded, and no es
wi h he o m coding we e made o aceabili y. The o m included a ime snapsho
in ended o se ial p oduc ion wi h egula epe i ion, whe e he sec ions o he p ocess
we e iden i ied, numbe ed, and de ined, and measu emen poin s we e de e mined. I was
also necessa y o de e mine he ela i e quan i y (numbe o modules on he ca ie , 1 piece
when welding) and, inally, he le el o equi ed pe o mance and imes. Fo he pu pose
o analysis, all 24 wo ke s wo king a each posi ion on he p oduc ion line we e imaged.
The age ange o he emale wo ke s was 35–55 yea s, la e ali y was igh -handed in all
o hem, and wo k exposu e anged om 0 o 12 yea s. Fu he mo e, 66% o he emale
wo ke s pe o med wo k si ing, and 34% o he emale wo ke s s ood while wo king.
None o he emale wo ke s we e ained in he occupa ion, bu 23 emale wo ke s had
been p ope ly ained o he job. Thus, i was assumed ha hey a e well awa e o he
p oduc ion p ocesses and ha e su icien expe ience o hem as a esul o hei occupa ional
exposu e. One emale wo ke was pa o he aining p og amme o one week, and he
knowledge and skills equi ed o wo k on he imaging ope a ion we e assessed a 85%;
hus, she did no pe o m all he ope a ions o ull capaci y. He wo k pe o mance was
sligh ly limi ed, he du a ion o indi idual ope a ions was longe , and he cos equi ed
o pe o m hem was highe . Adjus ing ime and cos es ima es in ligh o he wo ke ’s
ac ual pe o mance will help o ob ain a ealis ic pic u e o p ocesses and cos s. Fo a
comp ehensi e iew o wo ke pe o mance, measu emen s we e aken a di e en imes
o he day (a he beginning o he shi , be o e and a e he lunch b eak, and a he end
o he shi ). By a e aging he pe o mance cu e om he collec ed da a, i was possible
o e ine he measu emen esul s wi h espec o he whole wo king day. The nex s ep
was o imp o e he wo k p ocess by iden i ying ine icien and edundan mo emen s
and ac ions. The p oduc ion p ocess was subsequen ly modi ied by edesigning he wo k
p ocess by in oducing new echnologies and changing wo king condi ions. In he phase
o de e mining he s anda d ime, i was calcula ed o he indi idual ope a ions unde
s udy based on measu emen and analysis, aking in o accoun p oduc i i y s anda ds.
As pa o he implemen a ion o he imp o emen s, employees we e e ained in new
wo k p ocedu es and new echnologies. Con ol and e i ica ion o he co ec ness o he
solu ion we e ca ied ou by simula ion using he Wi ness so wa e ( .12).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 8 o 18
In addi ion o he measu emen o wo k ac i i ies, an analysis o he isk ac o s o he
wo king condi ions and hei p ojec ion o indi idual body pa s was ca ied ou a he
wo kplace using da a collec ion h ough he No dic Ques ionnai e (Kuo inka e al.,1987).
All (100%) o he emale wo ke s pa icipa ed in he analysis. The indings we e suppo ed
by sc eening o he e gonomic condi ions a he analysed wo kplaces h ough he use o
he CERAA applica ion. In his way, he spa ial design o he p oduc ion line wo kplaces
was analysed; speci ically, he each dis ances we e measu ed. The analysis was ca ied ou
on all ou ope a ions, assessing he spa ial condi ions o emale wo ke s, including an
assessmen o he wo k a ea when wo king bo h si ing and s anding.
4. Resul s
The ollowing pa o he pape includes he esul s o he analysis o he p oduc ion
p ocess by he REFA me hod, h ough which ime was measu ed in de ail and ine icien
mo emen s o s eps we e iden i ied. Based on his, i was possible o s uc u e wo k asks
o inc ease p oduc i i y. To comp ehensi ely imp o e wo king condi ions and inc ease
o e all p oduc i i y on he p oduc ion line, he indings we e complemen ed by a de ailed
e gonomic analysis o he p oduc ion line ope a ion wi h emphasis on iden i ying a eas o
imp o emen . Consequen ly, i was possible o p opose measu es o inc ease he e iciency
o he p oduc ion p ocess while espec ing he p inciples o e gonomics.
4.1. Resul s o he REFA Manu ac u ing P ocess Assessmen
The nex sec ion o he pape co e s he ou pu s o he analysis using he REFA me hod.
The aim was o iden i y bo lenecks on sec ions o he line in e ms o di e ences in imes
be ween ope a ions and o a ionalise an ine icien p ocess wi hin he p oduc ion cycle in
he o m o mul iple ca ie handling ha does no add alue o he inal p oduc .
The eason o using he REFA me hod o imp o e he e iciency o he p oduc ion
p ocess and p oduc i i y in he company is i s s anda d use in he pa en company in
Ge many. Wi hin he company da abase, he e is a da abase o REFA ime ames o
p oduc ion lines; he e o e, a quan i a i e app oach using he me hod was chosen. Fo
he ou pu s wi hin he case s udy, he measu emen s we e pe o med in he p esen . The
da a collec ion was ca ied ou using a s opwa ch equipped wi h a p ecision measu ing
mechanism, which enables accu a e ime eco ding, in a p e-p epa ed REFA ime ame
in he p oduc ion hall o he company du ing he p oduc ion ope a ions in ques ion on
he line.
The wo k measu emen s we e aken on p oduc ion lines 1 and 2 o all he ac i i ies
aking place a he wo ks a ions. The low o ma e ial s a s on he igh a he assembly
a ea, whe e h ee wo ke s (o mo e as needed) si and assemble he o so. The o sion
chassis a e hen mo ed along g a i y con eyo 1 o he u nace wo ks a ion. The u nace
wo ks a ion is no he subjec o he analysis as he solde ing u nace p og am canno be
sho ened o in luenced. The solde ing u naces a e ope a ed by a single wo ke , and he
p og amme akes 60 min, a e which he wo ke pulls ou and pu s he module s ack on
g a i y con eyo 2. F om he e, a wo ke (g een colou in Figu e 2) akes he spool and
emo es he semi- inished p oduc om he p ocess and assembly o sion—line sec ion
B. The semi- inished p oduc s a e ans e ed on a ca ie o wo wo ke s on line sec ion
C (yellow), who place each piece nea he wo ks a ion on line sec ion D (o ange). Du ing
p oduc ion on line 2, a wo ke ca ying ou ac i i ies o line sec ion C (yellow) ca ies he
semi- inished p oduc s in a ca ie o he wo ke a he ul asonic welde (o ange, wo ke
on he le ).
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 15 o 18
emphasises he human capi al o a company. F om a company pe spec i e, social e iciency
can be unde s ood no as p o i maximisa ion, bu as c ea ing added social alue and social
inclusion o he employees and ein es ing p o i s in he de elopmen o he main social
goals o he company. The social esponsibili y encompasses an e ec i e and esponsible
app oach o he componen s o in es men s made o socie y, employee ela ions, c ea i i y,
and wo kplaces’ sus ainabili y. Howe e , he e ec i eness o in es men s in he ield o
e gonomics canno be di ec ly quan i ied using he classic a senal o in es men e alua ion
me hods o se e al easons:
•
The e ec o he in es men does no appea immedia ely a e he in es men is made,
•The e ec may mani es i sel di e en ly in each ope a ion,
•The e ec is almos always indi ec , mani es ing i sel in a eas such as educing cos s
om illness (absence om wo k), educing losses om acciden s, educing losses om
employee u no e , and imp o ing he wo k en i onmen and wo k cul u e.
The assessmen o he social e iciency o he expendi u e o in es men unds wi h
espec o he use ul esul in a ce ain pe iod o ime (Michník,1995) can be de ined om
he basic ela ionship:
ESOC = u . e
whe e:
u—social e ec o he in es men ,
e—e ec pe uni o he in es men e ec .
The social impac o an in es men is usually de ined as he a ea wi hin which he mea-
su es aken a e o be e lec ed in he o m o an imp o emen in he iden i ied/measu ed
condi ion. De e mining he uni o e ec is no longe so clea -cu ; i can be a speci ic (single)
wo k posi ion o a wo k cell o which he imp o emen is applied. Gi en ha all o he
abo e a eas ha all in o he a ea o social e iciency a e quan i ied ex pos on a qua e ly,
semi-annual, o annual basis, he e ec can be measu ed only a e hey ha e been quan-
i ied, i.e., e iciency can be measu ed and quan i ied only a e he inal quan i ica ion
o mo bidi y, inju y, and luc ua ion indica o s. In addi ion o he ac ha all indica o s
educe he cos s associa ed wi h p oduc ion, i can be assumed ha when “wo k does no
hu a pe son”, i.e., does no cause any ha m, he e ec will also occu in he o m o a
educed de ec i e p oduc s a e and in he o m o highe labou p oduc i i y.
6. Conclusions
E ec i e p oduc ion de elopmen cu en ly o ms he basis o success ul business.
Ra ionalisa ion, as one o he ools o making p oduc ion mo e e icien , means a ional
ac ion, using wo ke s’ ini ia i e and p o essionally pe o med a ionalisa ion ac i i ies.
Ra ional ac ion is based on he op imal use and c ea ion o indi idual componen s o he
sys em ha is he objec o a ionalisa ion. Fo i s de elopmen , i is c ucial ha a ionali-
sa ion plans and changes a e co ec ly unde s ood and ha condi ions and p e equisi es
o hei implemen a ion a e c ea ed. The economic essence o he a ionalisa ion e o s
he e o e lies in achie ing highe pe o mance and highe e iciency and p esupposes he
knowledge and applica ion o newe and mo e mode n sys ems, concep s, and me hods o
wo k (Szomba hyo á & K auszo á,2008).
Compa ed wi h new echnological ends such as Indus y 4.0, he REFA me hod
s ill has a ele an ole in main aining p opo ionali y be ween human e o and bene i .
I also sugges s ha , gi en he e e -e ol ing echnology, he REFA me hod will emain
ele an in he u u e and can be an e ec i e ool o imp o ing e iciency and op imising
p oduc ion p ocesses in cu en indus y, bu i will likely equi e u he de elopmen
o adequa ely espond o new echnological challenges (Ah ens,2018). Be ween he wo
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 16 o 18
majo de elopmen lines in indus y in ecen decades, au oma ion and he de elopmen o
he me hods o imp o e p oduc ion e iciency, he REFA me hod alls in o he la e g oup,
as i ocuses on imp o ing p oduc ion e iciency and op imising cos s (Ah ens,2018).
The cu en wo k eali y e lec s he g owing use o a i icial in elligence in he design
o hyb id wo k sys ems. The REFA me hod and he pe iodic AI sys em o m he basis o
he analysis and op imisa ion o p oduc ion p ocesses, wi h an emphasis on suppo ing,
no eplacing, he human wo k o ce. AI pa s acqui e di e se da a, such as assembly in o -
ma ion in he wo k en i onmen , which hey hen use o gene a e in o ma ion, si ua ions,
o s a es, such as selec ing a wo k low based on he acqui ed componen da a. They la e
eac o he acqui ed and e alua ed da a, such as by isualising he nex wo k s eps. The
combina ion o he REFA me hod and a i icial in elligence allows o a s uc u ed iew
o he use o AI in wo k sys ems, highligh ing i s bene i s in e gonomics and digi al assis-
ance sys ems. This syne gy s eng hens e iciency and inno a ion in he wo k p ocesses
(Pie schmann e al.,2022). The REFA me hod iden i ied bo lenecks in he p oduc ion
p ocess, which we e also con i med om he employees’ pe spec i e by pe o ming an
e gonomic analysis, which will allow o a mo e comp ehensi e solu ion ha akes in o
accoun he needs and limi a ions o employees, hus a oiding unnel ision when sol ing
he p oblem. In u u e esea ch, i will be possible o conside inco po a ing a i icial
in elligence in o he e alua ion o collec ed da a o he pu poses o applying he REFA
me hod; howe e , in he pa dealing wi h he e gonomic a ionalisa ion o he wo king
en i onmen , esea ch will be needed ha would elimina e e o s om excessi e use o
AI o assess he pa icipa ion o human labou in he p oduc ion p ocess, gi en ha we
belie e ha AI is no ye a a le el ha could gua an ee he ele ance o he da a.
Wi hin he esea ch limi a ions, ou esea ch may ha e been in luenced by he gende
imbalance o he sample o esponden s as well as i s indi idual a iabili y. I is impo an
o no e ha he gende imbalance o he sample may a ec he gene alisa ion o he indings
o he wide wo king popula ion. Rega ding da a analysis, e e y hing was ca ied ou in
acco dance wi h he equi emen s o his ype o da a collec ion and e alua ion. We do
no assume he occu ence o any e o s in he analysis and p ocessing o da a. The abo e
solu ion canno be conside ed de ini i e due o he possible changing composi ion o he
wo k o ce, he scope o p oduc ion, and e ol ing echnology. The e o e, i is necessa y
o moni o de elopmen ends and co ec he solu ion h ough u u e esea ch. The
subjec o he esea ch ollowing he abo e case s udy is o adap he applied combina ion
o me hods so ha i is uni e sally applicable o any indus y wi h minimal equi ed
adjus men s o mee he speci ics o indi idual indus ies.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualisa ion, P.M., D.V., M.M., P.S. and M. ˇ
C.; me hodology, P.M. and
D.V.; so wa e, D.V.; alida ion, P.M. and D.V.; o mal analysis, P.M., D.V., M.M., P.S. and M. ˇ
C.;
in es iga ion, D.V.; esou ces, P.M., M.M., P.S. and M. ˇ
C; da a cu a ion, P.M. and D.V.; w i ing—
o iginal d a p epa a ion, P.M., D.V., M.M., P.S. and M. ˇ
C; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, P.M., M.M.
and P.S.; isualisa ion, P.M. and D.V.; p ojec adminis a ion, M.M. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed
o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : Gi en ha he con ibu ion did no in ol e medical esea ch
in ol ing human subjec s, ma e ial, issues, o da a; did no p ocess o include sensi i e o o he ypes
o pe sonal da a; no did i mee any o he simila e hical c i e ia acco ding o Slo ak egula ions,
o mal e hical e iew o he s udy was he e o e no necessa y.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a a e con ained wi hin he a icle.
Adm. Sci. 2025,15, 62 17 o 18
Acknowledgmen s: The pape is a pa o p ojec KEGA No. 027STU-4/2022 “In eg a ion o he
equi emen s o p ac ice in he au omo i e indus y wi h he eaching o subjec s wi hin he s udy
p og ams P ocess Au oma ion and In o ma iza ion in Indus y and Indus ial Managemen ”. This
pape is a pa o p ojec KEGA No. 018TUKE-4/2022 “C ea ion o new s udy ma e ials, including an
in e ac i e mul imedia uni e si y ex book o compu e -aided enginee ing ac i i ies”.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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