Man ino, F ancesco; Fo cina, Ba ba a
A icle
The go e nance o ansi ions in ag i- ood sys ems:
E idence om he p ocessing oma o supply chains in
Spain and I aly
I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics (REA)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Fi enze Uni e si y P ess
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Man ino, F ancesco; Fo cina, Ba ba a (2024) : The go e nance o ansi ions in
ag i- ood sys ems: E idence om he p ocessing oma o supply chains in Spain and I aly, I alian
Re iew o Ag icul u al Economics (REA), ISSN 2281-1559, Fi enze Uni e si y P ess, Flo ence, Vol. 79,
Iss. 1, pp. 15-32,
h ps://doi.o g/10.36253/ ea-14953
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ISSN 0035-6190 (p in ) | ISSN 2281-1559 (online) | DOI: 10.36253/ ea-14953
REA ITALIAN REVIEW
OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS
ITALIAN REVIEW
OF AGRICULTURAL
ECONOMICS
Ci a ion: Man ino, F., & Fo cina, B. (2024).
The go e nance o ansi ions in ag i-
ood sys ems: e idence om he p o-
cessing oma o supply chains in Spain
and I aly. I alian Re iew o Ag icul u al
Economics 79(1): 15-32. DOI: 10.36253/
ea-14953
Recei ed: Decembe 13, 2023
Re ised: Ap il 15, 2024
Accep ed: May 09, 2023
Copy igh : © 2024 Man ino, F., & Fo ci-
na, B. This is an open access, pee -
e iewed a icle published by Fi enze
Uni e si y P ess (h ps://www. up ess.
com/ ea) and dis ibu ed unde he
e ms o he C ea i e Commons A i-
bu ion License, which pe mi s un e-
s ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep o-
duc ion in any medium, p o ided he
o iginal au ho and sou ce a e c ed-
i ed.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : All el-
e an da a a e wi hin he pape and i s
Suppo ing In o ma ion iles.
Compe ing In e es s: The Au ho (s)
decla e(s) no con lic o in e es .
Gues Edi o : Be na d Pecqueu ,
Ma cello De Rosa, Ca ia Zumpano
ORCID
FM: 0000-0001-5338-4333
BF: 0009-0000-3519-4413
Ag i ood sys em be ween global and e i o ial ision – Resea ch a icle
The go e nance o ansi ions in ag i- ood
sys ems: e idence om he p ocessing oma o
supply chains in Spain and I aly
F ancesco Man ino, Ba ba a Fo cina*
CREA – Resea ch Cen e o Ag icul u al Policies and Bioeconomy, I aly
*Co esponding au ho . E-mail: ba ba a. o [email p o ec ed] .i
Abs ac . The pape aims o analyse he unc ioning o e i o ial ag i- ood chains
h ough an ins i u ional lens. The app oach ies o explo e he in luence o endoge-
nous and exogenous ac o s on he capaci y o espond o complex ansi ion challeng-
es. Ou wo king hypo hesis is ha ag i- ood supply chains a e embedded in he e i-
o y hey belong o, economic pe o mances and ma ke compe i i eness a e s ongly
in luenced by a combina ion o o ganisa ional capabili ies and good go e nance solu-
ions. These opics a e de eloped by examining he inno a i e socioeconomic ea u es
o wo o he la ges wo ld and Eu opean supply chains: he p ocessing oma o supply
chains o No he n I aly and Ex emadu a (Spain), bo h ep esen ing mos o he p o-
cessed oma o na ional p oduc ion, go e ned by an o e a ching o ganisa ion ga he ing
p oduce s and p ocessing i ms on a pa i y basis, cha ac e ised by an inno a i e pa h
de eloped o ace he changing condi ions o policies and ma ke s. The pape shows
how go e nance capabili ies and hei implica ions on he compe i i eness and chain’s
pe o mance need o be explo ed by combining quali a i e and quan i a i e analysis
and indica o s.
Keywo ds: localised ag i- ood sys ems, supply chains, go e nance, indica o s.
JEL codes: O13, Q18, R11.
HIGHLIGHTS
– Te i o ial di e ences a ec economic and go e nance models, which in
u n in luence ag i- ood chains capaci y o add ess sus ainabili y chal-
lenges and emain compe i i e.
– Indica o s o he p ocessing oma o supply chain in No he n I aly and
Ex emadu a con i med ha sys emic esponses, coope a ion ne wo ks
and collabo a i e o ms o go e nance a e c ucial o suppo mecha-
nisms o adap a ion o ex e nal changes.
– In e -b anch o ganisa ions ensu e coope a ion, p ice s abili y and be e
condi ions o p ima y p oduce s.
16 F ancesco Man ino, Ba ba a Fo cina
1. INTRODUCTION
This pape ocuses on he ole played by local go -
e nance in he compe i i eness o localised and highly
specialised ag i- ood supply chains. I s o iginal con i-
bu ion consis s in unde s anding o he in luence exe -
ed by endogenous and exogenous ac o s on he capac-
i y o espond o ansi ion challenges. These opics a e
de eloped by in es iga ing he socioeconomic ea u es o
he p ocessing oma o supply chain, wi h a speci ic ocus
on he a eas o No he n I aly and Ex emadu a (Spain).
Fi s ly, in 2022 I aly was he second wo ld p oduc-
e o p ocessed oma o a e Cali o nia, and he bigges
supply chain in Eu ope. In he same yea , Spain was,
ins ead, he ou h wo ld p oduce and second Eu o-
pean one, and I aly’s main compe i o on Eu opean and
wo ld ma ke s. Secondly, he No he n I alian supply
chain accoun s o o e hal o he I alian p oduc ion.
I is dis inguished by a long, success ul, and inno a i e
o ganisa ional and echnological pa h in an a emp o
adap o changing condi ions in policies and ma ke s. I
is he e o e in e es ing o compa e hese de elopmen s
wi h hose in Ex emadu a, which accoun s o 80% o
he Spanish p ocessed oma o. Mo eo e , in bo h I aly
and Spain, p ocessing oma o ep esen s a s a egic c op
no only o he high ele ance o p oduc ion and p o-
cessing, bu also o e ical and ho izon al supply chain
ela ions.Finally, in bo h No he n I aly and Ex ema-
du a, he p ocessed oma o sys em is cha ac e ized by
geog aphical p oximi y, dis inc i e go e nance pa e ns,
consolida ed ela ionships be ween p oduce s and p o-
cessing indus ies, his o ical local oo s and iden i y.
The pape aims o unde s and how economic and
go e nance models in luence he capaci y o ag i- ood
supply chains o add ess cu en sus ainabili y chal-
lenges and emain compe i i e. Ou wo king hypo hesis
is ha ag i- ood supply chains a e embedded in he e -
i o y hey belong o and ha supply chain go e nance
models a ec he e iciency and esilience o he supply
chain.
This s udy pa icula ly ocuses on he ollowing
esea ch ques ions:
1. Wha a e he di e ences be ween he wo e i o i-
alized ag i- ood chains in e ms o compe i i eness
ac o s?
2. How do supply chain o ganisa ion and go e nance
a angemen s a ec hei capabili y o compe e?
3. How a e socioeconomic and en i onmen al ansi-
ions impac ing he wo a eas, and which esponses
a e hey p o iding?
The s udy is de eloped in h ee sec ions. The i s
one (sec ion 2) b ie ly e iews some o he mos impo -
an s ands o li e a u e dealing wi h he ag i- ood sup-
ply chain. This sec ion examines he heo e ical ame-
wo k sui able o conside ing he ole o local go e n-
ance in he Localized Ag i-Food Sys ems (LAFS). The
ollowing sec ion (sec ion 3) desc ibes he me hodology
ollowed in his s udy and deepens he unde s anding
o he e i o ial and socioeconomic ea u es o e i o-
ial supply chains. Sec ion 4 explo es he unc ioning o
he p ocessing oma o sec o o he wo majo Eu opean
playe s (I aly and Spain) and compa es he specialised
a eas o No he n I aly and Ex emadu a in e ms o
supply chain s uc u e and o ganiza ion, powe dis ibu-
ion along he supply chain and compe i i eness ac o s.
Finally, sec ion 5 aims o analyse how he di e en go -
e nance a angemen s wi hin and beyond he wo sup-
ply chains can in luence he capabili y o esponding o
he ele an ansi ion challenges in he wo a eas.
2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Ag i- ood sys ems a e complex en i ies a ec ed by
local and spa ial condi ions, human beha iou , a i udes
and decisions. They in ol e mul iple dis inc s ages and
di e en in e ela ed ma ke s, ac o s and go e nance
sys ems (Sex on, 2013), and a e inc easingly cha ac e -
ized by di e en ia ed and quali y-d i en ac i i ies and
p oduc s (Sai one, Sex on, 2010). In u n, highe ans-
ac ion cos s en ail highe and mo e explici coo dina ion
in he chain o codi y p oduc s, enhance us and epu-
a ion, and lowe oppo unism.
The combina ion o di e en ac i i ies o i ms and
economic agen s inds exp ession in complex o ganisa-
ional sys ems, he supply chains, belonging o a b oad
ca ego y called hyb id ins i u ions (Ca bone, 2017), ha
is en i ies pe o ming asks ha canno be unde aken
by ma ke s o by he i ms on hei own (Ke chen, Guin-
ipe o, 2004).
In he s eams o li e a u e conce ning supply
chains, he concep o Localised Ag i-Food Sys ems
(LAFS) has gained ele ance. LAFS can be a use ul
me hodological amewo k o s udy he oma o sup-
ply chains. Ini ially, he concep o LAFS was s ong-
ly ocused on he p oduc ion sys em and in e ac ions
among i ms wi hin a gi en e i o y: his can explain
why i was s ongly in luenced by he concep o clus e ,
adop ed by Po e (1990, 2009) o de ine he spa ial p ox-
imi y o many p oduc ion uni s and hei ecip ocal ela-
ionships. Spa ial p oximi y, specialisa ion o e i o ial
sys ems and hei complex in e play we e also a he cen-
e o s udies on he new economic geog aphy in K ug-
man (1995), on he one side, and in he I alian school o
17
The go e nance o ansi ions in ag i- ood sys ems: e idence om he p ocessing oma o supply chains in Spain and I aly
local de elopmen d i en by Beca ini’s wo ks, ocusing
on he concep o Ma shallian indus ial dis ic (Beca -
ini e al., 2009), on he o he . LAFS eme ged in he
mid-1990s as a concep e e ing o geog aphical con-
cen a ions o specialised a ms, ood-p ocessing uni s,
dis ibu ion ne wo ks, and p i a e and public en i ies in
a de e mined place. LAFS also appea ed in he F ench
li e a u e, bu as SYAL, o Sys èmes ag o-alimen ai es
localisés. Th ee dis inc i e ea u es cha ac e ise LAFS:
(a) place, (b) social ela ionships, and (c) ins i u ions. The
speci ici y o LAFS is in he spa ial ea u es o p oduc s,
people, ins i u ions and social ela ions ha a e embed-
ded in ood p oduc ion. Place is conside ed in i s wides
meaning as used in he F ench school, ha is he “ e -
oi ”. Social ela ionships ela e o us and coope a ion
among ac o s. Ins i u ions include all p i a e and public
agen s p omo ing ac ions egula ed by o mal and in o -
mal ules. CIRAD-SAR (1996: 5) de ines LAFS as ol-
lows: “p oduc ion and se ice o ganiza ions (ag icul u al
and ag i- ood p oduc ion uni s, ma ke ing, se ices and
gas onomic en e p ises, e c.) linked by hei cha ac e is-
ics and ope a ional ways o a speci ic e i o y. The en i-
onmen , p oduc s, people and hei ins i u ions, know-
how, eeding beha iou and ela ionships ne wo ks com-
bine wi hin a e i o y o p oduce a ype o ag icul u al
and ood o ganiza ion in a gi en spa ial scale”.
The subsequen deba e on LAFS (Muchnik e al.,
2008; Pe ie -Co ne , 2009; Resquie -Desja din, 2010)
cla i ied ha LAFS di e om he no ion o clus e s
in h ee espec s (Pecqueu , 2013; quo ing Muchnick,
2002): a) he c ea ion o ex e nali ies ela ed o he
densi y o i ms loca ed in a place, and he p oximi y
be ween ac o s; b) he p esence o skills, wo k ela ions,
and he know-how o indi iduals and companies which
a e ounded on a common his o y and ansmi ed in
collec i e knowledge, p ac ices, ules and ep esen a-
ions; c) he me hods o egula ion, based on a collec-
i e o ganisa ion as speci ic esou ce o he sys em, and
a sou ce o s abilisa ion and ep oduc ion. Ano he el-
e an di e ence is he ela ionship wi hin he e i o y
unde pinning LAFS, compa ed o he concep o Sys-
ème P oduc i Localisé (SPL) and Indus ial Dis ic (ID)
o he F ench li e a u e (Cou le , 2008). In SPLs and IDs,
he concen a ion o economic ac i i ies in a ela i ely
small a ea is emphasized. Con e sely, in LAFS, Resqui-
e -Desja dins (2010: 14) says ha : “ he no ion o geo-
g aphic concen a ion, because o he dispe sion inhe en
o u al e i o ies, mus be ela i ised: he spa ial bound-
a ies o he SYAL can be wide and some imes conce n
an en i e egion, o simply some mic o-a eas in a egion,
cons i u ing an a chipelago e i o y […]. Mo eo e , i he
link o u ali y con ibu es o de ining he ela ionship
wi h he e i o y, he e i o y belonging o SYAL is no
necessa ily exclusi ely u al: he ci ies may be pa o he
e i o y o a SYAL and play a pi o al ole […]”.
Relaxing he geog aphic concen a ion is pa icula -
ly ele an o he wo p ocessing oma o supply chains
examined in his s udy, bo h widesp ead in a e y la ge
e i o y and no elying on speci ici ies linked o PDOs
o GPIs, bu on o he ypes o p oduc ion sus ainabili y-
ela ed quali ica ions.
Go e nance o he supply chain has always been a
he cen e o he esea ch on localised sys ems, no a-
bly unde he LAFS concep ual ca ego y. Go e nance
is deemed c ucial o pu sue s a egies o compe i i e-
ness, esou ce sus ainabili y and conse a ion o e ime.
De ini ions o go e nance in he li e a u e conce ning
he localised sys ems imply di e en componen s: a) he
no ion o e i o ial esou ces in ol ed in he go e n-
ance p ocess; b) he objec i es/ou pu s o go e nance; c)
he coo dina ion o ele an ac o s; d) he mul iple le els
in ol ed.
Rega ding he no ion o e i o ial esou ces, i
is common o conside he conce ned “ e i o y” as
a b oad “sou ce o esou ces” (Muchnik e al., 2008),
whe e di e en esou ces a e included (social, cul u al,
na u al, e c.). O he au ho s p e e o dis inguish gene -
ic esou ces and speci ic asse s o he conce ned sys-
em (e.g. soil, quali y cha ac e is ics, speci ic skills and
know-how, geog aphic iden i y, e c.) (Pe ie -Co ne ,
2009; Pecqueu , 2013). To es Salcido, Muchnik (2012)
e e o “a collec i e ac ion on app op ia ion and building
o angible and in angible e i o ial he i age”.
Go e nance implies he achie emen o di e en
objec i es. Some au ho s poin ou he alue app op ia-
ion o e i o ial esou ces and he well-being associa ed
wi h hei alo isa ion (To es Salcido, Muchnick, 2012).
Objec i es also include p omo ing p oduc ion and con-
sump ion ha a e less ha m ul o na u al and cul u al
di e si y.
The coo dina ion o di e en collec i e ac o s is a
c ucial componen o he concep o go e nance. Much-
nik e al. (2008) iden i y go e nance wi h me hods and
ules allowing mo e s able coo dina ion o indi idual
and collec i e ac o s. To es Salcido, Muchnick (2012)
pu mo e emphasis on he ole o go e nance mecha-
nisms wi hin he LAFS, de ining an ideal ype o LAFS
as “an ag i- ood sys em (p oduc ion/ ans o ma ion/se -
ices) in a speci ic e i o y in which ac o s y o se up
coo dina ion and collabo a ion p ocesses in pa ne ship
e ms, wi h in e nal managemen and egula ion bu wi h
s ong ies o public manage s and companies”. Besides
coo dina ion, Pecqueu (2003) poin s ou go e nance
as a dynamic p ocess leading o media ion o in e -
18 F ancesco Man ino, Ba ba a Fo cina
es s (“ins i u ional comp omise”) be ween public and
economic ac o s ( a me s, p ocesso s, se ice p o id-
e s and ma ke ing ope a o s). I is pa icula ly ele an
whe e ac o s wi h e y di e en powe s and o en con-
lic ing s a egies compe e o dis ibu e he alue-added
achie ed a he local le el. Powe ela ions wi hin he
supply chain can di e acco ding o he sec o and he
capaci y o con ol he p oduc ion speci ici ies and asse s
o he chain. Acco ding o Pe ie -Co ne (2009), he
s abili y o LAFS o e ime s ongly depends on a mini-
mum powe balance among he ac o s managing he e -
i o ial asse s and hei capaci ies o ac i a e hese asse s.
The p esence o P oduce s O ganisa ions (POs) a ou s
he inc ease o he alue added o p oduc ions o hei
associa es and pe mi s he collec i e ep esen a ion o
a me s’ in e es s. P oduce s, in ac , a e in compe i ion
wi h each o he bu a e also in a weak posi ion ela i e
o he ood indus y and comme cial ope a o s. How-
e e , as POs may also ha bou ine iciencies (especially
in he absence o di ec comme cializa ion), a ai e sup-
ply chain would equi e he p esence o In e -B anch
O ganisa ions (IBOs) o coo dina e he di e en ac o s/
s eps by acili a ing he dialogue and p omo ing good
p ac ices and ma ke anspa ency.
Like in he case o Local Ac ion G oups o he
LEADER and Ope a ional G oups o he Eu opean
Inno a ion Pa ne ships (EIP-AGRI), “in e media e local
bodies” play a ele an ole in b oke ing ini ia i es o
he u al popula ion and policy deli e y. We hypo hesize
ha IBOs can play a simila ole by ensu ing coo dina-
ion o he supply chain ac o s and ela ions wi h o he
e i o ial ac o s.
The no ion o go e nance also in ol es conside -
ing he b oade ela ions o he supply chain wi hin he
e i o y ( e i o ial go e nance). Te i o ial go e n-
ance is ecei ing p og essi ely mo e a en ion due o he
inc easingly mul i unc ional na u e o ag i- ood chains
and he linkages o he supply chains wi h o he sec o s,
na u al esou ces, in as uc u es and popula ion ac i i-
ies (Muchnik e al., 2008; Pecqueu , 2003). I means ha
supply chain ac i i ies can ha e posi i e and nega i e
ela ions wi h municipal/ egional au ho i ies, esea ch
and aining ins i u ions, ci ic associa ions, egional
de elopmen agencies, ins i u ions egula ing access o
labou ma ke s, e c. Good ne wo ks wi h all hese agen s
can bene i , de eloping a sus ainable and compe i i e
supply chain. Mo eo e , analysing local ie s always leads
us o disco e he impo ance o mul i-le el ela ionships
and he ole o ex e nal ne wo ks (wi h egional/na ional
ins i u ions, o he a eas, e c.) (Man ino, 2021).
Coope a ion ne wo ks and collabo a i e o ms o
go e nance ep esen c ucial adap a ion mechanisms
o ex e nal changes. In ecen esea ch unded wi h-
in he Ho izon Eu ope amewo k p ojec RUSTIK
(Ru al Sus ainabili y h ough In eg a ion o Knowl-
edge o Imp o ed Policy P ocess), Man ino e al. (2023)
e iewed a se ies o s udies explo ing how local sys ems
ha e di e en capaci ies o espond o shocks, isks and
oppo uni ies. The policy sys em can in luence ansi ion
p ocesses in di e en ways: by de ining a se o goals
(i.e., en i onmen al goals o be eached by a ce ain
pe iod), and/o implemen ing egula ions, incen i es
and ad ice/in o ma ion campaigns which aim o acili-
a e and enable ansi ion possibili ies and pa hways,
e c. Likewise, local sys ems ha e di e en capaci ies
o comply wi h and use policy ansi ion goals, incen-
i es and egula o y ools. In ou app oach, he main
hypo hesis o esea ch is ha LAFS a e able o ace he
ele an ansi ions h ough he capabili y o se ing up
be e con ac ual ela ions wi hin he supply chain and
be ween he ac o s o he supply chain and o he e i o-
ial ac o s.
Figu e 1 illus a es he heo e ical amewo k ol-
lowed in his s udy. The ocus is on mechanisms o
esponse o challenges and oppo uni ies o ansi ions.
In pa icula , he analysis ied o dis inguish be ween
indi idual esponses p o ided by single ac o s (like p o-
cessed oma o indus ies) and collec i e esponses by
coali ions o ac o s. In his ega d, his analysis ocuses
on hose ins i u ions ha ha e he capaci y o medi-
a e be ween con as ing in e es s. Collec i e esponses,
in his me hodological app oach, seek o ac i a e wha
Camagni, Capello (2013) call “ e i o ial capi al”: “In a
gene al bu compac de ini ion, e i o ial capi al may
be seen as he se o localised asse s – na u al, human,
a i icial, o ganiza ional, ela ional and cogni i e – ha
cons i u e he compe i i e po en ial o a gi en e i o y”
(p. 1387).
In his s age o he esea ch, gi en he complex-
i y o disen angling all he e i o ial capi al compo-
nen s, he in es iga ion o collec i e esponses ocused
on he analysis o how local ac o s ound new go e n-
ance a angemen s and ac i a e hei policy ne wo ks o
ace he ansi ion challenges. The cons uc ion p ocess
o hese collec i e esponses, as desc ibed in Sec ion 4,
was no achie ed in a sho pe iod bu has aken place
o e a long ime, s ongly in luenced by he e olu ion o
he Common Ag icul u al Policy. Howe e , he esponse
mechanism equi es he media ion o in e es s and he
c ea ion o new coali ions among s akeholde s wi h di -
e en unc ions along he supply chain and he conse-
quen se ing up o go e nance a angemen s ensu ing
an imp o emen o he gene al well-being.
19
The go e nance o ansi ions in ag i- ood sys ems: e idence om he p ocessing oma o supply chains in Spain and I aly
3. MATERIALS AND METHODS:
DATA COLLECTION AND GENERAL
CHARACTERISATION OF SUPPLY CHAINS
To espond o he esea ch ques ions, his s udy
en isaged an ex ensi e collec ion o in o ma ion abou
he supply chains’ in e nal s uc u e and hei a i udes
and capabili ies o espond o ansi ion challenges. In
he pe iod 2011-2022 compe i i eness and esilience o
ag i- ood sys ems ha e been p o oundly challenged by
clima e change and in e na ional ins abili y (in 2020-
2022, mainly ela ed o he COVID-19 pandemic). Da a
collec ion conce ned: a) he s uc u e o p ocessed oma-
o p oduc ion; b) he deg ee o di e en ia ion o oma o
p oduc ion; c) he olume and composi ion o expo s
owa ds Eu opean and in e na ional ma ke s; d) he sup-
ply chain o ganisa ion (impo ance o coope a ion, ypes
o economic ope a o s a he di e en le els, ypes o
con ac s, ela ionship wi h ma ke s).
In o ma ion is no always a ailable om cu en
ins i u ional sou ces and had o be collec ed h ough an
ex ensi e analysis o di e en sou ces a he in e na ion-
al le el (i.e., Wo ld P ocessing Toma o Cong ess, Toma o
News, e c.), na ional and local (Minis y o Ag icul u e,
Regional S a is ics, o ganisa ions ep esen a i e o he
supply chain, cu en publica ions, websi es o oma o
indus ies, e c.). Mo e speci ic in o ma ion has been
ga he ed in he wo a eas (No he n I aly and Ex em-
adu a), no ably by o ganisa ions ep esen a i e o he
supply chain (In e -B anch O ganiza ion o P ocessed
Toma o o No he n I aly, and Cen o Tecnòlogico
Nacional Ag oalimen a io Ex emadu a ‒ CTAEX and
Mesa del Toma e o Ex emadu a). This in o ma ion
has been complemen ed by in e iews wi h ele an local
s akeholde s aiming o gain insigh s in o cu en s a e-
gies/p ojec s add essed o he main ansi ion challenges.
Following a p elimina y desk analysis, online semi-
s uc u ed in e iews wi h local expe s ha e been
o ganised on he ollowing opics: a) he o ganisa ion
o he supply chain; b) he ole o bodies esponsible o
managemen o in e -b anch ela ionships; c) numbe o
ope a o s in each supply chain and hei ju idical na u e
(p i a e/coope a i e); d) o mal and in o mal ela ions o
coope a ion/collabo a ion wi hin he supply chain and
in he b oade e i o y; e) cu en and u u e s a egies/
p ojec s ega ding esea ch, knowledge exchange and
ma ke s, which ha e been p omo ed by collec i e ac ions
in he single supply chain.
In o ma ion ega ding he IBO o No he n I aly
has been collec ed wi hin he amewo k o he Ho izon
Eu ope esea ch p ojec RUSTIK. Rega ding Ex ema-
du a, da a ha e been ga he ed h ough a complemen a y
desk analysis and in e iews o achie e compa able in o -
Figu e 1. Mechanisms o esponse a e i o ial le el o he ansi ion challenges and oppo uni ies: a heo e ical amewo k.
Sou ce: ea anged by au ho s om Man ino e al., 2023.
20 F ancesco Man ino, Ba ba a Fo cina
ma ion as a as possible. Da a collec ion equi ed a pa -
allel wo k o ha monisa ion o ensu e obus compa abil-
i y o indica o s. Ne e heless, ha monisa ion some imes
u ned ou o be un easible because o huge di e ences in
a ailable basic in o ma ion and da abases a he na ional/
egional le el. T iangula ion be ween o icial da a sou c-
es, speci ic da a a he local le el and in e iews allowed
easonable compa isons o be made, indispensable o
he pu pose o his wo k, hough o en no comple ely
exhaus i e. Limi a ions in analysing da a come om he
g anula i y o in o ma ion needed o make compa isons
a he local/ e i o ial le el. LAFS o en canno be iden-
i ied wi hin he cu en adminis a i e uni s ( egion/
p o ince), and his equi es ha esea che s collec di ec
in o ma ion on he g ound o use a ailable in o ma ion
a he lowe le el o g anula i y (LAU, municipal). These
limi a ions hold ue, pa icula ly o economic da a
(p oduc ion and expo /impo ).
The supply chain o No he n I aly co e s ou
egions (Emilia-Romagna, Lomba dy, Piedmon and
Vene o) (Figu e 2), abou 38,000 hec a es (a e age 2020-
2022) unde oma o p oduc ion, 2,000 p oduce s and 21
p ocessing i ms, almos 3 million ons o oma o p o-
cessed in pas e (concen a e), pulps and pu ee ep esen -
ing 58% o he coun y’s p ocessed oma o and 25% o
he Eu opean p oduc ion. Al hough he p oduc ion a ea
is qui e la ge (Figu e 2), he e is a concen a ion in he
Emilia-Romagna egion, no ably in he p o inces o Pia-
cenza, Pa ma and Fe a a.
The supply chain o Ex emadu a is mo e geog aphi-
cally limi ed since i co e s wo p o inces (Badajoz and
Cace es) (Figu e 3), wi h 60% o o al p oduc ion concen-
a ed in six municipali ies. I accoun s o abou 22,000
hec a es unde oma o (a e age 2020-2022), abou 1,000
p oduce s and 14 companies p ocessing 1.9 million ons
o oma o (62% o he Spanish oma o p oduc ion).
4. ANALYSIS OF THE SUPPLY CHAINS
This sec ion aims o espond o he i s wo ques-
ions conce ning he di e ences be ween he wo e i o-
ialised ag i- ood chains and he supply chain’s o gani-
sa ion and go e nance a angemen s e ec s on hei
capabili y o compe e.
4.1. The e olu ion o o ganisa ional o ms o he p ocess-
ing oma o supply chain: he cases o No he n I aly and
Ex emadu a.
The e olu ion o supply chains in he wo a eas is
qui e di e se, bu wi h some ele an common ea u es.
The o igins o he No he n-I alian supply chain can
be aced back o he beginning o wen ie h cen u y,
hanks o he de elopmen o ag onomic p ac ices and
echnologies, he bi h o he i s p ocessing company
in 1906 (in 1912 hey became en) and he c ea ion o a
widesp ead a m ad iso y sys em (implemen ed by a m
ad iso s g ouped in associa ions called Comizi ag a i –
Ag a ian Commi ees – and Ca ed e ambulan i – I in-
e an P o esso ships). Technological inno a ion in he
oma o dis ic has been subs an ially p omo ed and
suppo ed by wo Expe imen al Fa ms (“Vi o io Tadi-
ni” se up in he a ea o Piacenza in 1928 and “S ua d”
ope a ing in he a ea o Pa ma since 1847) and he
Expe imen al S a ion o he Food P ese a ion Indus y
(SSICA) es ablished in Pa ma in 1922. The o ganisa ion
o he oma o dis ic (see sec ion 4.2) has g own in he
di ec ion o LAFS, os e ed by ac o s like geog aphi-
cal p oximi y, sense o owne ship, common in e es s,
sha ed alues and ules, exchange o in o ma ion and
knowledge, e c. (Canali, 2012; Giacomini, Mancini, 2012;
A ini e al., 2007). The local de elopmen p ocess has
in ol ed he b oade indus ial sys em since a pa allel
g ow h o he p ocessing machine y indus y has aken
place, allowing be e conse a ion o he nu i ional and
heal hy quali a i e ea u es o p ese ed oma o (Sand-
ei e al., 2022). The bi h o he Expe imen al S a ion
was p omo ed a ha ime by indus ial companies o
enhance he quali y o oma o p oduc ion in he con ex
o ising demand om na ional ma ke s.
The supply chain in Ex emadu a has mo e ecen
o igins. The i s p ocessing oma o companies we e se
Figu e 2. The p ocessed oma o p oduc ion a ea in No he n I aly
(hec a es, 2022).
Sou ce: In e -B anch O ganisa ion o P ocessed Toma o o No h-
e n I aly.
21
The go e nance o ansi ions in ag i- ood sys ems: e idence om he p ocessing oma o supply chains in Spain and I aly
up in he ea ly 1970s and g ew hanks o se e al ac-
o s. The egion had been p e iously well-equipped wi h
wa e ese oi s and i iga ion in as uc u es. Toma o
p oduc ion de eloped in he Guadiana Ri e Basin in
he 1960s hanks o abundan wa e esou ces, so ha
he i iga ed a ea eached abou 110,000 hec a es. Toma-
o could also bene i om he a ou able d y and wa m
clima e o he a ea and inc easing Eu opean demand.
Access o he Eu opean Communi y in 1986 and ex e -
nal in es men s om mul ina ional i ms igge ed he
g ow h o he oma o indus y (Uni e sidad de Ex em-
adu a, 1987). The de elopmen o he supply chain
has been e en mo e signi ican in he las wo decades
hanks o subs an ial p i a e in es men s and con inu-
ous CAP suppo .
CAP’s ole ga e impe us o he supply chain in bo h
a eas. Bo h I alian and Spanish li e a u e poin ou his
ole in h ee di e en u ning poin s.
The i s u ning poin , called “g ow h h ough p o-
duc ion expansion”, was ini ia ed in 1978 by he c ea ion
o he suppo egime o he p ocessed oma o (Com-
mission Regula ion No 1515/781), en isaging a pay-
1 Eu opean Commission (1978). Commission Regula ion (EEC) No
1515/78 o 30 June 1978 ixing o he 1978/79 ma ke ing yea he
men pe on o esh oma o deli e ed o he p ocess-
ing indus y, and a minimum p ice se by he Eu opean
Commission (EC). This sys em was based on con ac s
be ween p ima y p oduce s and p ocesso s, o b ing
abou ma ke s abili y o a ce ain pe iod and income
s abili y o p oduce s.
In he second u ning poin , he EC e ised his
sys em since huge ma ke imbalances we e inc easingly
gene a ed by p oduc ion su pluses. In his pe iod, called
“g ow h h ough p oduc ion a ionalisa ion”, he EC se
coun y p oduc ion quo as (Council Regula ions No
2200/96 and No 2201/96 conce ning he F ui and Veg-
e ables Common Ma ke O ganisa ion2) a he p ocess-
ing indus y le el and deli e ed EU p ice suppo only
o hose indus ies s ipula ing con ac s wi h P oduce
O ganisa ions, which became he di ec bene icia ies o
amoun o p oduc ion aid o oma o concen a es, peeled oma oes,
oma o juice, peaches in sy up and p unes and he minimum p ice paid
o p oduce s, ELI: h ps://da a.eu opa.eu/eli/ eg/1978/1515/oj.
2 Eu opean Council (1996). Council Regula ion (EC) No 2200/96 o 28
Oc obe 1996 on he common o ganisa ion o he ma ke in ui and
ege ables. ELI: h ps://da a.eu opa.eu/eli/ eg/1996/2200/oj; Eu opean
Council (1996). Council Regula ion (EC) No 2201/96 o 28 Oc obe
1996 on he common o ganiza ion o he ma ke s in p ocessed ui and
ege able p oduc s. ELI: h ps://da a.eu opa.eu/eli/ eg/1996/2201/oj.
Figu e 3. The p ocessed oma o p oduc ion a ea in Ex emadu a: municipali ies (le ) and ela i e dis ibu ion o su ace and p oduc ion by
municipali y ( igh ) (2020).
Sou ce: Alda Bueno S. (2021) (pp. 37-39).
22 F ancesco Man ino, Ba ba a Fo cina
suppo . This new egime ga e u he impe us o he
di usion o POs, concen a ion o indus ial ins alla-
ions and inc easing p oduc i e capaci y o he emain-
ing indus ies.
The hi d u ning poin (“g ow h h ough be e go -
e nance”), was shaped by he F ui and Vege ables Com-
mon Ma ke O ganisa ion (CMO) e o m and he decou-
pling o di ec suppo , pu o wa d by he Fishle ’s Com-
mission (2007), ha mean a deep e ision o he sec o .
The decoupling mechanism implied a educ ion o EU
suppo and ma ke s abilisa ion h ough in e -b anch
ag eemen s and coope a ion. The agg ega ion o oma-
o p oduce s in o POs had al eady s a ed in he 2000s,
when p oduce s and p ocesso s associa ions o malised
in e -b anch con ac s o se g an ed quan i y o p od-
uc s, e e ence p ice and quali a i e cha ac e is ics o he
annual campaign. In his phase, he ins i u ional no el y
was an in e media e body o ensu e he good unc ioning
o in e -b anch ela ions. In No he n I aly, a i s in e -
b anch associa ion ( he Dis ic o p ocessed oma o o
No he n I aly) was se up by POs and p ocessing indus-
ies in he p o inces o Pa ma, Piacenza and C emona
jus in he yea o CMO e o m (2007). In he subse-
quen ou yea s, he dis ic a ea was ex ended o o he
No he n I alian p o inces and wen beyond he Emilia-
Romagna egion by including POs and oma o indus ies
o Lomba dy, Piedmon and Vene o. In 2011, his asso-
cia ion was ans o med in o an In e -B anch O ganisa-
ion (IBO), o mally acknowledged by Emilia-Romagna
Region and hen app o ed by he Eu opean Commission.
In Ex emadu a, ela ions be ween oma o g owe s
and p ocesso s we e handled by he “Comisiòn In e p o-
essional Te i o ial del Toma o pa a Indus ia”, se up
in 1992 as a go e nmen al agency o con ol and moni-
o he ul ilmen o in e -b anch con ac s. In 2001,
i was eo ganised and became he Associa ion “Mesa
del Toma e” (Toma o Bu eau), g ouping POs, coop-
e a i es and p ocessing indus ies, mainly in cha ge o
quali y con ol o oma o deli e ed o indus ies and
ocusing on comme cial aspec s and on pes icide esi-
dues (Lle ena Ruiz e al., 2021). Nowadays, all p ocess-
ing oma o p oduce s belong o POs, a e a ilia ed wi h
Mesa del Toma e and bene i om he scheme. The Mesa
del Toma e has been managing in e -b anch con ac s
(quan i y, e e ence p ice and quali a i e cha ac e is ics)
and media ing be ween he di e en pa ne s (B an-
hôme, 2017). Ex emadu a shows a pa allel p ocess o
di usion o POs linked o he CMO e o m. Coope a-
i es, ei he indi idually o as associa ions o coope a-
i es (Coope a i as Ag o-Alimen a ias Ex emadu a,
o me ly named Unión Ex emeña de Coope a i as
Ag a ias – Unexca) ha e also applied o be acknowl-
edged as POs. The bi h o he coope a i e p ocessing
indus y in Ex emadu a is, howe e , mo e ecen han
in No he n I aly (2002-2003).
In conclusion, he CAP suppo and ela ed e o ms
had a subs an ial ole in accompanying and in luencing
he economic and ins i u ional dynamics o he oma o
sec o in bo h egions.
The o ganisa ion o supply chains is summa ised in
Figu e 4 (No he n I aly) and Figu e 5 (Ex emadu a).
Based on quali a i e analysis o he exis ing li e a u e
and in e iews wi h expe s and local s akeholde s, hese
igu es ou line he main componen s o he wo supply
chains unde analysis ( ep esen ed in he g ey a eas o
he wo igu es) and ela ions3 wi h o he ac o s in he
b oade e i o ial con ex (g een a eas).
In 2022, he main ac o s o he I alian supply chain
a e a me s and coope a i es, g ouped in 12 POs, and
21 p ocessing indus ies, pa ly coope a i e and pa ly
p i a e, ha ing di ec ela ions wi h o eign and na ion-
al ma ke s. The IBO is a media o and bonding agen
be ween he chain’s ac o s. A key ini ial ole o c ea e IBO
was played by he p o ince o Pa ma. The impo ance o
non-sec o al ac o s is wi nessed also by he inclusion o
local au ho i ies and esea ch and aining bodies among
IBO’s associa es and Ad iso y Boa d. Resea ch and expe -
imen al ins i u ions ha e always been accompanying ech-
nological and ag onomic enhancemen bo h in ag icul-
u al p ac ices and indus ial p ocessing. Th ee esea ch
cen es ( wo expe imen al a ms and one expe imen al
s a ion o ood p ocessing indus ies) and he Ag icul u e
Depa men s o he local Uni e si ies (Pa ma and Piacen-
za) cu en ly implemen ield ials on new oma o cul i-
a s, mo e sus ainable plan -p o ec ion ea men s, ain-
ing and ad iso y ac i i ies, and a b oade ange o indus-
ial esea ch om he i s p ocessing o inno a i e pack-
aging ma e ials and by-p oduc ecycling. The ne wo ks
be ween he IBO and egional esea ch and expe imen al
cen es a e o en s uc u ed h ough speci ic esea ch p o-
jec s, unde he o m o Eu opean Inno a ion Pa ne -
ships (EIP-Ag i) unded by u al de elopmen measu es.
B oade ne wo ks wi hin he a ea also include I iga-
ion and Reclama ion Conso ia ope a ing ac oss he i e
Po Valley, which ha e been o malised h ough speci ic
p o ocols o unde s anding, no ably o manage he oma o
i iga ion needs in he peak season. Beyond o mal ela-
ionships, equen mee ings and day-by-day con ac s wi h
wa e au ho i ies a e unc ional o ad ocacy ini ia i es
aiming o in luence he egional policies o wa e in a-
s uc u es. Two- hi ds o he cul i a ion and mos o he
3 Rela ions ha e no been measu ed as ega ds he in ensi y since, a his
s age o he esea ch, he main objec i e was unde aking an in en o y
o main ac o s and unde s anding hei ole in he supply chain.
29
The go e nance o ansi ions in ag i- ood sys ems: e idence om he p ocessing oma o supply chains in Spain and I aly
men al cen es suppo a me s in using DSS (Decision
Suppo Sys ems), such as senso echnology, wea he
s a ions and o he inno a i e de ices, o inc ease e i-
ciency in moni o ing and using i iga ion wa e . In his
ega d, he IBO seeks o oice he p oblems o he supply
chain and ad oca e policy in e en ions (like es uc u -
ing i iga ion ne wo ks o c ea ing new ese oi s). IBO
policy ne wo ks ha e been ac i a ed o mobilise a ailable
unds a egional and na ional le el ( he Ru al De elop-
men Plan in Emilia-Romagna and he Na ional Resil-
ience and Reco e y Plan). In conclusion, he IBO con-
nec s he supply chain ac o s wi h e i o ial and policy
ne wo ks beyond he sec o al bo de s. In Ex emadu a,
he go e nance o wa e sho age emains wi hin he
sec o al bo de s: i iga ion associa ions (comunidades
de egan es) annually ag ee wi h POs on he quan i y o
land ha can be i iga ed in he case o wa e sca ci y.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The i s objec i e o his pape was an unde s and-
ing o he na u e o he wo Local Ag i-Food Sys ems.
Th ough a compa a i e analysis, his s udy ocuses on
he impo ance o in e -b anch ela ions o wo supply
chains in he p ocessed oma o sec o . P ocessed oma o
supply chains o Ex emadu a and No he n I aly ep-
esen wo di e en examples o in e -b anch o ganisa-
ion wi hin Eu opean ag i- ood p oduc ion and di e -
si ied ela ions be ween he supply chain and e i o ial
de elopmen . The social and economic ele ance o hese
supply chains and hei ela ionships wi h he b oade
e i o y make us analyse hem unde he concep ual
ca ego y o LAFS. Despi e signi ican di e ences in o i-
gins and socio-economic his o y, hese wo LAFS show
se e al simila i ies in he de elopmen pa e n, and he
capaci y o compe e wi h o he p ominen in e na ional
p oduce s, like China and Cali o nia. In he change p o-
cess, CAP’s ole was o accompany he apid g ow h and
os e o ganisa ional adjus men s h ough he di usion
o POs and in e -b anch con ac s.
The ole o sec o al and e i o ial ac o s can
explain he di e en compe i i eness and esponse o
change and ansi ion in he wo a eas. The go e nance
solu ions ha e indeed been qui e di e en . S ill, in bo h
cases, he in e -b anch go e nance ensu ed a clima e o
coope a ion, p ice s abili y and be e condi ions o p i-
ma y p oduce s.
Demog aphic and socioeconomic mac o- ends and
clima e and digi al changes in he las decade ha e c e-
a ed new challenges o local sys ems. Likewise, hese
sys ems ha e di e en capaci ies o comply wi h and use
policy ansi ion goals, incen i es and egula o y ools
in oduced ecen ly by he EU G een Deal and ela ed
s a egies. This s udy sough o unde s and how he wo
a eas ha e been esponding o ansi ions by ocusing
on coope a ion ne wo ks and go e nance, ac o s which
au ho s like Camagni, Capello (2013) include in he
b oade concep o e i o ial capi al. Coope a ion has
been de eloped wi hin he supply chain (sec o al go -
e nance) and he b oade e i o y ( e i o ial go e n-
ance). This s udy con i ms he impo ance o bo h go -
e nance le els bu concludes ha e i o ial go e nance
becomes inc easingly essen ial as ansi ions in ol e
challenges ha o e come ag o-indus ial bo de s.
Demog aphic change’s in luences on he labou ma ke ,
and wa e managemen o inc easingly sca ce esou ces
due o clima e change, e c., canno be aced only wi hin
he supply chain’s ac o s and need he in ol emen o
la ge social and poli ical ne wo ks.
Fu he mo e, his s udy highligh s he ele ance o
sys emic esponses, a he han indi idual ones (pe -
o med by single economic ope a o s). This becomes
possible when he in e media e body c ea ed o go -
e n in e -b anch ela ions shows capabili ies o ake on
wide challenges and unde ake cohe en ini ia i es.
In p ac ice, he o e a ching in e -b anch o ganisa ion,
despi e i s na u e being mainly p i a e, plays a public
ole by ac ing in he mo e gene al in e es o he local
communi y and gene a es imma e ial public goods
( us and coope a i e a i udes). This in e media y body
wo ks as a igge o u he supply chain consolida ion
and compe i i eness achie emen s.
These conclusions p o ide ele an elemen s o pol-
icy design in e ms o how o os e /acknowledge IBOs
as e ec i e change agen s, unde lying he impo ance o
suppo ing sys emic esponses h ough public incen i es
ha also co e ansac ion cos s o in e media e bod-
ies. I should be ecalled ha CAP ins umen s (no a-
bly he Ru al De elopmen Policy) suppo he c ea ion
and unning cos s o local de elopmen agencies (i.e.,
he Local Ac ion G oups o LEADER ini ia i e and he
Ope a ional G oups o he Eu opean Inno a ion Pa -
ne ships). S ill, CMO egula ions o esee no simila sup-
po o in e -b anch o ganisa ions, despi e hei el-
e an ole in p omo ing local p ojec s, ad ising ele an
ac o s and b oke ing among local s akeholde s. Fu he -
mo e, among he sys emic long- e m ac ions, esea ch
and knowledge ans e in es men s may b ing highe
added alue han ex emely dispe sed subsidies o a m-
e s (Beck e al., 2020). This s udy has shown ha in e -
b anch o ganisa ions a e also p oac i e in p omo ing
p ojec s in line wi h ansi ion challenges and pa icipa -
ing di ec ly wi h hem.
30 F ancesco Man ino, Ba ba a Fo cina
Finally, he e a e also ele an implica ions o u u e
esea ch, in e ms o need o combine quan i a i e and
quali a i e app oaches o he s udy o localised ag i- ood
chains and de ine app op ia e go e nance indica o s
a e i o ial le el. Go e nance indica o s a e no a new
opic in he li e a u e on e i o ial de elopmen (see, o
example, he case o he LEADER app oach), bu u he
e o s should be add essed o ex end indica o s o ela-
ions be ween supply chains and local e i o ies. Di e -
en ial cha ac e is ics in e ms o in e -p o essional con-
ac s, policy ne wo ks, esea ch ne wo ks, ela ions wi h
o he ins i u ional ac o s (i.e., wa e managemen bodies),
e c. need o be be e de ined and quan i ied as compe i-
i eness ac o s o supply chain dis ic s.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND FUNDING
This a icle includes in o ma ion om one case
s udy conduc ed in No he n I aly as pa o he Ho i-
zon Eu ope p ojec RUSTIK (Ru al Sus ainabili y
h ough In eg a ion o Knowledge o Imp o ed Policy
P ocess).
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
F.M.: Concep ualiza ion, Me hodology, Supe i-
sion, P ojec adminis a ion, Funding Acquisi ion; B.F.:
Resou ces, Da a Cu a ion, Visualiza ion; F.M. and B.F.:
Fo mal analysis, In es iga ion, Valida ion, W i ing –
O iginal d a p epa a ion, W i ing- Re iewing and
Edi ing
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