Bilbao Ubillos, Ja ie ; Camino-Belda ain, Vicen e; In xau bu u-Clemen e, Gu u ze;
Velasco-Balmaseda, E a
A icle
Indus y 4.0, se i iza ion, and esho ing: A sys ema ic
li e a u e e iew
Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics (ERMBE)
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Eu opean Academy o Managemen and Business Economics (AEDEM), Vigo (Pon e ed a)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Bilbao Ubillos, Ja ie ; Camino-Belda ain, Vicen e; In xau bu u-Clemen e,
Gu u ze; Velasco-Balmaseda, E a (2024) : Indus y 4.0, se i iza ion, and esho ing: A sys ema ic
li e a u e e iew, Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics (ERMBE), ISSN
2444-8834, Else ie , Ams e dam, Vol. 30, Iss. 1, pp. 1-12,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.iedeen.2023.100234
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Indus y 4.0, se i iza ion, and esho ing: A sys ema ic li e a u e e iew
Ja ie Bilbao-Ubillos
a
,
*
, Vicen e Camino-Belda ain
b
, Gu u ze In xau bu u-Clemen e
c
,
E a Velasco-Balmaseda
d
a
Depa men o Applied Economics, Uni e sidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU), A da. Lehendaka i Agi e, 83, 48015, Bilbao, Spain
b
Depa men o Applied Economics, Uni e sidad del País Vasco (UPV/EHU), Plaza de O˜
na i, 1, 20018, Donos ia/ San Sebas i´
an, Spain
c
Depa men o Business O ganisa ion, Uni e sidad del País asco (UPV/EHU), Plaza de O˜
na i, 1, 20018, Donos ia/ San Sebas i´
an, Spain
d
Depa men o Business O ganisa ion, Uni e sidad del País asco (UPV/EHU), C/ Elcano, 21, 48008, Bilbao, Spain
ARTICLE INFO
JEL classi ica ion:
F02
O32
L60
R11
Keywo ds:
Indus y 4.0
Se i isa ion
Global alue chains
Re-sho ing
Li e a u e e iew
ABSTRACT
The goal o his li e a u e e iew is i s o all o help de ine, cha ac e ise and con ex ualise he phenomena ha
make up Indus y 4.0 (I4.0), he se i isa ion o manu ac u ing and e-sho ing; and secondly o explo e he s ong
in e ac ions be ween hem. We conduc a sys emic li e a u e e iew o iden i y, syn hesise, assess and in e p e
he indings o pas s udies o add ess he esea ch ques ion analysed he e. Indus y 4.0 echnologies (I4.0Ts),
and pa icula ly inc eased digi isa ion, has made o he con igu a ion o new business models and he se i i-
sa ion o he economy in he con ex o a new pa adigm o compe i ion. This digi al se i isa ion is conduci e o
ne wo king and enhances he ole o p oximi y. Toge he wi h o he concu en ac o s (changes in ela i e cos s,
agglome a ion economies, he skills and expe ise in da a managemen equi ed by I4.0Ts) his is a ou ing e-
sho ing. Technology is always p esen o a g ea e o lesse deg ee as an explana o y ac o in e-sho ing. The
inc easing cogni i e complexi y o echnical solu ions is enhancing p oximi y cons ain s. Mo e equen , mo e
in ense con ac s a e needed be ween cus ome s and supplie s in a p oduc ion se -up ha is inc easingly
cus omised.
1. In oduc ion
The p og essi e implemen a ion o Indus y 4.0 echnologies
(I4.0Ts), pa icula ly inc eased digi isa ion, and he se i isa ion o he
economy ha e made o he con igu a ion o new business models in he
con ex o a new pa adigm o compe i ion (Koh am¨
aki e al., 2022;
Weking e al., 2020). Digi al se i isa ion is g adually condi ioning
global alue chains (GVCs) (Koh am¨
aki e al., 2019; Vend ell-He e o
e al., 2017), and is conduci e o ne wo king as i enhances he ole o
p oximi y.
Coinciden ally, he ad en o I4.0Ts changes he cogni i e compo-
si ion o he echnology solu ions applied in indus y and gi es ise o
new echnology needs a p oduc ion plan s (Bilbao-Ubillos e al., 2023).
Those needs may o en en ail e i o ial cons ain s in e ms o access o
he new knowledge now needed o engage in p oduc ion e ealing he
ad an ages o clus e ing in he digi al age when ac o s look o ech-
nological expe ise and compe ences (Jankowska e al., 2021); and
se i isa ion also aises highly speci ic cogni i e issues wi h conse-
quences especially in e ms o e i o ial cons ain s. Thus, economic
geog aphic dimension becomes mo e ele an and eloca ion decisions
-among o he i m’s s a egies- can be expec ed. In ha con ex , ou
s udy hus seeks o de e mine he signi icance and scope o he ech-
nology elemen in explaining e-sho ing p ocesses.
Baines e al. (2009) de ine se i isa ion as “ he inno a ion o an o -
ganisa ion’s capabili ies and p ocesses o shi om selling p oduc s o
selling in eg a ed p oduc s-se ices o e ings ha deli e alue in use”.
Acco ding o Neely e al. (2011), se i isa ion can be summed up in i e
unde lying shi s: 1) om a p oduc -based wo ld o a solu ion-based
wo ld; (2) om p oduc s o esul s; (3) om ansac ions o ela ion-
ships; (3) om supplie s o ne wo k pa ne s; and (5) om elemen s o
ecosys ems.
Digi al se i isa ion desc ibes he con e gence o se i isa ion and
digi aliza ion (Gebaue e al., 2021). This con e gence pe mi s new
ways o alue c ea ion (Po e & Heppelmann, 2015). Digi al se i isa-
ion could hus be conside ed as he use o digi al echnologies o
ans o ma ion p ocesses by which a company mo es om a
p oduc -cen ic o a se ice-cen ic business model (Kowalkowski e al.,
2017).
* Co esponding au ho .
E-mail add ess: [email p o ec ed] (J. Bilbao-Ubillos).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Eu opean esea ch on managemen and business economics
jou nal homepage: www.else ie .es/e mbe
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j.iedeen.2023.100234
Recei ed 25 Sep embe 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 13 Decembe 2023; Accep ed 15 Decembe 2023
Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics 30 (2024) 100234
2
The e m e-sho ing has o do wi h he decision o eloca e
manu ac u ing ac i i ies p e iously mo ed ab oad back o he home
coun y o he pa en company (back-sho ing) (Kinkel e al., 2021), o a
loca ion close o he home coun y wi h simila cha ac e is ics (nea -
sho ing) (Ped ole i & Ciabuschi, 2023), o o ano he a away des i-
na ion ( u he o sho ing) (Elia & Renna, 2023). We use he e m
“ e-sho ing” he e o desc ibe in a sense equi alen o back-sho ing.
The e a e p e ious pape s ha conduc sys ema ic li e a u e e iews
(SLR) in he ield o digi al se i isa ion (Koh am¨
aki e al., 2019, 2022;
Kolaga e al., 2022; Ma con e al., 2022; Ma ín-Pe˜
na e al., 2018;
Paschou e al., 2020), bu none o hem co e s he opic o esho ing.
Simila ly, p e ious SLRs in he ield o esho ing (F a occhi e al., 2016,
2019; Wiesmann e al., 2017; Engs ¨
om e al., 2018; E iksson e al.,
2021) do no add ess digi al se i isa ion. Thus, we ind a ma ked
esea ch gap in he li e a u e: How may I4.0Ts and digi al se i isa ion
be a ec ing business decisions ega ding e-sho ing? Cosima o & Vona
(2021) is he only pape ha a gues ha I4.0Ts applied o indus ial
p ocesses and enginee ing applica ions, oge he wi h se i isa ion, can
con ibu e o he implemen a ion o sus ainable esho ing s a egies.
Since digi al se i isa ion is a ela i ely ecen , eme ging s eam o
s udy, an SLR in he ields o I4.0, se i isa ion and esho ing by pai s is
p oposed, gi en ha he link be ween digi al se i isa ion and esho ing
has no ye been explo ed by academic li e a u e. The li e a u e e iew
ca ied ou emphasises he impac s ha hese phenomena ha e on e -
i o ial dynamics wi hin he amewo k o he econ igu a ion o GVC
and answe s he ollowing esea ch ques ions:
RQ1: How has he academic li e a u e on I4.0 and se i isa ion
add essed he impac on e i o ial dynamics o da e?
RQ2: How has he in e sec ion o I4.0 and e-sho ing been add essed
in academic li e a u e o da e?
RQ3: How has he in e sec ion o se i isa ion and e-sho ing been
add essed in academic li e a u e o da e?
The es o he pape is o ganised as ollows. Sec ion 2 p esen s he
main concep s sough ou in he li e a u e e iew. Sec ion 3 looks a he
e iew me hodology. Sec ion 4 se s ou he main poin s o he pai wise
compa ison o concep s and summa ises he indings. Finally, Sec ion 5
discusses ou indings and se s ou ou conclusions.
2. Concep ual amewo k o he li e a u e e iew
2.1. The concep o Indus y 4.0
Acco ding o Kage mann e al. (2013, p. 14) Indus y 4.0 in ol es he
echnical in eg a ion o Cybe -Physical Sys ems (CPS) in o
manu ac u ing and logis ics and he use o he In e ne o Things (IoT)
and se ices in indus ial p ocesses. In his sense, I4.0 is an umb ella
concep o a b oad ange o echnologies and applica ions o be
implemen ed in ela ion o di e en cha ac e is ics and pe o mance
objec i es (Culo e al., 2020). F ank e al. (2019a) di ide I4.0Ts ac-
co ding o hei main objec i es in o on -end echnologies (Sma
Manu ac u ing, Sma P oduc s, Sma Supply Chain and Sma Wo k-
ing) and base echnologies (which include IoT, cloud se ices, big da a
and analy ics).
Al hough di e en e ms a e used o e e o his phenomenon
(“cloud manu ac u ing”, “sma manu ac u ing”, “in elligen
manu ac u ing”, e c.), he e a e commonali ies be ween hem (Culo
e al., 2020): (1) Key enabling echnologies, cha ac e ised by inc easing
digi alisa ion and connec i i y due o physical-digi al in e ace,
ne wo k, and da a-p ocessing echnologies and he key ole played by
he IoT and cloud compu ing; (2) Dis inc i e cha ac e is ics, which a e
he echnology p ope ies o i ualisa ion, eal- ime in o ma ion
sha ing, and au onomy, plus g ea e p ocess in eg a ion wi hin and
ac oss he company bounda ies, in e ope abili y and cybe secu i y so-
lu ions; (3) Possible ou comes, which mos ly ela e o highe
p oduc i i y and lexibili y, making mass cus omisa ion possible.
2.2. The concep o se i isa ion
The e m “se i isa ion” was coined by Vande me we & Rada (1988)
and means ansi ioning om he long-es ablished p ac ice o selling
p oduc s and basic suppo se ices o p o iding ad anced combina ions
o p oduc s and se ices so ha g ea e alue is p ocu ed o cus ome s
by, o example, p o iding a ailabili y. A concep closely linked o
se i isa ion is ha o p oduc -se ice sys ems (PSS). Tukke (2004)
en isages di e en o ms o PSS ha include p oduc -o ien ed se ices,
use-o ien ed se ices and esul -o ien ed se ices.
Neely (2013) sees se i isa ion as a jou ney o ans o ma ion o-
wa ds new ways o seeing he ela ionship be ween use s and supplie s
o asse s, based mo e on he p o ision o se ices han on he deli e y o
ac ual goods, gi ing ise o coope a ion be ween pa ies based on
long- e m con ac s.
2.3. The concep o e-sho ing
Mo e ecen ly, esea che s ha e de ec ed a numbe o i ms ha ha e
econside ed hei p e ious o sho ing decisions and eloca ed alue
chain ac i i ies, pa icula ly p oduc ion (Ped ole i & Ciabuschi, 2023).
As e-sho ing is closely linked o hei p e ious o sho ing decisions,
when po en ial bene i s o o sho ing such as a o able en i onmen ,
lea ning oppo uni ies, e iciency and lexibili y dec ease, i ms may
s a conside ing he op ion o b inging back ope a ions o hei home
coun y o egion in o de , o ins ance, o inc ease con ol, o se
loca ion p oblems o e en ob ain po en ial new bene i s om new pol-
icies a ge ing e-sho ing (Ped ole i & Ciabuschi, 2023).
Empi ical e idence con i ms ha hese p ocesses ha e been on he
inc ease in he pas 10 yea s (Dikle , 2021; Raza e al., 2021), and ha
la ge co po a ions and medium and high- echnology indus ies a e
mos likely o e-sho e (Raza e al., 2021). This means ha high-end,
echnology-in ensi e manu ac u ing which equi es he igh in a-
s uc u e, skilled wo ke s, in ellec ual p ope y sa egua ds and in e-
g a ed supply chains is inc easingly inding ha domes ic p oduc ion is
he leas expensi e, mos e icien op ion (Bol e & Robey, 2020). Thus,
he e is mo e and mo e discussion o he ulne abili y o GVCs, o he
end o p oduc ion and sales ne wo ks o egionalise mo e in he
con ex o “slowbalisa ion” (Raza e al., 2021) and o a egional eba-
lancing o some GVCs, esul ing in a mo e a ied, mo e sca e ed p o-
duc ion map (De Backe e al., 2016).
3. Me hodology: a sys ema ic li e a u e e iew
We conduc a sys emic li e a u e e iew (SLR) o iden i y, syn hesise,
assess and in e p e he indings o pas s udies and add ess he esea ch
ques ion analysed he e, i.e. how he academic li e a u e o da e on I4.0
and se i isa ion has add essed he ela ion be ween hese concep s and
esho ing p ocesses. The main alue added o his e iew is he classi-
ica ion o li e a u e, in e p e a ion o indings and iden i ica ion o
gaps.
The ield o esea ch add essed by his pape is b oad, and co e s
h ee main opics: I4.0, digi al se i isa ion and esho ing p ocesses. To
conduc a ho ough li e a u e e iew, we decided o spli ou sys emic
sea ch in o 3 esea ch ques ions (RQ1, RQ2 & RQ3) and ollow a pai -
wise analysis i s o e iew whe he academic li e a u e has add essed
each link, and second o analyse wha kind o link he e is.
We used a combina ion o s a egies o ca y ou a ho ough SLR. On
he one hand, we ollow he p ocedu es de ailed by Dekke s e al.
(2022), who se ou a mul idisciplina y guide o sys ema ic app oaches,
and he pape s o Ga ell & A ella (2024), Pucheanu e al. (2022) and
Reis e al. (2020), Rejeb e al. (2022), since hei SLRs also in ol e he
c oss oad be ween di e en concep s. On he o he hand, o iden i y
addi ional ele an publica ions, we also applied snowball and ci a ion
J. Bilbao-Ubillos e al.
Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics 30 (2024) 100234
3
sea ch p ocedu es. The SLR comp ises h ee s ages: planning and
implemen ing, analysis and classi ica ion and epo ing o esul s (A i
e al., 2021; Pucheanu e al., 2022; Reis e al., 2020; Rejeb e al., 2022).
In he i s s age, he li e a u e e iew planning p o ocol is es ab-
lished and implemen ed: he esea ch ques ions a e o mula ed, he key
wo ds and e ms chosen, he esea ch pe iod se , he sea ch da abases
selec ed, and inclusion and exclusion c i e ia es ablished.
Scopus and he Web o Science (WoS) we e selec ed o he SLR as
hey a e among he mos impo an scien i ic da abases and he docu-
men s con ained in hem a e pee - e iewed, which assu es hei quali y
(Rejeb e al., 2022). The sea ch was limi ed o publica ion da es om
2011, when he e m “Indus y 4.0
′
’ was i s coined o 2023. The e ms
en e ed in Topic/Keywo ds o da abase esea ch a e pai wise:
I. Pai : I4.0 & Se i iza ion (Se i isa ion);
II. Pai : I4.0 & Re/Back-sho ing/Nea sho ing; Sma manu ac u ing
& Re/Back-sho ing/Nea sho ing; Cloud manu ac u ing & Re/
Back-sho ing/ Nea sho ing;
III. Pai : Se i isa ion & Re/Back-sho ing/Nea sho ing; PSS & Re/
Back-sho ing/ Nea sho ing; Digi al Se i isa ion & Re/Back-
sho ing/Nea sho ing; Digi al Se i isa ion & Te i o ial dy-
namics; Se i isa ion & Te i o ial dynamics; PSS & Te i o ial
dynamics.
As inclusion c i e ia, “A icle”, “Book”, “Book chap e ”, and “Re iew
a icle” w i en in English we e conside ed, and Mee ing, Edi o ial
Ma e ial and Con e ence P oceeding we e excluded. Fo each documen ,
p elimina y ele ance was de e mined by i le, abs ac and keywo ds.
In his s age, duplica ed esul s we e ixed. I he pape passed his ini ial
examina ion, he ull e e ence was ob ained o u he assessmen in
he second s age.
In S age II, p elimina y analysis, we e iewed 287 documen s’ i le,
abs ac and keywo ds. Inclusion c i e ia being ele an & non-
edundan , 165 pape s we e selec ed o ull ex s eading and ex ac-
ed in o ma ion om pape s o c osschecking. The inclusion c i e ia
we e hei links o he main esea ch opic, ele ancy and non-
edundancy. In each pai wise analysis, we ocused on issues ela ed o
e i o ial dynamics, econ igu a ion o alue chains, supply chains,
echnology and p oximi y cons ain s, o include pape s di ec ly o
indi ec ly ela ed o esho ing p ocesses. Documen s no close o any o
hese ecu en opics we e excluded as i ele an : 122 in he p e-
limina y analysis and 34 in he ull ex eading.
As a complemen a y snowball and ci a ion e iew, we iden i ied an
ini ial se o pape s and assessed hei e e ences and ci a ions. These
pape s we e he ollowing en documen s: Ma ín-Pe˜
na e al., 2018
(ci ed 218); Paschou e al., 2020 (ci ed 337); Ma con e al., 2022 (ci ed
11); Koh am¨
aki e al., 2019 (ci ed 719) & 2022 (ci ed 41); Kolaga e al.,
2022 (ci ed 57), F a occhi & Di S e ano, 2019 (ci ed 54) & 2020 (ci ed
15); Wiesmann e al., 2017 (ci ed 245); and Cosima o & Vona, 2021
(ci ed 26). As a esul , we included 22 u he pape s o ead, and inally,
based on a ull eading decided o include 16 o hem.
The S age III o his SLR p ocess, epo ing, is summa ised in he
Fig. 1, and i s de elopmen and in-dep h analysis is p esen ed in he
ollowing sec ions o his a icle.
4. Resul s
4.1. RQ1: Indus y 4.0 and se i isa ion
Digi al echnologies a e encou aging manu ac u ing i ms o p ess
ahead wi h se i isa ion by speeding up he o e ing o in eg a ed
p oduc s and se ices in he c ea ion o new alue and by s eng hening
ela ionships wi h cus ome s in he e a o I4.0 (Pi ola e al., 2020) and a
he same ime enabling he implemen a ion o he ci cula economy
pa adigm in o businesses (A i e al., 2021; B essanelli e al., 2020;
Da id e al., 2021; Langley, 2022; Rejeb e al., 2022) and new business
models (Agos ini & Nosella, 2021; Chen e al., 2021; Koh am¨
aki e al.,
2019; Paiola & Gebaue , 2020; Weking e al., 2020).
Acco ding o Paiola & Gebaue (2020), da a ga he ing and analysis is
wha allows companies o de ise a se ies o se i ized alue p oposi ions
enabled by IoT ha a e a he base o he ede ini ions o he business
model. Sma connec ed p oduc s and i s gene a ed digi al se ices
cons i u e he undamen al composi ion o he Sma PSS, which un-
de ake an IT-d i en alue co-c ea ion manne o ul il cus ome needs
(Zheng e al., 2019). This esul s in e ms such as “digi al se i isa ion”,
which e e s o he p o ision o se ices enabled by ICTs, based on
Fig. 1. S ages and esul s o SLR.
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
J. Bilbao-Ubillos e al.
Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics 30 (2024) 100234
4
digi al componen s in eg a ed in o physical p oduc s (Vend ell-He e o
e al., 2017). The e o e, digi al se i isa ion could become he igge o
a ansi ion om p ope y-based o non-p ope y-based business
models, d i ing ad anced e enue models such as pay-pe -use, sub-
sc ip ion o sha ed use, in oducing a comple ely new alue cap u e
mechanism (Paiola & Gebaue , 2020) and es ablishing ecip ocal o -
mulas o sha ing isks and ewa ds be ween p o ide s and use s (Kamp
e al., 2017).
Digi al se i isa ion c ea es business model complexi ies, such as
con lic s be ween digi al and physical se ice o e ings, clashes be ween
new ecosys em pa ne ships and adi ional supply chain ela ionships,
o digi al e enue models and p oduc sale models (Chen e al., 2021).
The e idence sugges s ha a ious ca ego ies o compe encies allow o
di e en pa hs o digi al se i isa ion, bu ha success in digi al se i-
isa ion equi es an app op ia e mix o echnical, me hodological, pe -
sonal and social skills (Cimini e al., 2021).
In his sense, he ad en o digi al se i isa ion has c ea ed new
challenges in e ms o he capabili ies needed by companies, wi h
companies’ in e nal capabili ies, ecosys em- ela ed and ne wo king ca-
pabili ies playing an inc easing ole (Fa o e o e al., 2022; Münch e al.,
2022; Smania e al., 2022). Thus, digi al se i isa ion ans o ms he
business ecosys em, i s supply chains and business ela ionships (G an-
dine i e al., 2020). The e o e, digi isa ion no only a ec s he business
models o indi idual companies, bu also in ol es he alignmen o he
business models o o he companies wi hin he ecosys em (Koh am¨
aki
e al., 2019). Ad hoc p oduc ion ne wo ks and he in eg a ion o he
supply chain a e among he main d i e s o digi al se i isa ion
(Gaia delli e al., 2021), as he complexi y o digi al solu ions c ea es a
need o cus ome o ganisa ions o conside supplie s as s a egic pa -
ne s wo king side by side (Sj¨
odin, Kamalaldin, Pa ida, & Islam, 2023)
and in ense coope a ion be ween supplie s and (key and selec ed) cus-
ome s is a undamen al ai o he mos ad anced cases o digi al se -
i isa ion (G andine i e al., 2020).
In ac , many digi al se i isa ion ini ia i es ail due o lack o
ecosys em pa ne ships o ensu e alue c ea ion (Kolaga e al., 2022).
S udies on digi al se i isa ion and business models ha e emphasized
he ole played no only by cus ome s, bu mo e b oadly, by he ac o s in
he business ecosys em in suppo ing business model inno a ions
(Agos ini & Nosella, 2021), whose go e nance is conside ed one o he
main challenges. Digi iza ion implies he decoupling o in o ma ion
om de ices and echnologies, which leads o he dispe sion o knowl-
edge c ea ing he need o collabo a e, no only wi h he in e nal ac o s o
he o ganiza ion, bu also wi h he ac o s ha a e ou side he limi s o
he company (Sklya e al., 2019). Thus, apa om digi aliza ion ca-
pabili ies, i ms need o de elop ela ional capabili ies, such as,
p o iding in e nal coo dina ion and main aining ex e nal isibili y,
lea ning o in eg a e and coo dina e alue coc ea ion ac i i ies (Gal ani
e al., 2022), exploi ing cu en ac o compe encies h ough e ec i e
knowledge ans o ma ion (Kolaga e al., 2022), and design new
on -end and back-end oles (Gal ani e al., 2022). As a esul , issues
linked o he cul u e o anspa ency and openness, and accoun abili y
and us (Kamp e al., 2017; Kolaga e al., 2022), e hics and secu i y
a e undamen al in a aining he closes possible con e gence be ween
se i isa ion and I4.0 (F ank e al., 2019b; Kamp e al., 2017).
Finally, i ms ha implemen se ices bene i om s a egic associ-
a ions wi h knowledge-in ensi e se ice businesses (Bus inza e al.,
2017; Paiola e al., 2013). The e idence sugges s ha he de elopmen
o sma PSS equi es a con ex o s ong echnological po en ial ha
o e s he esou ces o i s de elopmen , as well as a suppo in a-
s uc u e and knowledge among s akeholde s (Liu e al., 2019; Wang
e al., 2022). Mo eo e , an analysis o he main egional con ex con-
di ions o 4.0 echnological ans o ma ion e eals he impo ance o
inno a ion, educa ion, c ea i i y and en ep eneu ship, digi al li e acy
and he p esence o a ib an ab ic o indus y and local economy
(Capello & Lenzi, 2021). This gi es ise o he concep o e i o ial
se i isa ion, which goes beyond o ganisa ional limi s and b ings
oge he he o e all esul s o he a ious ypes o mu ually dependen
associa ion ha manu ac u ing and knowledge-in ensi e se ice busi-
nesses se up and de elop wi hin a speci ic e i o y (La uen e e al.,
2017). In e ac ions be ween i ms and ela ed se ice businesses a
egional le el encou age lows o knowledge no jus be ween hem, bu
also o and om a ious ac o s in he local alue chain. This s eng hens
bo h he o iginal ab ic o indus y and local economic de elopmen and
esilience, enabling i ms also o de elop ela ional and
abso p ion-based capabili ies (Gomes e al., 2019).
Table 1 shows he in e ac ions be ween I4.0 and se i isa ion
de ec ed in ou SLR.
4.2. RQ2: Indus y 4.0 and e-sho ing
Un il ecen ly, li le a en ion was paid o he link be ween I4.0 and
e-sho ing (Dachs e al., 2019a), bu i is now spa king conside able
in e es in he ele an li e a u e (Anca ani & Di Mau o, 2018; Anca ani
e al., 2019; Dachs e al., 2019a; De Backe e al., 2018; F a occhi & Di
S e ano, 2020). The applica ion o I4Ts is b inging abou a ans-
o ma ion in manu ac u ing indus y, in e ms o bo h he make-up o
p ocesses and he p oduc s on o e . Changes a e aking place in he
cogni i e composi ion o he knowledge bases o he echnology solu-
ions used, and in he composi ion, mo phology and geog aphy o alue
chains, all o which a ec s e-sho ing p ocesses a companies (Bil-
bao-Ubillos e al., 2021).
Fi s o all, ce ain e i o ial dynamics po en ially a ec ing eloca-
ion decisions should be conside ed: S en o e al. (2021) indica e ha
he quali ica ions equi ed o handle Indus y 4.0 echnologies may
dec ease he willingness o i ms o sho e and inc ease he likelihood o
e-sho ing. Kinkel e al. (2023) also highligh he impo ance o digi al
Table 1
In e ac ions be ween I4.0 and se i isa ion in he SLR.
Digi aliza ion as acili a o s o
se i isa ion
Po e & Heppelmann, 2015; G ubic, 2018;
A dolino e al., 2018; Koh am¨
aki e al.,
2019; Zheng e al., 2019; Co eynen e al.,
2020; G andine i e al., 2020;
Bilbao-Ubillos e al., 2021;
Vend ell-He e o e al., 2021; Niu & Qin,
2021; Paiola e al., 2022
Cloud compu ing, big da a o In e ne
o Things as acili a o s o
se i isa ion
B essanelli e al., 2018; Mo elli e al., 2022;
Niu & Qin, 2021; Paiola & Gebaue , 2020;
Paiola e al., 2021; Paschou e al., 2020;
Peng, 2020; Reis e al., 2020, 2020; Wen &
Zhou, 2016.
Role o o he I4.0Ts in se i isa ion
p ocesses
Neely, 2013; F ank e al., 2019b; Zheng
e al., 2019; Liu e al., 2019; Pi ola e al.,
2020; Gaia delli e al., 2021; Cimini e al.,
2021
Pa hs o se i isa ion & bene i s Bus inza e al., 2017; Co eynen e al., 2020;
Gal ani e al., 2022; Gomes e al., 2019;
Kamp e al., 2017; Koh am¨
aki e al., 2020;
La uen e e al., 2017; Legaul e al., 2019;
Paiola & Gebaue , 2020; Paiola e al., 2013.
Digi al Se i iza ion & Business
Ecosys em
Koh am¨
aki e al., 2019; Sklya e al., 2019;
G andine i e al., 2020; Sj¨
odin,
Kamalaldin, Pa ida, & Islam, 2023; Gal ani
e al., 2022; Münch e al., 2022; Smania
e al., 2022
Digi al Se i iza ion & Business
Models
B essanelli e al., 2018; Koh am¨
aki e al.,
2019; Weking e al., 2020; Ma ín-Pe˜
na
e al., 2020; Agos ini & Nosella, 2021;
Chen e al., 2021; Paiola & Gebaue , 2020;
Paiola e al., 2021, 2022; Si ula e al.,
2022.
Digi al se i iza ion & capabili ies/
compe ences
Cimini e al., 2021; Co eynen e al., 2020;
Khan e al., 2022; Münch e al., 2022;
Smania e al., 2022.
Digi al se i iza ion & ci cula
economy
A i e al., 2021; B essanelli e al., 2018,
2020; Da id e al., 2021; Kolaga e al.,
2022; Langley, 2022; Rejeb e al., 2022.
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
J. Bilbao-Ubillos e al.
Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics 30 (2024) 100234
5
skills in he ope a ion o new echnologies associa ed wi h a i icial in-
elligence (AI) and poin ou ha hey ac as d i e s o back-sho ing
decisions.
In line wi h he ope a ional complexi y in ol ed in handling Indus y
4.0 echnologies, Lamp´
on e al. (2017) highligh he impo ance o
echnology- ela ed demands in he design o eloca ion s a egies as a
esul o he esou ces and capaci ies ha hos e i o ies mus o e i
hey a e o handle new echnologies e icien ly. Ba bie i e al. (2022)
highligh ha he de elopmen o policies o d i e Indus y 4.0 p o ides
an oppo uni y o gene a e loca ion ad an ages ha can a ac
home-coun y i ms loca ed ab oad.
Bu aside om hese s udies, which ha e in common he ac s ha
echnology is a de e minan ac o in loca ion and ha he de elopmen
o Indus y 4.0 is conduci e o back-sho ing. Bailey & De P op is (2014)
highligh o he aspec s: They ocus on he case o he UK au omo i e
indus y and s a e ha a combina ion o a mo e compe i i e exchange
a e (despi e he e y ecen app ecia ion o s e ling), inc eased ans-
po cos s, ising wages in key a eas o China, and a g ea e awa eness o
supply chain esilience ha e all con ibu ed o a pe cei ed change in
some business ‘ undamen als’. The po en ial o some supply chain
e-sho ing also links in wi h he end o he ‘se i isa ion’ o
manu ac u ing, including he au o sec o , and shi o a hyb id model
whe e manu ac u ing and se ices a e inc easingly in e wined (Bailey
& De P op is, 2014, 60).
Bu in ou opinion, echnology and know-how a e de e minan ac-
o s in e-sho ing decisions o he ollowing easons: Fi s , he e is a
g ea e combina o ial and echnological complexi y in suppo knowl-
edge due o he inco po a ion o he new knowledge ields needed by he
p ocess o digi alisa ion o manu ac u ing p oduc ion. This inco po a-
ion o new knowledge ields also inc eases he cogni i e con en o
asks, gi en ha new echnologies mus be inco po a ed in a speci ic
ashion wi h speci ic echnical esul s equi ed in he con ex o he new
solu ion d awn up. Any e o o adap echnically will always equi e a
p ocess o in es iga ion which is speci ic o each p oduc /p ocess.
Making such speci ic adap a ions calls o su icien echnology po en-
ial o ca y ou he necessa y cogni i e syn hesis.
Secondly, he new knowledge en ailed by digi al echnologies is
science-based and ea u es a high deg ee o no el y (la es gene a ion),
so i can be expec ed o ha e a la ge aci componen . This is liable o
in ol e p oximi y cons ain s o e icien ans e . Mo eo e , he g ea
scope o digi al echnologies o gene a ing new applica ions in all di-
ec ions means ha hey can be expec ed o de elop apidly, o e ing
new, mo e e icien , mo e comp ehensi e p ac ical possibili ies and
calling con inually o he adap a ion o echnology (Bilbao-Ubillos
e al., 2021).
Thi dly, changes in he cogni i e con en o echnical solu ions a ec
bo h he o ganisa ion and composi ion o alue chains (wi h pa icipan s
po en ially joining and lea ing), changing he ela ionships es ablished
be ween pa icipan s. This no only condi ions he shape o alue chains
bu also shi s hem owa ds mo e complex o ms o go e nance ha
en ail mo e in ensi e p oximi y cons ain s (Ge e i & Lee, 2012). Thus,
in e-sho ing decisions he e is a need o assess he isk o losing ech-
nical knowledge and access o knowledge (bo h wi hin he i m and in
he local ne wo k), as his could ac as a ba ie o e-sho ing (Bo elli &
Johansson, 2020). Some expe iences show a posi i e ela ionship be-
ween he success o he e-sho ing s a egy h ough I4.0 and he p ep-
a a ion o he local ecosys em, so ha he company is able o abso b he
aci knowledge o i s local sys em (Pego a o e al., 2022).
The e is ag eemen in economic li e a u e ha he e ec s o digi-
alisa ion on employmen a e ma ked by wo basic endencies: in one
jobs a e educed as a esul o p ocess au oma ion, and in he o he he e
is an inc ease in he quali ica ions equi ed o human esou ces o wo k
wi h he new p oduc s and p ocesses (Au o , 2015; Bonekamp & Su e,
2015).
The g ea e cogni i e complexi y o he echnical solu ions in
manu ac u ing poses a p oblem o adap a ion o new p oduc ion
equi emen s. The e is a need o pe sonnel ained in new quali ica ions
and he skills needed o assimila e new knowledge and adap i o new
echnical solu ions so as o ope a e e icien ly. This in u n calls o a
cogni i e e hinking a businesses in which p io i y mus be gi en o
pe sonnel aining (Kamp & Gamboa, 2021; Koh am¨
aki e al., 2019). As
he co e ole o digi al echnologies g ows, his may necessi a e he
implemen a ion o a digi al cul u e a o ganisa ions.
The e o e, he se ing whe e p oduc ion is loca ed mus ha e a
supply o labou wi h he equi ed skill se s (Eu o ound, 2019b; S ange
& Zucchella, 2018), because skill sho ages a e an issue o be conside ed
in e-sho ing (Bo elli & Johansson, 2020; Lamp´
on & Gonzalez-Beni o,
2020; Mo adlou e al., 2022). Thus, coun ies pe o ming well in human
capi al, educa ion, inno a ion, ne wo k eadiness and digi alisa ion will
be well placed o ake ad an age o e-sho ing decisions (Bonekamp &
Su e, 2015).
In he las 2 decades au ho s insis on he changing pa e ns o p o-
duc ion eloca ion (Fan & Liu, 2021). Some de eloped coun ies ha e
p oposed plans o “ e-indus ializa ion” and “manu ac u ing eco e y”
o es o e hei own economies and adop ed di e en le els o p o ec-
ionis measu es (S en o e al., 2016).
The cases co e ed in economic li e a u e con i m ha echnology is a
key explana o y ac o in e-sho ing. S en o & S egmann (2014)
conclude ha he need o g ea e p oximi y be ween R&D and p o-
duc ion o ake ad an age o echnological oppo uni ies is one o he
condi ioning ac o s o e-sho ing decisions. Thus, e-sho ing is jus i ied
by he inc easing impo ance o inno a ion and quali y, which can be
boos ed h ough he loca ion o R&D and p oduc ion cen es close o
he end cus ome , and by he need o sa egua d in ellec ual p ope y
igh s.
Kinkel (2014) and Dachs e al. (2019a) highligh quali y and he
lexibili y o espond apidly o cus omised demand as key ac o s o
e-sho ing, bu anspo and coo dina ion cos s, s a quali ica ion
p oblems and p oximi y o R&D ac i i ies a e also impo an (Kinkel,
2014, 64; Dachs e al., 2019b). Kamp & Gibaja (2021) do no ind any
clea impac o I4.0Ts on backsho ing ope a ions in hei s udy, bu
Anca ani e al. (2019), Cosima o & Vona (2021) and Ba bie i e al.
(2018) obse e a link be ween e-sho ing and I4.0Ts. Ke oki i e al.
(2017) obse e ha he echnologically highly complex ac i i ies ha
in ol e highly speci ic knowledge, wi h low le els o codi ica ion, a e
mo e likely o e-sho e. Lamp´
on & Ri o-L´
opez (2021) ind ha in highly
echnology-in ensi e indus ies an inno a ion-o ien ed s a egy d i es
e-sho ing s a egies, while in low- echnology sec o s a cos -o ien ed
s a egy p e ails.
Mose (2013) s a es ha he loss o ope a ional lexibili y, he
educ ion in inno a ion po en ial and di icul ies in inding quali ied
pe sonnel a e among he basic easons ha d i e e-sho ing p ocesses.
I4.0 hus encou ages e-sho ing whene e b inging he alue chain back
oge he is impo an o de eloping p oduc s, c ea ing p o o ypes, e c.
In such cases, join loca ion o p oduc ion and de elopmen may become
a sou ce o alue c ea ion, and new manu ac u ing echnologies can help
educe p oduc ion cos s (Anca ani & Di Mau o, 2018).
Once i is ealised ha he e a e gene ally links be ween I4.0 and e-
sho ing, i mus also be unde s ood ha he a ious echnologies
in ol ed in I4.0 may ha e di e en e ec s on e-sho ing (Anca ani & Di
Mau o, 2018; F a occhi & Di S e ano, 2020; Raza e al., 2021). In in-
dus ies wi h highe labou cos s, loca ing o de eloped coun ies has
only ecen ly become economically iable because o he inc easing
deg ee o p ocess au oma ion (S en o e al., 2017). Howe e , Raza
e al. (2021) s a e ha au oma ion can also be conduci e o o sho ing,
as i helps o s eng hen he p oduc i i y o p oduc ion p ocesses in
eme ging economies. And Anca ani & Di Mau o (2018) conclude ha
obo ics is no a necessa y ing edien o e-sho ing.
O he a ious echnologies in ol ed in I4.0, obo ics is bes sui ed o
cus omised manu ac u ing, bene i ing indus ies whe e ma ke demand
and consume p e e ences change apidly. In such indus ies, obo s
enable i ms o b ing new p oduc s o he ma ke a mo e quickly han
J. Bilbao-Ubillos e al.
Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics 30 (2024) 100234
6
wi h o sho ing, which o en in ol es dis an coun ies whe e supplie s
do no always p oduce o he co ec speci ica ions, esul ing in quali y
p oblems and long lead imes (De Backe e al., 2018).
Big da a analysis and digi alisa ion inc ease he abili y o coo dina e
ope a ions emo ely, which may make e-loca ing o low-cos coun ies
an a ac i e p ospec (Anca ani & Di Mau o, 2018), bu addi i e
manu ac u ing echnologies ha e a posi i e impac on decisions o
e-sho e, pushing alue chains o become mo e local and mo e close o
end-use s (F a occhi, 2017; Mo adlou & Ta e, 2018; Raza e al., 2021).
This is especially ue o e-sho ing decisions made on quali y g ounds
(Anca ani & Di Mau o, 2018). Speci ically, Mo adlou & Ta e (2018)
iden i y 6 a eas whe e addi i e manu ac u ing may po en ially impac
he supply chains o companies, making hem mo e ecep i e o
e-sho ing: sho e lead imes, be e esponse in e ms o p oduc and
ma ke changes, lowe anspo cos s, ewe communica ion e o s wi h
supplie s, mo e cus omisa ion op ions and lowe p oduc in en o ies in
s ock.
As can be seen (Table 2), academic in e es in he link be ween e-
sho ing and I4.0 has g own o e ime, hough o he momen he e is
limi ed empi ical e idence (Dachs e al., 2019a; Raza e al., 2021).
4.3. RQ3: se i isa ion and e-sho ing
The symbiosis be ween digi alisa ion and se i isa ion has majo
cogni i e consequences o business ope a ions (Peng, 2020; Ruiz de la
To e & S´
anchez, 2022). The high le els o inno a ion and he scien i ic
basis o suppo ing knowledge (Pucheanu e al., 2022; Zheng e al.,
2019) mean ha he aci componen o he knowledge used acqui es a
co e ole, which leads o majo p oximi y cons ain s in ans e p o-
cesses. Despi e he bene i s o be e communica ion, some ypes o
knowledge a e so aci in na u e ha only spa ial p oximi y (e.g.
co-loca ion) can enable hem o be abso bed by ac o s h oughou he
alue chain (Baldoni e al., 2022). In ac , in he case o SMEs, se i ised
i ms a e mo e likely han non-se i ised i ms o engage in inno a ion
ac i i ies, o use abso p i e capabili ies in he app op ia ion o ex e nal
knowledge and o collabo a e wi h pa ne s in he inno a ion p ocess
(Puns ein & Glückle , 2021).
A he same ime, se i isa ion p ocesses encou age he eo ganising
o p oduc ion ope a ions based on pla o ms ha can suppo he
cus ome and supplie in eg a ion needed o achie e e icien collabo-
a ion on echnology be ween all s akeholde s (G andine i e al., 2020;
Niu & Qin, 2021; Zheng e al., 2019). Such collabo a ion is needed o
adap o as e echnical dynamics and be open o changes in business
models, so as o ake ad an age o he oppo uni ies o e ed by changing
ci cums ances (Ba bie i e al., 2020; Bol e & Robey, 2020; Dachs e al.,
2019b; Di Mau o e al., 2018; Eu o ound, 2019a; Paiola e al., 2022;
Weking e al., 2020). This condi ions he shape o alue chains and
b ings abou a shi owa ds mo e complex o ms o go e nance in which
p oximi y cons ain s play a g ea e ole (Ge e i & Lee, 2012).
The business models used will call o e e -highe le els o skill and
quali ica ions among cus ome s and supplie s oo, and o powe ul
elema ic in as uc u es (bo h public and p i a e) o suppo new
ope a ional equi emen s (Liu e al., 2019; Wang e al., 2022). This in
u n calls o physical p oximi y be ween s akeholde s as a key pa o
assu ing apid esponse and he oppo uni y o acqui e c i ical knowl-
edge o cus ome s’ ope a ions and needs (S ange & Zucchella, 2018). I
also equi es cus ome s and supplie s o be loca ed in a se ing whe e he
echnology esou ces needed o ake pa in an in eg a ed, ad anced
p ocess a e a ailable (Sj¨
odin, Kamalaldin, Pa ida, & Islam, 2023).
The li e a u e ha analyses esho ing p ocesses on he basis o case
s udies con i ms he link be ween digi al se i isa ion and esho ing.
These indings show he co e ole o he echnical and o ganisa ion e-
qui emen s associa ed wi h digi al se i isa ion in explaining esho ing.
The need o make good use o knowledge ans e s o p oduc ion plan s
(Ashby, 2016; Fjells ¨
om e al., 2023; Sayem e al., 2019), he need o be
close o cus ome s and ma ke s (Fjells ¨
om e al., 2019), access o human
esou ces wi h he necessa y quali ica ions and skills (Bo elli e al.,
2021; Lampon & Gonzalez-Beni o, 2020; Mo adlou e al., 2022; Mose ,
2013), he e icien eo ganisa ion o supply chains (Pa k & Hong, 2017;
Robinson & Hsieh, 2016; Van Hoek & Dob zykowski, 2021) and he
need o R&D and p oduc ion ope a ions o be close o each o he (Bals
e al., 2016; Pea ce, 2014) a e also ele an ac o s. All hese ci cum-
s ances sha e he need o loca e p oduc ion plans in a se ing whe e hey
can adap hei echnologies o new p oduc ion equi emen s (Lund &
S een, 2020; Pego a o e al., 2022). Resho ing is an e ec i e way o
doing his.
Finally, secu e da a exchange (Kage mann & Wahls e 2022) and
cybe secu i y a e an issues aised by digi al se i iza ion; in some cases,
esho ing is a be e op ion han o sho ing in e ms o con ol, cos and
isk (Engs ¨
om e al., 2018; Mo e o e al., 2020; Pa k & Hong, 2017;
Sayem e al., 2019). Ano he ac o is he cus ome ’s pe cep ion o alue,
which s ill has a pi o al ole in back-sho ing decisions (Mo adlou e al.,
2022), as does e hnocen ism, i.e. consume s’ endency o exhibi a
posi i e p edisposi ion owa d p oduc s made in hei home coun y
(G appi e al., 2015).
Table 3 shows he main gene al in e ac ions be ween se i isa ion
and esho ing de ec ed in he SLR.
4.4. Syn hesis o indings
The SLR conduc ed ocuses on pai wise compa ison o he h ee
hema ic e ms. I enables us o explo e how I4.0Ts and se i isa ion
may be a ec ing business decisions in ega d o e-sho ing (Fig. 2).
As he SLR shows, he scena io en ailed by I4.0Ts and se i isa ion
s a egies in ensi ies he need o g ea e p oximi y and close collabo-
a ion be ween he ac o s in ol ed in gene a ing new, inno a i e solu-
ions, as he cogni i e complexi y o he knowledge bases o he
echnology solu ions will make companies mo e dependen on ex e nal
ne wo ks and will gene a e p oximi y cons ain s. Se i ised designs a e
se o inc ease he in ensi y and equency o cus ome /supplie e-
la ions g ea ly, and in he amewo k o he sha ing o highly-no el,
scien i ically-based knowledge hey en ail s ong p oximi y
Table 2
In e ac ions be ween I4.0 and Re-sho ing in he SLR.
Cause & e ec ela ionship Empi ical s udies on in e ac ion Case S udies con i ming he ela ion Case S udies no
con i ming he
ela ion
A lbjø n & Mikkelsen, 2014; Saki, 2016; Anca ani
& Di Mau o, 2018; Anca ani e al., 2019;
Ba bie i e al., 2018; De Backe e al., 2018;
Eu o ound, 2019a & 2019b; F a occhi & Di
S e ano, 2020; Mo adlou & Ta e, 2018; S ange
& Zucchella, 2018; S en o & Rajkuma , 2020;
Bo elli & Johansson, 2020; Mose , 2021;
Anca ani e al., 2021; Cosima o & Vona, 2021.
Laplume e al., 2016; S en o e al., 2017;
Lamp´
on e al., 2017; Anca ani & Di Mau o, 2018;
Mo adlou & Ta e, 2018; Dachs e al., 2019a;
F a occhi & Di S e ano, 2020; S en o e al.,
2021; Raza e al., 2021; Un e be ge & Mülle ,
2021; Ba bie i e al., 2022; Kinkel e al., 2023.
Eu o ound, 2019a; F a occhi, 2017; Gylling e al.,
2015; Thomas Indus ial Su ey, 2020; Anca ani
e al., 2021; Bol e & Robey, 2020; Lampon &
Gonzalez-Beni o, 2020. Raza e al., 2021; Dikle ,
2021; Mo adlou e al., 2022.
Kamp & Gibaja,
2021.
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
J. Bilbao-Ubillos e al.
Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics 30 (2024) 100234
7
cons ain s, which become a e y powe ul condi ioning ac o o
loca ion.
On he o he hand, I4.0Ts lead o digi al se i isa ion p ocesses in
which he echnological capabili ies o companies and he e i o ies
whe e hey a e loca ed acqui e g ea ele ance. They equi e se ings
wi h high-le el echnology esou ces and human skills, and en ail a need
o inc ease collabo a ion be ween ecosys em ac o s, all o which may be
expec ed o ha e a majo impac on e-sho ing decisions.
5. Discussion o indings and conclusions
5.1. Se i isa ion and se ing
Se i isa ion inc eases he complexi y o he p oduc ion sys em ia
he inco po a ion o I4.0Ts in o co po a e ope a ions in he o m o a
mo e ex ensi e, deepe in eg a ion. This also a ec s i ms’ ela ions
wi h echnology-cen ed ins i u ions and wi h cus ome s and supplie s.
E icien se i isa ion en ails close links wi h cus ome s and supplie s
ha go beyond new echnical assis ance. Cus ome s and supplie s will
epo needs, p opose solu ions, e c. ha will ha e a - eaching conse-
quences in e ms o loca ion, because he e will be ci cums ances ha
equi e p oximi y o coope a ion o be e icien , and clien s and sup-
plie s will need o loca ed in a se ing whe e hey ha e he po en ial o
p o ide hemsel es wi h he esou ces o ake pa in an in eg a ed,
ad anced p ocess (Sj¨
odin, Kamalaldin, Pa ida, & Islam, 2023).
The echnology se ing will play a co e ole in he supply o human
and echnological esou ces, and in p o iding a ab ic o p oduc ion ha
mee s he equi emen s o he business model se up o be e icien . The
esou ces o e ed by he se ing will ma k he po en ial o ad ancemen
in de eloping sma manu ac u ing capabili ies (Khan e al., 2022;
Vaillan e al., 2021). A weak se ing o ces i ms o op o specialised
solu ions wi h a mo e limi ed scope, which may be o in e es in he
sho e m bu o e less o a u u e (Legaul e al., 2019). The choice o a
loca ion o indus ial ope a ions is an inc easingly selec i e p ocess
(Taleb e al., 2022). In sho , loca ion becomes inc easingly impo an as
se i isa ion becomes mo e sophis ica ed and calls o a mo e complex,
mo e e icien o ganisa ional model.
5.2. Se i isa ion and p oximi y cons ain s
As eme ging echnologies wi h a high deg ee o no el y, he de el-
opmen o se i isa ion is cha ac e ised by he p ominen ole played by
basic knowledge, and hus by a subs an ial aci componen in in o -
ma ion ans e p ocesses. The a e o change in he echnical solu ions
a ising om he huge capaci y o I4.0Ts o gene a ing new applica ions
hus necessi a es equen , apid changes. This in u n necessi a es
con inual ecou se o se ings capable o handling he necessa y adap-
a ions. The aci componen and he equency o in e ac ions wi h
ex e nal ac o s s eng hen he ole o p oximi y in he ac o s in ol ed
in he dynamics o echnology (Baldoni e al., 2022). Mo eo e , he
weal h o ecombina ions o e ed by I4.0Ts makes o a scena io wi h
high le els o unce ain y in e ms o goals and pa hs. This highligh s he
impo ance o loca ing in se ings wi h a high po en ial o he p o ision
o I4.0Ts ha can ca e o as-ye -unde ined u u e cogni i e needs.
P oximi y ensu es a scena io in which in e ac ions mul iply o gi e ise
o unexpec ed new solu ions (De la To e & Sanchez, 2022; Fo ay &
Goenaga, 2013).
The ex ension o se i isa ion inc eases he need o in eg a ion wi h
he o he agen s needed o i o ope a e. Technology- ela ed p oblems
a e no limi ed o he adap a ion and de elopmen o new echnical
solu ions a co po a e labo a o ies bu ex end o he make-up o links
wi h all he public and p i a e sec o o ganisa ions associa ed wi h he
ope a ion o companies, especially cus ome s and supplie s. Links in
which he cogni i e con en has a high aci componen and he e is
con inual in e ac ion s eng hen p oximi y cons ain s be ween agen s
and, equally impo an ly, call o a localised ab ic o cus ome s and
supplie s in a se ing whe e he e is a high le el o I4.0Ts on o e . This
can be hough o as a highly powe ul e i o y e ec ha jus i ies he
emphasis placed by Ma es (2012) on geog aphical p oximi y as a
acili a o o o he o ms o p oximi y (social, o ganisa ional and ins i-
u ional) which a e impo an o he e icien ope a ion o ac i i ies ha
equi e a high le el o in eg a ion be ween pa icipan s.
5.3. Conclusions
5.3.1. Theo e ical con ibu ion
I4.0Ts, and pa icula ly inc eased digi isa ion, has made o he
con igu a ion o new business models and he se i isa ion o he
economy in he con ex o a new pa adigm o compe i ion. This digi al
se i isa ion is conduci e o ne wo king and enhances he ole o
p oximi y. Toge he wi h o he concu en ac o s, his is a ou ing e-
sho ing. The p ocess d i e s di ec ly conce ned wi h echnology a e
he ollowing:
- Changes in ela i e cos s: he au oma ion o p ocesses en ailed by
I4.0 is educing he amoun o labou equi ed pe uni o p oduc
and hus he signi icance o labou cos s as a ac o o o sho ing.
- Agglome a ion economies en ailed by digi al se i isa ion. On he
one hand he e is he g ea e densi y o i ms and he g ea e
complemen a i y be ween hem ha can be ound in mo e de eloped
coun ies (which a e gene ally he sou ces o capi al), which is sig-
ni ican o PSS. On he o he hand he e is he need o echnology
in as uc u e in he hos coun y ( echnology cen es, enginee ing
i ms), which is inc eased by he g ea e combina o ial complexi y o
he supply o i ms.
- The ad an ages o p oximi y o end ma ke s en ailed by digi al se -
i isa ion: he abili y o espond quickly and lexibly o ma ke
changes, manu ac u e cus omised p oduc s, sho en de elopmen
pe iods and educe was e. O sho ing ook p oduc ion plan s away
om de eloped coun ies, so ha he po en ial ha now eme ges
om cus omisa ion a ising om digi al se i isa ion was los . The
Table 3
In e ac ions be ween Se i isa ion and Re-sho ing in he SLR.
Cause & e ec ela ionship Empi ical s udies on in e ac ion
E ciency o R&D: concen a ion o
esou ces; use o R&D ans e ed o
plan s.
Ashby, 2016; Bals e al., 2016; Fjells ¨
om
e al., 2023; Khan e al., 2022; Pea ce II,
2014; Sayem e al., 2019.
P oximi y be ween R&D and
p oduc ion
Hills, 2017; Schmeisse , 2013; U zelai &
Puig, 2017; Ba bie i e al., 2020; Bol e &
Robey, 2020; Dachs e al., 2019b; Di
Mau o e al., 2018; Paiola e al., 2022;
Weking e al., 2020.
Quali ica ions among human
esou ces & supply o echnological
esou ces in se ingcon ex
Mose , 2013; Anca ani e al., 2015; Bals
e al., 2016; Ba aldi e al., 2018; Di Mau o
e al., 2018; Liu e al., 2019; Lund & S een,
2020; Sansone e al., 2020; Bo elli e al.,
2021; Lampon & Gonzalez-Beni o, 2020;
Ma inez-Mo a & Me ino, 2021; Mo adlou
e al., 2022; Opazo-Basaez e al., 2022;
Pego a o e al., 2022; Wang e al., 2022.
Reo ganisa ion o he alue chain Bals e al., 2016; G andine i e al., 2020;
Gylling e al., 2015; Niu & Qin, 2021; Pa k
& Hong, 2017; Pea ce II, 2014; Robinson
& Hsieh, 2016; Sj¨
odin, Kamalaldin, Pa ida,
& Islam, 2023; Van Hoek &
Dob zykowski, 2021; Zheng e al., 2019.
Business model. C´
o coles e al., 2021; G ubic, 2018;
Vend ell-He e o e al., 2017.
Be e cus ome se ice; lexibili y;
deli e y imes
Baines e al., 2009; Kinkel, 2014;
Ma inez-Mo a & Me ino, 2014; Rabe ino
e al., 2017; Mo adlou e al., 2017;
Fjells ¨
om e al., 2019; Johansson e al.,
2019; Ma inez-Mo a & Me ino, 2021;
Wiesmann e al., 2017.
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
J. Bilbao-Ubillos e al.
Eu opean Resea ch on Managemen and Business Economics 30 (2024) 100234
8
demand o be e cus ome se ice leads o a need o g ea e
p oximi y because he con en o ha se ice is cogni i ely mo e
complex and he ma ke o mo e e ol ed (se i ised) p oduc ion
p ocesses lies p ecisely in highe income coun ies ( he sou ce
coun ies o he in es men made ab oad o cos easons). This is
conduci e o esho ing. In ac i i ies whe e eme ging ma ke s a e
also signi ican i is possible ha no all p oduc ion may be esho ed,
bu a leas pa o i will be, so as o p o ide a as esponse o
cus ome s in de eloped coun ies.
- The skills and expe ise in da a managemen equi ed by I4.0Ts:
wide a ailabili y in he de eloped coun ies ha end o be sou ces
o FDI.
In u n, hese ac o s conduci e o p oximi y bene i om he need o
add ess unce ain ies in exchange a es, in e es a es, ading policies
( he endency owa ds p o ec ionism), in he economic consequences o
po en ial con lic s o pandemics (supply chain dis up ion) and in un-
desi able in en o y le els. These unce ain ies make loca ing p oduc-
ion in o he se ings a less a ac i e p ospec .
Fac o s ha o se his push owa ds e-sho ing include sunk cos s
and he need o componen supplie s o be close o he plan s o hei
cus ome s when hey wo k on a jus -in- ime basis, o when he end
p oduc o i ms is aimed a dis an ma ke s.
Implica ions o esea ch and implica ions in p ac ice:
This s udy ocuses esea ch and co po a e decision-making on he
ole o p oximi y in he new echnology se ing ha s ems om
digi al se i isa ion, and he e o e i p o ides manage s wi h a
de ailed o e iew o he main ac o s o making e-sho ing
decisions.
The mos signi ican implica ion o public au ho i ies is conce ned
wi h he de elopmen o echnological suppo in hei e e ence
e i o ies o ca e o aining o pe sonnel in digi al skills and
os e ing and suppo ing echnical assis ance bodies in ma e s o
digi al echnologies. In o he wo ds, he challenge is o design a
con ex o suppo o p oduc ion ope a ions based on digi al ech-
nologies, so as o p e en i ms om lea ing and encou age i ms o
se up in hei a eas ( esho ing).
5.3.2. Limi a ions and u u e esea ch
Ou wo k is no wi hou limi a ions. Fi s , SLR applies a well-
s uc u ed, igo ous me hod. Howe e , some s udies may po en ially
ha e been excluded due o esea ch decisions such as da abase and
keywo d selec ion, publica ion ype and language. In any case, we
belie e ha he publica ions iden i ied a e ep esen a i e o he cu en
li e a u e. Second, I4.0 is a gene al concep o a wide ange o ech-
nologies and applica ions, and each o hose echnologies could ha e a
di e en impac on se i isa ion and esho ing. The e o e, u u e
esea ch could ocus on he s udy o hese ela ionships. Mo e speci -
ically, how do he di e en I4.0Ts a ec digi al se i isa ion and
esho ing p ocesses? Do all he echnologies ha all unde I4.0 wo k in
he same di ec ion?
Ou s udy o e s indica ions o he po en ial links be ween digi al
se i isa ion and e-sho ing in gene al, wi hou es ablishing nuances
depending on he ype o company in ques ion. The e o e, ano he
impo an line o esea ch could be o s udy he link be ween digi al
Fig. 2. In e ac ions among Indus y 4.0, se i isa ion and esho ing.
Sou ce: Own elabo a ion.
J. Bilbao-Ubillos e al.
