K use, Philipp; Kamau, Pauline Wanga i
A icle
Looking h ough he en ep eneu ial kaleidoscope: Examining
s e eo ypes agains comme cial, social, en i onmen al, and communi y
en ep eneu s in Kenya and Ge many
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: K use, Philipp; Kamau, Pauline Wanga i (2024) : Looking h ough he
en ep eneu ial kaleidoscope: Examining s e eo ypes agains comme cial, social, en i onmen al,
and communi y en ep eneu s in Kenya and Ge many, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387,
MDPI, Basel, Vol. 14, Iss. 11, pp. 1-24,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14110302
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10419/321108
S anda d-Nu zungsbedingungen:
Die Dokumen e au EconS o dü en zu eigenen wissenscha lichen
Zwecken und zum P i a geb auch gespeiche und kopie we den.
Sie dü en die Dokumen e nich ü ö en liche ode komme zielle
Zwecke e iel äl igen, ö en lich auss ellen, ö en lich zugänglich
machen, e eiben ode ande wei ig nu zen.
So e n die Ve asse die Dokumen e un e Open-Con en -Lizenzen
(insbesonde e CC-Lizenzen) zu Ve ügung ges ell haben soll en,
gel en abweichend on diesen Nu zungsbedingungen die in de do
genann en Lizenz gewäh en Nu zungs ech e.
Te ms o use:
Documen s in EconS o may be sa ed and copied o you pe sonal
and schola ly pu poses.
You a e no o copy documen s o public o comme cial pu poses, o
exhibi he documen s publicly, o make hem publicly a ailable on he
in e ne , o o dis ibu e o o he wise use he documen s in public.
I he documen s ha e been made a ailable unde an Open Con en
Licence (especially C ea i e Commons Licences), you may exe cise
u he usage igh s as speci ied in he indica ed licence.
h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/
Ci a ion: K use, Philipp, and Pauline
Wanga i Kamau. 2024. Looking
Th ough he En ep eneu ial
Kaleidoscope—Examining
S e eo ypes Agains Comme cial,
Social, En i onmen al, and
Communi y En ep eneu s in Kenya
and Ge many. Adminis a i e Sciences
14: 302. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci14110302
Recei ed: 18 Oc obe 2024
Re ised: 10 No embe 2024
Accep ed: 12 No embe 2024
Published: 15 No embe 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
This a icle is an open access a icle
dis ibu ed unde he e ms and
condi ions o he C ea i e Commons
A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/
4.0/).
A icle
Looking Th ough he En ep eneu ial Kaleidoscope—Examining
S e eo ypes Agains Comme cial, Social, En i onmen al,
and Communi y En ep eneu s in Kenya and Ge many
Philipp K use * and Pauline Wanga i Kamau
Facul y o Psychology, School o Science, Technical Uni e si y D esden, 01069 D esden, Ge many
*Co espondence: philipp.k [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : Fo he g ea e pa o en ep eneu ial his o y, en ep eneu ship’s p ima y a ge was
comme cial, i.e., money gene a ion o he en ep eneu and his o he s akeholde s. Howe e ,
s a ing in he 1980s, hyb id o ms o en ep eneu ship using he c ea ion o non- inancial alue wi h
en ep eneu ial means ha e gained ac ion. Cu en ly, se e al concep ually di e en o ms, e.g.,
social, en i onmen al, and communi y en ep eneu ship, exis . Resea ch yields a ious di e ences
compa ing comme cial and hyb id en ep eneu ship, pa icula ly in he s e eo ypical pe cep ions o
di e en en ep eneu s. No wi hs anding no able insigh s, en ep eneu ial s e eo ype esea ch su e s
om h ee majo sho comings. Fi s , s e eo ype di e ences a e p ima ily examined by compa ing
comme cial o hyb id en ep eneu s, neglec ing s e eo ype di e ences inside hyb id en ep eneu ship.
Second, he scope o s e eo ypes in es iga ed (e.g., wa m h and compe ence) emains ague and
lacks en ep eneu ial speci ici y. Thi d, he obus ness o en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes unde di e en
ins i u ional ci cums ances, e.g., in economy and cul u e, is unclea . The cu en s udy add esses
hese h ee sho comings. Analyzing wo samples om Kenya and Ge many (N
o al
= 286) wi h
epea ed-measu es analyses o co- a iance, we ind no able s e eo ype di e ences (i) inside hyb id
en ep eneu s; (ii) ega ding wa m h, compe ence, and en ep eneu ship-speci ic success indica o s;
and (iii) unde di e en ins i u ional ci cums ances. Despi e acknowledgeable limi a ions, ou wo k
ex ends p e ious s e eo ype esea ch by highligh ing he necessi y o a mo e ine-g ained, speci ic,
and in e -coun y pe spec i e on en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes.
Keywo ds: hyb id en ep eneu ship; s e eo ypes; Ge many; Kenya; empi ical
1. In oduc ion
En ep eneu ship is conside ed a majo d i e o inno a i eness, economic g ow h,
and socie al weal h (Cao and Shi 2021;S ephan e al. 2016; an P aag and Ve sloo
2007). E e since Can illon (1756) ou lined he i s scien i ic concep ualiza ion o en-
ep eneu ship as an ac i i y o buying goods a a ce ain p ice and selling hem a a
highe p ice, inancial p o i o en ep eneu s and hei s akeholde s was seen as he
dominan o ce behind en ep eneu ial ac i i y (see Mu phy e al. (2006) o a his o ical
o e iew). Howe e , s a ing in he 1980s and 90s, he es ic ed, pu ely mone a y scope o
en ep eneu ship was widened, and new en ep eneu ial o ms blending money-making
aspi a ions wi h a non- inancial mission eme ged (Ande son and Leal 1997;Johannisson
1990;Young 1983). Such o ms, b oadly e e ed o as mission-d i en en ep eneu ship
(Koma su Cip iani e al. 2020;S ephan e al. 2016), combine he adi ional c ea ion o
inancial alue h ough en ep eneu ial beha io wi h aspi a ions o achie e a second o m
o alue (T acey and Phillips 2007), e.g., social (social en ep eneu ship; SE), en i onmen al
(en i onmen al en ep eneu ship, EE), o communi y alue (communi y en ep eneu ship,
CE). To exempli y, social en ep eneu s a e d i en by a social mission like po e y educ-
ion o he empowe men o ma ginalized and disad an aged g oups (Aus in e al. 2006;
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14110302 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 2 o 24
K use e al. 2021). En i onmen al en ep eneu s add ess en i onmen al deg ada ion and
ela ed ma ke ailu es like pollu ion o o e ishing, aiming o con ibu e o he p ese a-
ion o ou na u al en i onmen (Dean and McMullen 2007;Keogh and Polonsky 1998).
Communi y en ep eneu s c ea e comme cial, social, and/o en i onmen al alue by mobi-
lizing esou ces and esiden s o local communi ies. Thus, hei en ep eneu ial ac i i ies
and impac s a e linked o a speci ic communi y o ope a ion (Johannisson 1990). The eby,
CE emphasizes mu ual communi y commi men spa ked by he communi y en ep eneu
(Bu a i e al. 2022). Whe eas all hese o ms sha e no able aspec s wi h adi ionally
comme cial en ep eneu ial ac i i y like oppo uni y ecogni ion, isk- aking, and he as-
pi a ion o gene a e p o i , SE, EE, and CE a e hyb id, as hey pu sue a double bo om
line combining inancial in e es s wi h a mission (Aus in e al. 2006;Bu a i e al. 2022;
Vedula e al. 2022).
The e olu ion o en ep eneu ship om a pu ely comme cial o a mo e e sa ile
concep no only showcases oday’s kaleidoscopic na u e o en ep eneu ship bu also
kick-s a ed ela ed esea ch (Kaushik e al. 2023;Sassmannshausen and Volkmann 2018;
Vole y and Mazza ol 2015). In he las wo decades, a ich a ie y o s udies conce ned
wi h he explo a ion o simila i ies and di e ences be ween a ious o ms o en ep eneu -
ship eme ged (Kaushik e al. 2023;Saebi e al. 2019;Vedula e al. 2022). Common opics
co e he pe son le el, e.g., he explo a ion o pe sonali y and mo i a ional di e ences
compa ing nascen comme cial and social en ep eneu s (Bacq e al. 2013;Chipe a e al. 2020;
Wach e al. 2023), and he en e p ise le el, e.g., a ious scaling and impac s a egies in
di e en en ep eneu ial o ms (Bloom and Cha e ji 2009;K use e al. 2024;Rawhouse e al.
2019). Wha is mo e, ecen s udies o e ed he i s insigh s in o he in e play o pe sonal
and en e p ise-le el a iables, pa icula ly how he business model chosen can a ec he
pe cep ion o en ep eneu s by ele an s akeholde s h ough s e eo ypes (Gup a e al. 2019;
K use and Rosing 2023).
S e eo ypes, i.e., men al sho cu s in he o m o sha ed belie s ha indi iduals de-
pend upon o make sense o he wo ld’s complexi ies (Leyens e al. 1994;McCauley e al.
1980;Schneide 2005), a e widesp ead in se e al domains, including en ep eneu ship.
In ac , con incing e idence ou lining he subs an ial impac o s e eo ypes in se e al
en ep eneu ial con ex s exis s (see Jennings and Tonoyan (2022)o Küsshaue and Baum
(2023) o examples). To illus a e, en ep eneu ship is conside ed a s e eo ypically male
ca ee pa h ( hink-en ep eneu - hink-male, c . Laguía e al. (2019)), and i has been shown
ha such gende - ela ed biases can nega i ely impac emale en ep eneu s’ access o
unding (c . Malms öm e al. (2024)). Fu he mo e, he i s indica ions exis ha he e a e
also s e eo ypical belie s held agains hyb id en ep eneu s. Gup a e al. (2019) could show
ha ea u es a ibu ed o social en ep eneu s co e male and emale s e eo ypes, and a
s udy by K use and Rosing (2023) indica es signi ican di e ences in pe cei ed pe sonali y
and leade ship s e eo ypes compa ing comme cial and social en ep eneu s.
No wi hs anding his no able p og ess, h ough a hyb id en ep eneu ship lens, h ee
cen al gaps emain:
Fi s , no comp ehensi e in es iga ion o s e eo ypes held agains di e en o ms o
hyb id en ep eneu ship exis s. So a , pe inen s udies ocus on one o m o hyb id
en ep eneu ship (mos ly SE) and compa e ela ed s e eo ypes o s e eo ypes held agains
comme cial en ep eneu s (see Menke (2020) as an example). Howe e , his bea s he isk
o unde es ima ing he a ie y o di e en o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship. Thus, o da e,
i emains unclea whe he and o wha ex en di e ences in s e eo ypical belie s inside
hyb id en ep eneu ial o ms exis .
Second, he scope o s e eo ypes examined in he en ep eneu ial con ex emains
ague and unspeci ic. Mos s udies explo ing s e eo ypes agains en ep eneu s build
on he in eg a i e S e eo ype Con en Model (SCM; Cuddy e al. (2008)) ocusing on
wa m h s e eo ypes, i.e., pe cei ed iendliness and compe ence s e eo ypes, i.e., pe cei ed
abili ies, o explo e emale and male s e eo ypes held agains (hyb id) en ep eneu s (Be y
and Sanchez 2019;Menke 2020;Oo e al. 2022). Howe e , hese la gely o e lap wi h
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 3 o 24
wa m h ( emale) and compe ence (male). While p e ious wo k yields no able and aluable
insigh s, we ake he iew ha he speci ici y o s e eo ypes explo ed should be inc eased o
complemen b oad SCM-insigh s. A p omising candida e can be s e eo ypical belie s held
ega ding di e en c i e ia o en ep eneu ial success (Wach e al. 2016).
Thi d, esea ch emains su p isingly silen on how obus he con en o en ep eneu ial
s e eo ypes is in he ace o a ying ins i u ional ci cums ances in di e en coun ies. Follow-
ing Ins i u ional Theo y (No h 1991), ins i u ions, i.e., deep-le el s uc u al aspec s in socie y,
may al e cogni ion and beha io . The eby, in o mal ins i u ions like cul u e a e “so ” socio-
cogni i e no ms, while o mal ins i u ions encompass “ha d” poli ical and economic ac o s.
P e ious esea ch sugges s cul u ally igge ed di e ences in some s e eo ypes (Cuddy e al.
2009;S anciu e al. 2017;Wilde and Diekman 2005). Howe e , i is unclea whe he hese
gene al insigh s can be applied o (hyb id) en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes.
Ou s udy add esses all h ee sho comings in one comp ehensi e empi ical s udy
analyzing a o al sample o N= 286 pa icipan s (N
Kenya
= 155; N
Ge many
= 131). Taking
a look inside di e en o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship, we compa e s e eo ypes held
agains social, en i onmen al, and communi y en ep eneu s (i) o s e eo ypes held agains
comme cial en ep eneu s and (ii) wi h each o he in o de o map di e ences and simila i-
ies. Second, we add o he speci ici y o s e eo ype esea ch in (hyb id) en ep eneu ship
by explo ing SCM-based wa m h and compe ence s e eo ypes and s e eo ypes ega ding
en ep eneu ial success based on he c i e ia iden i ied by Wach e al. (2016). Thi d, o in es-
iga e he obus ness o en ep eneu ial s e eo ype con en , we explo e s e eo ypes in Kenya
and Ge many, wo coun ies wi h no able di e ences in in o mal and o mal ins i u ions.
The emainde o his a icle is s uc u ed as ollows: Fi s , we concep ualize SE, EE,
and CE as hyb id o ms o en ep eneu ship. Second, we e iew exis ing esea ch on
en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes, pa icula ly ega ding hyb id en ep eneu ial o ms, ou line
h ee cen al sho comings in cu en esea ch, and de i e ou hypo heses. Thi d, he
sampling and me hodological de ails a e summa ized, and ou s a is ical analysis me hods
a e ou lined. Fou h, a e p esen ing ou esul s, we discuss hem and de i e implica ions,
policy ecommenda ions, and limi a ions o he cu en s udy.
2. Theo e ical Backg ound
2.1. Social, En i onmen al, and Communi y En ep eneu ship as Fo ms o
Hyb id En ep eneu ship
En ep eneu ial hough s and ac i i ies ha e been omnip esen h oughou human
his o y. Da ing back o he o igins o mankind and he i s basic o ms o ade in ibal
communi ies, o ms o en ep eneu ship could be ema ked upon in almos all ields o li -
ing, like a ming o e en wa a e (see Mu phy e al. (2006) o a comp ehensi e o e iew).
Howe e , i ook un il he 18 h cen u y o he i s o mal scien i ic concep ualiza ion o
en ep eneu ship (Can illon 1756). This concep ualiza ion encompassed basic cha ac e is-
ics o en ep eneu ial beha io like oppo uni y ecogni ion and isk- aking, emphasizing
en ep eneu s’ aspi a ions o ea n money by buying and selling goods. In he nex 200 yea s,
he en ep eneu ial scope widened by iden i ying en ep eneu s’ con ibu ions o he econ-
omy as a whole (Menge 1871), hei dis up i e and inno a i e powe (Schumpe e 1934),
o hei psychological p ope ies (McClelland 1961). Wha emained la gely unchanged,
howe e , was he comme cial ocus o en ep eneu ial ac i i y. In he 1980s, he i s o mal
concep ualiza ions o en ep eneu ial impac beyond inancial alue c ea ion eme ged,
exempli ied by Young’s pionee ing wo k “I no o p o i , o wha ?”Young (1983), dealing
wi h possibili ies o c ea e non- inancial alue h ough en ep eneu ial means. This pa ed
he way o he de elopmen o di e en o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship.
Social en ep eneu ship (SE) is a o m o hyb id en ep eneu ship d i en by a social
mission (K use 2020a;K use e al. 2021). Social en ep eneu s a ge he c ea ion o posi i e
social change, o example, by issuing mic oc edi s o disad an aged deb o s (Yunus 1999)
o in eg a ing ma ginalized g oups like o me d ug addic s o p isone s in o he labo
ma ke (De lin and Wigh 2021;Pe ini e al. 2010). In con as o NGOs, howe e , hyb id
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 4 o 24
social en e p ises ope a e based on an elabo a ed business plan gene a ing hei own in-
come (Aus in e al. 2006). This way, social en e p ises aim o emain independen om
p i a e dona ions o poli ical unding. The main c i e ion dis inguishing SE om Co po a e
Social Responsibili y (see Aguinis and Gla as (2012) o a comp ehensi e o e iew o he
concep ) lies in he social mission. Fo social en e p ises, social alue c ea ion is undamen-
al, and social en ep eneu s a e p epa ed o accep lowe e enues o he sake o hei
mission. In con as , comme cial en e p ises engaged in Co po a e Social Responsibili y
apply such measu es ins umen ally, o example, o a ac socially minded cus ome s
(S ephan e al. 2016).
En i onmen al En ep eneu ship (EE) can be de ined as ‘ he p ocess o disco e ing,
e alua ing, and exploi ing economic oppo uni ies ha a e p esen in en i onmen ally
ele an ma ke ailu es.’ (Dean and McMullen 2007, p. 58). The co e assump ion o EE is
oo ed in ma ke economics, mo e speci ically, ma ke ailu e (Ande son and Leal 1997).
Ma ke ailu e encompasses he ailu e o an economy o p omo e and sus ain desi able
ac ions while discou aging and p e en ing om pe o ming undesi able ac ions (Ba o
1958). Applied o he en i onmen al con ex , ma ke ailu e encompasses ailu e o p e en
en i onmen ally ha m ul ac ions like pollu ion, o e ishing, o clea -cu ing. Howe e ,
ollowing Shane and Venka a aman (2000), hese en i onmen ally ha m ul ma ke ailu es
can be seen as oppo uni ies and ha e he po en ial o spa k en ep eneu ial ac ions a ge -
ing an alle ia ion o en i onmen ally ha m ul ac ions and/o hei consequences. The eby,
en i onmen al en ep eneu s use he c ea ion o inancial alue o hemsel es and hei
s akeholde s wi h en i onmen ally bene icial ac i i ies (Dudin e al. 2019). This makes EE
a speci ic o m o he mo e gene al concep o sus ainable en ep eneu ship (Dean and
McMullen 2007;Vedula e al. 2022).
Communi y En ep eneu ship (CE) is a o m o hyb id en ep eneu ship ‘ ha en-
gage[s] in comme cial ac i i y and ope a e[s] o he de elopmen o a local communi y
by b inging economic, social, and en i onmen al bene i s.’ (Bu a i e al. 2022, p. 376).
While his de ini ion posi s a no able o e lap wi h elemen s o SE and EE, especially e-
ga ding he kind o non- inancial alue c ea ed, CE is la gely seen as a dis inc concep ,
as i has a highe ocus on a speci ic communi y and he p omo ion and in ol emen
o communi y membe s (Pie e e al. 2014;T acey e al. 2005). In many cases, CE is a
bo om-up o m o en ep eneu ial ac i i y ini ia ed by communi y membe s and sus ained
by local ins i u ions (Johannisson 1990;Kawha u e al. 2017;Pe edo 2003). These ac i i ies
can appea in a ich a ie y o di e en o ms and a e pa icula ly widesp ead in La in
Ame ica, usually as communi y co-ope a i es and, in many cases, ini ia ed by indigenous
popula ions (see Pe edo (2003) and Dana and Dana (2007) o examples). Thus, CE is no
only conside ed a e sa ile ool o imp o e li ing condi ions in impo e ished communi ies
bu can also be seen as a way o empowe ing ma ginalized social g oups (Gio annini 2015;
Kawha u e al. 2017).
As he h ee di e en o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship ou lined abo e show, “en-
ep eneu ship” has no only become an umb ella e m o many di e en en ep eneu ial
o ms bu also, as i u ns ou , i s “hyb id wing” has become inc easingly di e se. While
no able o e laps o SE, EE, and CE exis like a non- inancial mission a ge ing he c ea ion o
posi i e socie al change and he pu sui o a double-bo om-line, he o m’s scope o ac ion
(social, en i onmen al, communi y) and, he eby, also he oppo uni ies spo ed by hyb id
en ep eneu s di e . This unde sco es he kaleidoscopic na u e o hyb id en ep eneu ship.
Consequen ly, as SE, EE, and CE a e cons i u ed as concep ually dis inc o ms o hyb id
en ep eneu ship, i seems easonable o belie e ha hey a e also pe cei ed di e en ly by
s akeholde s and he gene al public, o example, wi h di e en s e eo ypes (K use and
Rosing 2023).
2.2. S e eo ypes in he En ep eneu ial Con ex
In social psychology, s e eo ypes a e de ined as men al sho cu s in he o m o sha ed
belie s ha indi iduals ely upon o make sense o he wo ld’s complexi ies (Schneide
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 5 o 24
2005). While, depending on he discipline, no able concep ual di e ences can be ema ked
upon (see Kanaha a (2006) o a e iew), mu ually sha ed a ibu es o s e eo ypes exis .
Hogg and Vaughan (2010) summa ized hese a ibu es in o i e b oad dimensions. Fi s ,
s e eo ypes a e seen as simpli ied images o g oups. Hence, hey a e used dispa agingly
on membe s o he ou g oup and indica e appa en di e ences be ween ou g oups and
in-g oups. Second, due o hei simpli ied na u e, hey a e eadily a ailable on memo y o
allow he pe cei e o make quick imp essions o o he s. Acco dingly, hey a e e e ed o
as men al sho cu s as hey sho en he judgmen p ocess when an indi idual is con on ed
wi h a social s imulus. Thi d, hey a e cogni i ely adap i e, making hem igid and slow
o change. Ne e heless, s e eo ypes a e con ex ual, meaning ha hey di e om one
g oup o ano he depending on he mo i es, objec i es, and needs o di e en g oups.
Fou h, some s e eo ypes a e lea ned du ing ea ly childhood, while o he s o m la e .
Consequen ly, wi h ime, hose disco e ed a an ea ly age become i mly imp in ed on
he pe cei e ’s mind, hus explaining hei igidi y u he . Fi h, he au ho s s ipula ed
ha s e eo ypes become mo e dis inc and an agonis ic du ing in e g oup ensions and
con lic s. Fo ins ance, ibal s e eo ypes ha e been, in he pas , used o uel ange and
ha ed in Kenya (Kuppens e al. 2018). I can, he e o e, be concluded ha s e eo ypes ha e
signi ican unc ions in social in e ac ions.
While, in gene al, s e eo ypes can and do exis ega ding e e y dis inguishable social
g oup, gende s e eo ypes a e one domina ing s eam in he s e eo ype li e a u e. As
bibliome ic analyses show, gende s e eo ype esea ch has been gaining ac ion since
2005, esul ing in an annual inc ease in esea ch ou pu (Jennings and Tonoyan 2022).
Howe e , no able insigh s abou na ional s e eo ypes also exis . These include pe cep ions
o a ibu es and beha io conside ed “ ypical” o indi iduals wi h a ce ain na ional-
i y. These na ional s e eo ypes can di e no ably. To exempli y, Ge mans a e s e eo yp-
ically conside ed punc ual, e ec i e, and compe en on he upside bu s i , lacking in
humo , and ha d o socialize wi h on he downside (Allen 2016;Bu ns e al. 1995). In
con as , Kenyans a e s e eo ypically pe cei ed as gene ous, loyal, and suppo i e on
he upside bu supe s i ious o e en iolen on he downside (Nai uli and King’o o 2018;
Si uma e al. 2018).
Re iewing he li e a u e in es iga ing s e eo ypes in he en ep eneu ial con ex also
yields a clea dominance o gende - ela ed s e eo ype esea ch (Jennings and Tonoyan 2022).
The mos equen opics in his esea ch s eam encompass emale and male s e eo yping
o en ep eneu s (B uni e al. 2004;Gup a e al. 2008), biases (e.g., “ hink-en ep eneu -
hink-male”; Laguía e al. (2019)), o disc imina ion (e.g., o emale en ep eneu s in
unding decisions; Malms öm e al. (2024)). Th ough a hyb id en ep eneu ship lens,
one co e heme e ol ed a ound he a ibu ion o s e eo ypical a ibu es o social com-
pa ed o comme cial en ep eneu s and po en ial e ec s on en ep eneu ial in en ions
(see Gup a e al. (2008) and Gup a e al. (2019) o examples). Ano he ye signi i-
can ly smalle s eam akes a mo e in eg a i e iew and in es iga es compe ence and
wa m h s e eo ypes held agains (hyb id) en ep eneu s based on he S e eo ype Con en
Model (SCM).
SCM, widely acknowledged as he mos uni e sally applicable model in he ealm o
s e eo ype esea ch (Cuddy e al. 2008,2009;Fiske 2018), pos ula es wo ca dinal dimen-
sions o s e eo ype con en . Wa m h, comp ised o ai s like iendliness, hones y, since i y,
amiabili y, and mo ali y, indica es he subjec i e belie o pe sons ha a ce ain g oup
(e.g., en ep eneu s) has a o able (high wa m h) o un a o able (low wa m h) in en ions
owa ds hem. Compe ence encompasses skills, con idence, c ea i i y, and in elligence as
main ai s and desc ibes whe he a ce ain g oup has high (high compe ence) o low (low
compe ence) abili ies o ac ually ca y ou an in en ion. Thus, social g oups can be clus-
e ed in o ou main ca ego ies: high wa m h/high compe ence (e.g., p o essionals), high
wa m h/low compe ence (e.g., elde ly), low wa m h/high compe ence (e.g., ich people),
and low wa m h/low compe ence (e.g., homeless people). Se e al empi ical s udies back
SCM assump ions in a ious con ex s and cul u es (c . Luna Co es 2024), and i s sui abili y
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 6 o 24
has been demons a ed in he en ep eneu ial con ex (see Be y and Sanchez (2019) o an
example). Also, in hyb id en ep eneu ship, he i s s udies applying SCM (o i s assump-
ions) can be ema ked on. Menke (2020) examined di e ences in wa m h and compe ence
pe cep ions o comme cial and social en ep eneu s in he Ge man popula ion and ound
signi ican ly highe le els o pe cei ed compe ence o comme cial and signi ican ly highe
le els o wa m h o social en ep eneu s. Simila ly, K use and Rosing (2023) could show
ha social en ep eneu s a e pe cei ed as mo e ag eeable, bene olen , and al uis ic. This
la gely co esponds o he wa m h dimension ou lined in SCM. While simila esea ch
explici ly co e ing EE and CE does no exis , we ake he iew ha simila e ec s occu
also o hese wo o ms o hyb id en e p ises. Thus, we de i e he ollowing hypo hesis:
H
1
.Social, en i onmen al, and communi y en ep eneu s sco e highe on wa m h bu lowe on
compe ence s e eo ypes compa ed o comme cial en ep eneu s.
2.3. Cen al Gaps in Resea ch on Hyb id En ep eneu ship S e eo ypes
No wi hs anding no able p og ess in he explo a ion o s e eo ypes in hyb id en-
ep eneu ship, cen al gaps emain. We ake he iew ha h ee o he mos p essing ones
a e (i) he negligence o po en ial di e ences in s e eo ypes inside hyb id en ep eneu ship,
(ii) lacking speci ici y in he kinds o s e eo ypes in es iga ed, and (iii) an unde de eloped
examina ion o s e eo ype obus ness in he ligh o di e en ins i u ional ci cums ances in
di e en coun ies.
(a)
S e eo ype Di e ences Inside Hyb id En ep eneu ship
Whe eas con incing e idence ega ding di e ences in pe cei ed wa m h and compe-
ence compa ing social and comme cial en ep eneu s exis s, esea ch emains su p isingly
silen on (po en ial) di e ences in s e eo ypes ega ding di e en o ms o hyb id en e -
p ises. As p e iously ou lined in Sec ion 2.1, no able di e ences in he kind o alue
c ea ed besides inancial alue exis . While SE ocuses on social alue, EE’s main pu -
pose is he c ea ion o en i onmen al alue. In CE, mu ual alue c ea ion in a speci ic
communi y h ough collec i e ac ion is he key c i e ion. Going beyond he concep ual
le el, he i s empi ical insigh s indica e di e ences in compa ing di e en o ms o hyb id
en ep eneu ship. A Global En ep eneu ship Moni o da a analysis by Hö isch e al. (2017)
sugges s ha , in con as o SE, highe age is a signi ican p edic o o EE ac i i y. Wha is
mo e, se e al “ ypical” socio-demog aphic ea u es linked o SE ac i i y a e no p esen
among en i onmen al en ep eneu s. This can also be ele an o he e olu ion o di e en
s e eo ypes, as socio-demog aphics a e one impo an sou ce o s e eo ypes.
Taking he iew ha due o concep ual di e ences and i s indi ec empi ical e idence,
wa m h, and compe ence s e eo ypes di e (inside o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship, we
o mula e he ollowing hypo hesis:
H
2
.S e eo ypes ega ding wa m h and compe ence di e when compa ing social, en i onmen al,
and communi y en ep eneu s.
(b)
Towa ds mo e Speci ici y in Hyb id En ep eneu ship S e eo ype Resea ch
One cen al s eng h o SCM lies in i s in eg a i e na u e. The SCM componen s
wa m h and compe ence comp ise di e en s e eo ypical a ibu ions and, as a esul , a e
conside ed uni e sally applicable aspec s, allowing a ela i ely easy ca ego iza ion o social
g oups (Cuddy e al. 2008). Howe e , his bi d’s eye pe spec i e bea s he isk o o e -
simpli ica ion and o e gene aliza ion o some speci ic social g oups like en ep eneu s.
To illus a e, o decades, economic a ionalism sugges ed ha mone a y gain and espec-
i e pe o mance indica o s se e as he sole c i e ia o en e p ise success (Pa ke 2018).
Only slowly, a b oade communi y o esea che s s a ed ealizing ha economic pe o -
mance alone canno ully explain he subjec i e e alua ion o success by an en ep eneu
(Fishe e al. 2014;Go gie ski e al. 2011;Jayawa na e al. 2013). In he end, b oadening
success c i e ia esul ed in a mo e nuanced and, ul ima ely, mo e accu a e assessmen o
en ep eneu ial success (Angel e al. 2018;Manzano-Ga cía and Ayala-Cal o 2020). In line
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 7 o 24
wi h his easoning, Wach e al. (2016) iden i ied i e c i e ia o subjec i e en ep eneu ial
success, h ee o which we eckon a e pa icula ly sui able o a mo e nuanced iew o
s e eo ypical belie s held agains en ep eneu s. Fi s , i m pe o mance encompasses
economic indica o s o en e p ise success, including s abili y and g ow h o he en e p ise.
Second, wo kplace ela ionships a e de ined as he quali y o ela ions wi h s akeholde s
ou side (e.g., in es o s o cus ome s) and inside he en e p ise (e.g., employees). Thi d,
communi y impac cap u es he posi i e non- inancial impac o he en e p ise, e.g., social
o en i onmen al e ec s o en ep eneu ial ac ion. The wo emaining c i e ia (pe sonal
ul illmen and pe sonal ewa d) encompass aspec s like pe sonal p e e ences o wo k-
li e-balance o pe sonal income g ow h ha a e highly indi idualis ic and, he eby, a he
unsui able o he assessmen o business model s e eo ypes in ou s udy.
The p oposed scale by Wach e al. (2016) eme ged as psychome ically sound, alid,
and in e -cul u ally obus . Fu he mo e, i has al eady been used in he con ex o SE
(K use e al. 2024), he e o e unde sco ing i s applicabili y in he hyb id en ep eneu ship
con ex . In con as o objec i e indica o s like e u n on in es men , he scale by Wach
e al. co e s subjec i e assessmen s o en ep eneu ial success. We ake he iew ha hese
subjec i e indica o s mi o he concep ual di e ences be ween comme cial en ep eneu -
ship and he h ee di e en o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship be e and allow a mo e
ine-g ained examina ion o po en ial s e eo ypes d i en by hese appa en concep ual
di e ences. As a esul , we hypo hesize he ollowing:
H
3
.S e eo ypes ega ding i m pe o mance, wo kplace ela ionships, and communi y impac di e
when compa ing comme cial, social, en i onmen al, and communi y en ep eneu s.
(c)
Explo ing he Robus ness o (Hyb id) En ep eneu ship S e eo ypes unde Di e en
Ins i u ional Ci cums ances
S e eo ype con en s can a y be ween coun ies (see G igo ye (2022) o a sum-
ma y). Acco ding o Ins i u ional Theo y, ins i u ions as deep-le el aspec s o socie y a e
esponsible o hese di e ences by shaping indi idual and o ganiza ional beha io ia
wo ins i u ional o ms (No h 1991). On he one hand, in o mal ins i u ions encompass
socio-cogni i e no ms and alues. They a e concep ualized as “so ” as hey a e implici
and no o malized. Cul u e, de ined as he collec i e p og amming o people’s minds
(Ho s ede 1984), is such an in o mal ins i u ion. On he o he hand, o mal ins i u ions
encompass objec i e and o malized ci cums ances exe ing an in luence on all ac o s in a
socie y. One example o a o mal ins i u ion is he s age o economic de elopmen . Fo mal
ins i u ions a e explici , measu able, and “ha d” ins i u ional ac o s.
P e ious esea ch shows ha in o mal and o mal ins i u ions can ha e a no able
impac on en ep eneu ship (Hay on and Caccio i 2013). To exempli y, S ephan and Pa hak
(2016) show ha cul u es endo sing sel -p o ec i e and cha isma ic leade ship alues show
highe le els o en ep eneu ship. Wha is mo e, Ga cía-Cab e a and Ga cía-So o (2008)
ou line ha he deg ee o indi idualism in a cul u e may impac he p opensi y o become
an en ep eneu . F om a hyb id en ep eneu ship pe spec i e, cul u al alues ha e been
shown o os e ce ain o ms o hyb id compa ed o comme cial en ep eneu ship. As
GEM-based e idence by S ephan e al. (2015) poin s ou , pos -ma e ialis ic cul u es p o ide
a mo e suppo i e en i onmen o social en ep eneu s han ma e ialis ic cul u al alues.
Rega ding economic di e ences, a sys ema ic e iew by Cao and Shi (2021) yields ha ,
depending on he le el o economic de elopmen , di e en o ms o en ep eneu ship
eme ge due o di e ences in p omo e s o and ba ie s o en ep eneu ial ac i i y. To
illus a e, de imen al ci cums ances like po e y, a bad social wel a e sys em, and weak
o mal ins i u ions a e la gely conside ed a bu den o comme cial en ep eneu ial ac i i y.
Howe e , some schola s a gue ha such ci cums ances boos hyb id en e p ises as hey
ind mo e oppo uni ies o mission-d i en en ep eneu ial ac i i ies (Tu ke and Al un as
Vu al 2017).
While inc easingly solid e idence o he impac o ins i u ional di e ences on en-
ep eneu ial ac i i y exis s, insigh s ega ding he e ec s o en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 8 o 24
a e sca ce. As a no able excep ion, a ecen wo k by Gup a e al. (2022) in which gende
s e eo ypes held agains en ep eneu s in he US and India we e compa ed yielded ‘sig-
ni ican c oss-na ional a ia ion’ (p. 1073). Howe e , due o he s udy’s ocus on gende
s e eo ypes, he scope is limi ed.
To in es iga e he obus ness o (hyb id) en ep eneu ship s e eo ypes unde di e en
ins i u ional ci cums ances in a mo e comp ehensi e manne , we chose Kenya and Ge many,
wo coun ies wi h ob ious di e ences in (i) in o mal and (ii) o mal ins i u ions, and explo e
c oss-coun y di e ences in comme cial and h ee o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship:
(i) Kenyan cul u e is cha ac e ized by s ong hie a chies and low le els o indi id-
ualism. Fu he mo e, Kenyans ypically s i e o sho - e m goal ul illmen , discoun -
ing long- e m goals. Ge man cul u e encompasses la hie a chies, pa icipa ion, and
co-de e mina ion in which join decision-making is p e e ed o e au ho i y decisions.
Ge mans a e highly indi idualis ic, and hey p e e long- e m o e sho - e m goals
(c . Ho s ede 2011).
(ii) Kenya is a coun y wi h a ela i ely low le el o economic de elopmen . How-
e e , his can spa k en ep eneu ial ac i i y in wo ways. Fi s , due o he sca ci y o
o he job oppo uni ies, en ep eneu ial ac i i y can be d i en by necessi y. Second, high
le els o socio-economic p oblems in Kenya can spa k mission-d i en en ep eneu ship
(Ciambo i e al. 2021). Ge many is one o he leading and mos esilien Eu opean
economies and o e s a ich po olio o job oppo uni ies (Aud e sch and Lehmann 2016;
Dus mann e al. 2014). Thus, en ep eneu ship is d i en by oppo uni y a he han neces-
si y, and, in gene al, en ep eneu ship le els in Ge many a e low. Fu he mo e, due o he
high le el o social wel a e, po e y, and social p oblems a e a a low le el, which could
hinde he e ol emen o mission-d i en en e p ises (Tu ke and Al un as Vu al 2017).
Despi e di e ences in he o icial languages spoken in Kenya and Ge many, Ge many
was p e e ed o e he UK o one cen al eason. Kenya was a pa o he B i ish Empi e
om 1920 o 1963 (Powell 2002). Du ing his ime, a la ge numbe o B i ish colonialis s
and se le s immig a ed o Kenya. This had a no able in luence on he Kenyan economy
and cul u e. Fu he mo e, Kenya is s ill a membe o he B i ish Commonweal h. Thus, we
expec ed no able simila i ies be ween in o mal and o mal ins i u ions (Coombes e al. 2019;
Cullen 2017). Fo checking he obus ness o en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes unde di e en
ins i u ional ci cums ances in a mo e unbiased way, we selec ed Ge many as i has no
colonial o o he majo his o ical ela ions o Kenya. Gi en hese no able di e ences in bo h
ins i u ional o ms and as ins i u ions may shape he cogni ion o indi iduals, we p opose
ha ins i u ional di e ences in Kenya and Ge many impac en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes
and de i e he ollowing hypo hesis:
H
4
.The e a e c oss-coun y di e ences in s e eo ypes agains comme cial, social, en i onmen al,
and communi y en ep eneu s compa ing Kenya and Ge many.
3. Me hodology
3.1. Sample Acquisi ion, Sample Size, and Sample Composi ion
The a ge ed sample o ou s udy was de e mined based on he wo cen al pu poses
o he cu en wo k:
Pu pose one was he examina ion o s e eo ypes. Thus, in o de o gain b oad and
unbiased insigh s, we decided no o limi ou acquisi ion o a ce ain g oup, like uni e si y
s uden s. Ins ead, we used wide- anging social media pla o ms and communica ion ools
o cap u e pa icipan s wi h di e en backg ounds and inc ease a ie y. The p ima y social
media pla o m used was Facebook, as one o he mos popula pla o ms wo ldwide
(K use 2024;Vi ak 2017). In addi ion, LinkedIn and Wha sApp we e used o s udy ad-
e ising and ec ui ing pa icipan s. As will be ou lined in Sec ion 3.2. in mo e de ail,
digi al ad e ising ools we e p e e ed as he s udy was conduc ed in an online o ma .
As a sampling echnique, con enience sampling was used. This sampling me hod was
conside ed sui able, as (i) no p e-knowledge o he pa icipan s was equi ed, as all pa ici-
pan s ecei ed de ailed desc ip ions o he hyb id en ep eneu ial o ms (c . Sec ion 3.2),
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 15 o 24
en ep eneu s occu ed (social en ep eneu s ecei ed highe i m pe o mance a ings
han en i onmen al en ep eneu s), and in Ge many, di e ences in wo kplace ela ion-
ships and communi y impac eme ged—bu no o i m pe o mance. This indica es a
a he sca e ed pic u e o di e ences. One commonly sha ed aspec , howe e , lies in
he inding ha social en ep eneu s ecei ed a highe a ing han he o he wo o ms
o hyb id en ep eneu ship when signi ican di e ences occu ed. While easons o his
could be mani old, wo possible explana ions e ol e a ound a po en ially highe amil-
ia i y wi h SE and he clea ocus on a social mission. Fi s , compa ed o o he o ms
o hyb id en ep eneu ship, SE is a mo e ins i u ionalized hyb id en ep eneu ial o m
(Kaushik e al. 2023;Sassmannshausen and Volkmann 2018;Vedula e al. 2022), and social
en e p ises a e mo e isible in he economy and e e yday li e o mos people (K use 2024;
Te jesen e al. 2010;Thompson and Dohe y 2006). This could inc ease amilia i y wi h
his o m o en ep eneu ship, igge ing posi i e s e eo ypes (c ., me e-exposu e e ec ;
Ha ison (1977); Mon oya e al. (2017)). Second, as ou lined by Ba ilana e al. (2018), he
clea ocus on a social mission in SE could esul in he assump ion ha no only he goals
o social en ep eneu s and hei impac bu also hei means (e.g., good wo k design and
wo kplace ela ionships) a e conside ed social. This could be less p onounced in he case
o en i onmen al (EE) o “mixed” (CE) goals.
Finally, ega ding hypo hesis H
4
, examining he obus ness o s e eo ypes unde di -
e en ins i u ional ci cums ances, we ind appa en di e ences compa ing Kenya and
Ge many. While di e ences in wa m h eme ge in Ge many, no such e ec s can be no ed
in Kenya. This pa e n pe sis s o wo kplace ela ionships and communi y impac . Fu -
he mo e, social en ep eneu s a e a ibu ed highe sco es in i m pe o mance compa ed
o en i onmen al en ep eneu s in Ge many bu no in Kenya. Howe e , he e a e no-
able simila i ies like highe compe ence and i m pe o mance s e eo ypes o comme cial
compa ed o all o ms o hyb id en ep eneu s. In gene al, mo e s e eo ypical di e ences
be ween en ep eneu ial o ms eme ge in Ge many. This could be oo ed in in e cul u al
di e ences in he indi idualism–collec i ism dimension, i.e., di e ences o igina ing om
in o mal ins i u ions. Ge many is one o he mos indi idualized coun ies wo ldwide,
while Kenya sco es high in collec i ism. Consequen ly, Kenyans could see he social g oup
“en ep eneu ” mo e collec i ely, i.e., in a uni o m way. In con as , Ge mans could be
mo e ocused on in e -indi idual di e ences inside his social g oup (Liñán e al. 2015;
Tiessen 1997). This would also explain he lowe sha e o s e eo ypical di e ences inside
he ca ego y o hyb id en ep eneu s in Kenya (1) compa ed o Ge many (3). Howe e ,
also he s age o economic de elopmen as a o mal ins i u ion could explain hese esul s.
As Kenya is a coun y wi h a lowe economic and social s a us, en ep eneu s who ound
hei en e p ise and, he eby, c ea e jobs could be seen as a bene i o he economy and
socie y ega dless o hei explici o ien a ion. This could esul in mo e uni o m a ings
o wa m h, communi y impac , and en e p ise-speci ic indica o s in Kenya. The mo e
nuanced pic u e ega ding en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes in Ge many could be a ec ed by a
be e economic si ua ion in which comme cial en ep eneu s a e a he seen as economic
han social, en i onmen al, and communi y agen s unless hey explici ly a ge a social,
communi y, o en i onmen al mission (K use and Rosing 2023;Kucke z e al. 2020,2023).
5.1. Implica ions o Theo y and P ac ice
The cu en s udy has se e al implica ions o esea che s and p ac i ione s:
Fi s , we con i m he exis ence o s e eo ype di e ences compa ing comme cial and
social en ep eneu ship. Fu he mo e, we ex end his inding by showing ha se e al
di e ences pe sis also o o he o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship. Fu u e esea ch can
build on hese insigh s and ex end hem, o example, by including o he new o ms o
en ep eneu ship like e-en ep eneu ship (Al Halbusi e al. 2023).
Second, ou s udy shows signi ican di e ences in hyb id en ep eneu ship s e eo ypes
in some dimensions, e.g., wa m h o wo kplace ela ionships. Thus, we con ibu e o a
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 16 o 24
mo e nuanced pic u e in en ep eneu ial s e eo ype esea ch and encou age u u e s udies
o consolida e ou indings.
Thi d, we add speci ici y o he cu en landscape in en ep eneu ial s e eo ype e-
sea ch as we heo e ically p oposed and empi ically es ed i m pe o mance, wo kplace
ela ionships, and communi y impac as en ep eneu ship-speci ic s e eo ype dimensions.
Se e al signi ican indings in bo h samples demons a e he iabili y o hese dimensions
in he s e eo ype con ex .
Fou h, ou analyses yielded appa en di e ences in s e eo ypes held agains en-
ep eneu s compa ing Kenya and Ge many. Thus, in o mal and o mal ins i u ional
di e ences can a ec he obus ness o s e eo ype con en s. Fu u e s udies should ake his
inding in o conside a ion, pa icula ly ega ding he ans e abili y o s e eo ypes ound
in one coun y o ano he .
Fi h, o policymake s aiming o boos na ional en ep eneu ial ac i i ies, ou ind-
ings ha e wo main implica ions. On he one hand, nega i e s e eo ypes agains hyb id
en ep eneu s, o example, lowe compe ence o i m pe o mance a ibu ions, should be
challenged o a oid a nega i e socie al pic u e o a ca ee as a hyb id en ep eneu . On he
o he hand, posi i e a ibu ions ega ding hyb id en ep eneu s, like wa m h, could be
used o a ac people o his ca ee op ion, especially indi iduals wi h he imp ession o
en ep eneu ship as a a he “cold” and money-cen e ed ca ee pa h.
Six h, en ep eneu ial educa o s should ake he exis ence o s e eo ypes ega ding
en ep eneu ship and ela ed ca ee s in o conside a ion when designing en ep eneu ship
syllabi. By explici ly including s e eo ypes in he cu icula o en ep eneu ship cou ses,
(nascen ) en ep eneu s can be made awa e o he di e en s e eo ypes hey migh ace. Ul i-
ma ely, his will help u u e en ep eneu s o be p epa ed o ace s e eo ypical assump ions
in hei li es as en ep eneu s and hink o e ec i e and e icien solu ions o add ess hese.
5.2. Policy Recommenda ions
Ou s udy ea u es wo main ecommenda ions o policymake s who a e conce ned
wi h en ep eneu ial and business ac i i ies:
Fi s , on a heo e ical le el, he cu en s udy highligh s ha he en ep eneu ship
landscape is mani old and e ol ed beyond a singula ocus on inancial alue gene a ion.
Hyb id en ep eneu ship, in i s a ious o ms, has he po en ial o c ea e social, en i on-
men al, and communi y alue. Thus, p omo ing hyb id en ep eneu ship as a means
o con ibu e o posi i e social change can complemen go e nmen al ac i i ies in his
a ea and, ul ima ely, help o achie e he UN Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) like
Reduced Inequali ies (SDG No. 10), Sus ainable Ci ies and Communi ies (SDG No.11), and
Decen Wo k and Economic G ow h (SDG No. 8) (Howa d-G en ille e al. 2019).
Second, ou inding ha , compa ed o comme cial en ep eneu s, all hyb id en-
ep eneu s a e a ed lowe in compe ence and i m success in Kenya and Ge many e eals
ha bo h socie ies need o be made awa e o hyb id en ep eneu ship’s po en ial o use
business success and a second mission. Hyb id en ep eneu ial success s o ies and ole
models (K use 2020b;La iole e e al. 2012) and p og ams p omo ing he isibili y o hyb id
en ep eneu s in public (like exhibi ions o open house days) ha e he po en ial o make
mo e people awa e o he undamen al change ha can be ini ia ed by hyb id en ep eneu -
ship. This inc eased exposu e o hyb id en ep eneu ship and hyb id en ep eneu s would
also con ibu e o a educ ion in s e eo ypical belie s and a mo e unbiased pe spec i e on
his ca ee op ion.
5.3. Limi a ions
Ou s udy has he ollowing limi a ions:
Fi s , while bo h samples in ou s udy we e no es ic ed o speci ic social g oups
like uni e si y s uden s, hey we e sampled using con enience sampling. Thus, hey a e
no ep esen a i e o he Kenyan o Ge man popula ion, limi ing he gene alizabili y o
ou esul s.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 17 o 24
Second, we decided o p esen all ou w i en s a emen s o e e y pa icipan . De-
spi e andomizing hei o de o a oid biases, a be ween-subjec design in which e e y
subjec only a es one w i en s a emen would u he educe po en ial o de e ec s
(Pe eaul 1975).
Thi d, we only in es iga ed indi iduals om wo di e en coun ies. Thus, ou esul s
canno be gene alized o ans e ed o he compa ison o o he coun ies, as he kind and
deg ee o ins i u ional di e ences a e a ious and depend on he coun ies selec ed.
Fou h, as in o mal and o mal ins i u ional di e ences exis in Kenya and Ge many, we
canno de e mine which o m o ins i u ion was he main d i e o in e -coun y di e ences.
Thus, we canno disen angle he unde lying e ec sizes and/o mechanisms. Fu he mo e,
as o mal and in o mal ins i u ions a e mani old, ou main ocus on cul u e as an in o mal
and he economy as a o mal ins i u ion could be oo na ow and neglec o he elemen s o
he wo ins i u ional o ms.
Fi h, while cul u al dimensions a e equen ly employed in se e al esea ch s eams,
hey a e c i icized as oo gene al and o e ly simplis ic, as hey do no ake in a-cul u al
a ia ions in o accoun (McSweeney 2002;Yoo e al. 2011). Thus, also in ou s udy, in a-
cul u al di e ences a e no adequa ely mi o ed when using he indi idualism–collec i ism
dimension as an explana ion o ou indings.
Six h, he cu en s udy con ols o age and gende bu does no ake o he po en ially
ele an a iables like en ep eneu ial amily membe s o own en ep eneu ial expe iences
in o accoun (Zellwege e al. 2011). This could ha e biased ou indings.
6. Summa y
Since he 1980s, new o ms o en ep eneu ship ha e eme ged blending he adi-
ional en ep eneu ial aspi a ion o gene a ing income o he en ep eneu and his o
he s akeholde s wi h a second mission like he c ea ion o social and/o en i onmen al
alue. These new o ms a e hyb id and include social en ep eneu ship, en i onmen al
en ep eneu ship, and communi y en ep eneu ship. While he li e a u e shows ha , in ad-
di ion o concep ual di e ences, pe cep ual di e ences compa ing comme cial and hyb id
en ep eneu s exis , e.g., ega ding en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes, cu en esea ch emains
ague and unspeci ic. Ou s udy ad ances he scien i ic knowledge base on s e eo yping
in hyb id en ep eneu ship in h ee ways. Fi s , we explo e la gely neglec ed s e eo ype
di e ences inside h ee o ms o hyb id en ep eneu ship. Second, we add speci ici y by
examining en ep eneu ship-speci ic s e eo ype dimensions in addi ion o he uni e sal
wa m h and compe ence dimensions. Thi d, we in es iga e he obus ness o s e eo ype
con en in he ace o in e -coun y ins i u ional di e ences. Analyzing wo samples om
Kenya (N= 155) and Ge many (N= 131) wi h epea ed-measu e analyses o co- a iance
yields (i) no able s e eo ype di e ences be ween social, en i onmen al, and communi y
en ep eneu ship, (ii) he iabili y o en ep eneu ship s e eo ypes as an addi ion o wa m h
and compe ence dimensions, and (iii) appa en in e -coun y di e ences in s e eo ypical
pe cep ions. Despi e acknowledgeable limi a ions like non- ep esen a i e samples, no-
able esea ch and p ac ical implica ions a ise om he cu en s udy. Fu u e esea ch can
build on ou esul s, o example, by in es iga ing s e eo ypes agains o he new o ms
o en ep eneu ship o ex ending hem by es ing o he coun ies. Policymake s and en-
ep eneu ship educa o s a e encou aged o make hemsel es awa e o s e eo ypes in o de
o p omo e en ep eneu ial ca ee s o p epa e (nascen ) en ep eneu s o e icien ly and
e ec i ely eac o s e eo ypical belie s in hei ca ee s.
Au ho Con ibu ions: The wo au ho s con ibu ed as ollows: Concep ualiza ion, P.K. and P.W.K.;
me hodology, P.K. and P.W.K.; so wa e, P.K. and P.W.K.; o mal analysis, P.K. and P.W.K.; in es iga-
ion, P.W.K.; da a cu a ion, P.W.K.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, P.K.; w i ing— e iew and
edi ing, P.K.; isualiza ion, P.K.; supe ision, P.K.; p ojec adminis a ion, P.K. All au ho s ha e ead
and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 18 o 24
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : E hical e iew and app o al we e wai ed o his s udy as
pa icipa ion was olun a y, included an in o med consen o e e y pa icipan , and non-in usi e.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in he s udy.
All s udy da a included in ou analysis we e ully anonymized.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : Da a associa ed wi h his s udy can be ob ained om he i s au ho
upon easonable eques .
Acknowledgmen s: We would like o acknowledge he wonde ul con ibu ion o Ca olin Segge
and he in aluable help in da a collec ion and managemen .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
Appendix A
The w i en s a emen s used o he desc ip ion o en i onmen al and communi y
en ep eneu ship can be ound below (English and Ge man e sions).
W i en S a emen s o En i onmen al and Communi y En ep eneu ship
(a)
Kenya
En i onmen al en ep eneu ship is conce ned wi h he p ese a ion and es o a ion
o ou en i onmen . En i onmen al en ep eneu s ealize ha he e is a need o e e se he
nega i e e ec s caused on na u e by bo h na u al and man-made ac i i ies. They, he e o e,
engage in income-gene a ing ac i i ies ha help in he educ ion o en i onmen al pollu ion
and des uc ion. This way, hey ea n p o i s while being conscious o he en i onmen .
A good example is Bu n Design Lab, an o ganiza ion in he USA ha pa ne s wi h Bu n
Manu ac u ing in A ica. They p oduce cha coal s o es ha educe cha coal consump ion
by mo e han 50% and educe ha m ul emissions by mo e han 60% compa ed o he
adi ional open i eplace ha has domina ed u al A ica. The cha coal s o es con ibu e
o he educ ion o indoo ai pollu ion, which in u n leads o educed espi a o y diseases
and i chy eyes. The s o es a e also as e and sa e cha coal, leading o he p ese a ion o
o es s and biodi e si y.
Communi y en ep eneu ship exploi s he asse s and esou ces o he communi y
as a o ce o economic, social, and/o en i onmen al de elopmen . Communi y en-
ep eneu ship is, he e o e, conce ned wi h capaci y-building, co-ope a ion, engagemen ,
and esou ce mobiliza ion. Communi y en ep eneu s b ing people oge he , encou age
mu ual us , and o ge a clea unde s anding among he di e en s akeholde s. The
p oceeds om communi y en ep eneu ship, he e o e, a e di ided among he membe s.
This is o say, en ep eneu ship does no only happen a he indi idual le el bu also a he
g oup le el.
A good example o communi y en ep eneu ship is Chama, an in o mal co-ope a i e
socie y common in Eas A ica. Chama is Swahili o a g oup o people wi h a common
in e es in coming oge he . These can be neighbo s, colleagues a wo k, o me classma es,
iends, and e en amily. They can be classi ied in o a ew ca ego ies: sel -help g oups,
me y-go- ounds, o in es men g oups in which membe s con ibu e a ce ain amoun o
money weekly, o nigh ly, o mon hly. The money is hen e-dis ibu ed (in u ns) among
he membe s o used by he g oup o in es , o example, in p ope y, ad ance c edi o
membe s, o pay hem mon hly di idends om hei mic o-sa ings. The p o i s a e di ided
equally among he membe s o e-in es ed.
(b)
Ge many
Ökologisches Un e nehme um be ass sich mi de Wiede he s ellung, dem E -
hal und Schu z unse e Umwel . Ökologische Un e nehme *innen e kennen, dass es
no wendig is , die nega i en Auswi kungen au die Na u umzukeh en, die sowohl na ü -
lich als auch du ch die Menschen e u sach we den. Sie engagie en sich dahe mi
ih em un e nehme ischen Handeln in Tä igkei en, die zu Ve inge ung de Umwel e -
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 19 o 24
schmu zung und -ze s ö ung bei agen. Au diese Weise e wi scha en Sie Gewinne und
ach en gleichzei ig au die Umwel .
Eines diese umwel bewuss en und nachhal igen Un e nehmen is die We ne & Me z
GmbH aus Mainz. Mi ih em ganzhei lichen Umwel managemen se z sie die essou cen-
und ohs o schonende He s ellung ih e Reinigungs- und P legemi el um. Bei ih en
Ma ken se zen sie au umwel e ägliche Inhal ss o e und Ve packungen und e zich en
schon sei den 80’e Jah en au den Einsa z on Phospha . De Nachhal igkei sgedanke
zeig sich nich nu in ih en P oduk en, sonde n auch in e lichen P ojek en, die om
Un e nehmen be ieben we den. So scha en sie mi eine ih e Ini ia i en eine Pla o m
ü das b anchenübe g ei ende En wickeln inno a i e und ökologische Ansä ze ü die
Wi scha und o schen an neuen Wegen ü das Recyceln on Kuns o en zu He s ellung
on Ve packungsma e ialien.
Das gemeinscha sbasie e Un e nehme um nu z die Vo eile und Ressou cen de
Gemeinscha als K a ü die wi scha liche, soziale und/ode Umwel en wicklung. Es
be ass sich mi dem Au bau on Kapazi ä en, de Mobilisie ung on Ressou cen sowie
dem Engagemen und de Zusammena bei eine gemeinscha lichen G uppe. Diese A
on Un e nehmen b ing die Menschenzusammen, ö de gegensei iges Ve auen und
scha ein kla es Ve s ändnis zwischen den e schiedenen In e esseng uppen. Die E löse
aus dem Gemeinscha sun e nehmen we den dahe un e den Mi gliede n au ge eil . Somi
inde un e nehme isches Handeln nich nu au de indi iduellen Ebene, sonde n auch
au eine G uppenebene s a .
Ein klassische Ve e e dieses Un e nehmensmodells is die VG Ve b auche gemeinscha
aus D esden. Sie be eib sechs Bio-Mä k e sowie einen Na u wa enladen und un e s ü z
mi ih em un e nehme ischen Handeln o wiegend egionale, ai e und umwel ge ech e
Wi scha sk eisläu e. Angebo en we den egionale und übe egionale Bio-Lebensmi el,
Kleidung, Kosme ik sowie Wa en des äglichen Beda s. Das Un e nehmen is gemein-
scha liches Eigen um alle Mi gliede , die einen mona lichen Be ag bezahlen und da ü zu
einem e güns ig en Genossenscha sp eis in den Läden einkau en und die VG demok a isch
mi ges al en können.
Re e ences
Aguinis, He man, and An e Gla as. 2012. Wha we know and don’ know abou co po a e social esponsibili y: A e iew and esea ch
agenda. Jou nal o Managemen 38: 932–68. [C ossRe ]
Al Halbusi, Hussam, Ped o So o-Acos a, and Simona Popa. 2023. Analysing e-en ep eneu ial in en ion om he heo y o planned
beha iou : The ole o social media use and pe cei ed social suppo . In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal
19: 1611–42. [C ossRe ]
Allen, Julie K. 2016. Sexy Danes, ipsy Ge mans: The use o posi i e cul u al s e eo ypes in na ion b anding e o s. Linguis ik Online
79: 215–30. [C ossRe ]
Ande son, Te y Lee, and Donald Leal. 1997. En i o-Capi alis s: Doing Good while Doing Well. Lanham: Rowman and Li le ield.
Angel, Pablo, Anna Jenkins, and Anna S ephens. 2018. Unde s anding en ep eneu ial success: A phenomenog aphic app oach.
In e na ional Small Business Jou nal 36: 611–36. [C ossRe ]
Aud e sch, Da id B., and E ik Lehmann. 2016. The Se en Sec e s o Ge many: Economic Resilience in an E a o Global Tu bulence. Ox o d:
Ox o d Uni e si y P ess.
Aus in, James, Howa d S e enson, and Jane Wei-Skille n. 2006. Social and comme cial En ep eneu ship: Same, di e en , o bo h?
En ep eneu ship: Theo y & P ac ice 30: 1–22. [C ossRe ]
Bacq, Sophie, Chan al Ha og, and B igi e Hoogendoo n. 2013. A quan i a i e compa ison o social and comme cial en ep eneu ship:
Towa d a mo e nuanced unde s anding o social en ep eneu ship o ganiza ions in con ex . Jou nal o Social En ep eneu ship
4: 40–68. [C ossRe ]
Ba o , F ancis. 1958. The ana omy o ma ke ailu e. Qua e ly Jou nal o Economics 72: 351–79. [C ossRe ]
Ba ilana, Julie, Michael Fue s ein, and Michael Lee. 2018. New P ospec s o O ganiza ional Democ acy? How he Join Pu sui o
Social and Financial Goals Challenges T adi ional O ganiza ional Designs. In Capi alism Beyond Mu uali y?: Pe spec i es In eg a ing
Philosophy and Social Science. Edi ed by S. Rangan. Ox o d: Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, pp. 256–88.
Be y, James W., and Janice Sanchez. 2019. Pe cei ing en ep eneu s: Job i le compa isons in wa m h and compe ence. Jou nal o
Business Ven u ing Insigh s 12: e00145. [C ossRe ]
Blanca Mena, M. José, Ra ael Ala cón Pos igo, Jaume A nau G as, Rose Bono Cab é, and Rebecca Bendayan. 2017. Non-no mal da a:
Is ANOVA s ill a alid op ion? Psico hema 29: 552–57.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 20 o 24
Bloom, Paul N., and Aa on K. Cha e ji. 2009. Scaling social en ep eneu ial impac . Cali o nia Managemen Re iew 51: 114–33. [C ossRe ]
B uni, A ila, Sil ia Ghe a di, and Ba ba a Poggio. 2004. En ep eneu -men ali y, gende and he s udy o women en ep eneu s.
Jou nal o O ganiza ional Change Managemen 17: 256–68. [C ossRe ]
Bu a i, Nicole a, Cécile Sillig, and Massimo Albanese. 2022. Communi y en e p ise, communi y en ep eneu ship and local
de elopmen : A li e a u e e iew on h ee decades o empi ical s udies and heo iza ions. En ep eneu ship & Regional De elopmen
34: 376–401. [C ossRe ]
Bu ns, Paul, And ew Mye s, and And ew Kakabadse. 1995. A e na ional s e eo ypes disc imina ing? Eu opean Managemen Jou nal
13: 212–17. [C ossRe ]
Can illon, Richa d. 1756. Essai su la Na u e du Comme ce. London: Fle che Gyles.
Can on, Emily, Da en Hedley, and Jenni e R. Spoo . 2023. The s e eo ype con en model and disabili ies. The Jou nal o Social Psychology
163: 480–500. [C ossRe ]
Cao, Zhe, and Xianwei Shi. 2021. A sys ema ic li e a u e e iew o en ep eneu ial ecosys ems in ad anced and eme ging economies.
Small Business Economics 57: 75–110. [C ossRe ]
Chipe a, Eleano Meda, Philipp K use, and Jhalukp eya Su ujlal. 2020. E ec s o gende on an eceden s o social en ep eneu ship
among uni e si y s uden s in Sou h A ica. In e na ional Jou nal o Business and Managemen S udies 12: 18–33.
Chipe a, Eleano Meda, Robe Ven e , and Philipp K use. 2022. Measu ing he Role o Reduc i e Bias in Social En e p ise Fo ma ion:
De elopmen and Valida ion o a Social En ep eneu ial In en ion Bias Scale. Jou nal o Social En ep eneu ship 13: 164–82.
[C ossRe ]
Ciambo i, Giacomo, And ea So ini, Da id Li lewood, and Abel Kino i Me u. 2021. Business Models o Sus ainable De elopmen :
The Case o a Kenyan Sus ainable En e p ise. In Responsible Managemen in Eme ging Ma ke s: A Mul isec o al Focus. Be lin and
Heidelbe g: Sp inge , pp. 215–42.
Coombes, Annie E., Lo e Hughes, and Ka ega Munene. 2019. Managing He i age, Making Peace: His o y, Iden i y and Memo y in
Con empo a y Kenya. London: Bloomsbu y Publishing.
Cuddy, Amy J. C., Susan T. Fiske, and Pe e Glick. 2008. Wa m h and Compe ence as Uni e sal Dimensions o Social Pe cep ion: The
S e eo ype Con en Model and he BIAS Map. In Ad ances in Expe imen al Social Psychology. Camb idge: Academic P ess, ol. 40,
pp. 61–149. [C ossRe ]
Cuddy, Amy J. C., Susan T. Fiske, Vi ginia S. Y. Kwan, Pe e Glick, S éphanie Demoulin, Jacques-Philippe Leyens, Michael Ha is Bond,
Jean-Claude C oize , Naomi Elleme s, Ed Sleebos, and e al. 2009. S e eo ype con en model ac oss cul u es: Towa ds uni e sal
simila i ies and some di e ences. B i ish Jou nal o Social Psychology 48: 1–33. [C ossRe ]
Cullen, Poppy. 2017. Kenya and B i ain A e Independence: Beyond Neo-Colonialism. Be lin and Heidelbe g: Sp inge .
Dana, L Leo-Paul, and Te esa E. Dana. 2007. Collec i e En ep eneu ship in a Mennoni e Communi y in Pa aguay. La in Ame ican
Business Re iew 8: 82–96. [C ossRe ]
Dean, Thomas J., and Je e y S. McMullen. 2007. Towa d a heo y o sus ainable en ep eneu ship: Reducing en i onmen al deg ada ion
h ough en ep eneu ial ac ion. Jou nal o Business Ven u ing 22: 50–76. [C ossRe ]
De lin, Alison M., and Daniel Wigh . 2021. Mechanisms and con ex in he San Pa ignano d ug eco e y communi y, I aly: A
quali a i e s udy o in o m ans e o Sco land. D ugs: Educa ion, P e en ion and Policy 28: 85–96. [C ossRe ]
Dudin, Mikhail Nikolae ich, Na alia Pa lo na I ashchenko, Alexande Geo gie ich Gu ino ich, Oleg Mikhailo ich Tolmache ,
and Lidiya Aleksand o na Sonina. 2019. En i onmen al en ep eneu ship: Cha ac e is ics o o ganiza ion and de elopmen .
En ep eneu ship and Sus ainabili y Issues 6: 1861–70. [C ossRe ]
Dus mann, Ch is ian, Be nd Fi zenbe ge , U a Schönbe g, and Alexand a Spi z-Oene . 2014. F om sick man o Eu ope o economic
supe s a : Ge many’s esu gen economy. Jou nal o Economic Pe spec i es 28: 167–88. [C ossRe ]
Faul, F anz, Edga E d elde , Albe -Geo g Lang, and Axel Buchne . 2007. G*Powe 3: A lexible s a is ical powe analysis p og am o
he social, beha io al, and biomedical sciences. Beha io Resea ch Me hods 39: 175–91. [C ossRe ]
Field, Andy. 2018. Disco e ing S a is ics Using IBM SPSS. London: Sage.
Fishe , Rosema y, Alex Ma i z, and An onio Lobo. 2014. E alua ing en ep eneu s’ pe cep ion o success. In e na ional Jou nal o
En ep eneu ial Beha io & Resea ch 20: 478–92. [C ossRe ]
Fiske, Susan T. 2018. S e eo ype Con en : Wa m h and Compe ence Endu e. Cu en Di ec ions in Psychological Science 27: 67–73.
[C ossRe ]
Fiske, Susan T., Amy J. C. Cuddy, Pe e Glick, and Jun Xu. 2002. A model o (o en mixed) s e eo ype con en : Compe ence and wa m h
espec i ely ollow om pe cei ed s a us and compe i ion. Jou nal o Pe sonali y and Social Psychology 82: 878–902. [C ossRe ]
Fulle , Ch is ie M., Ma cia J. Simme ing, Guclu A inc, Yasemin A inc, and Ba y J. Babin. 2016. Common me hods a iance de ec ion in
business esea ch. Jou nal o Business Resea ch 69: 3192–98. [C ossRe ]
Ga cía-Cab e a, An onia Me cedes, and M. G acia Ga cía-So o. 2008. Cul u al di e ences and en ep eneu ial beha iou : An
in a-coun y c oss-cul u al analysis in Cape Ve de. En ep eneu ship & Regional De elopmen 20: 451–83. [C ossRe ]
GEM. 2023. Global En ep eneu ship Moni o 2022/2023 Global Repo : Adap ing o a “New No mal”. A ailable online: h ps:
//www.gemconso ium.o g/ epo s/la es -global- epo (accessed on 17 Oc obe 2024).
Gio annini, Michela. 2015. Indigenous communi y en e p ises in Chiapas: A ehicle o buen i i ? Communi y De elopmen Jou nal
50: 71–87. [C ossRe ]
Gi den, Ellen R. 1992. ANOVA: Repea ed Measu es. London: Sage.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 21 o 24
Go gie ski, Ma jan J., M. E elina Ascalon, and U e S ephan. 2011. Small business owne s’ success c i e ia, a alues app oach o
pe sonal di e ences [A icle]. Jou nal o Small Business Managemen 49: 207–32. [C ossRe ]
G igo ye , Dmi y. 2022. E hnic s e eo ype con en beyond in e g oup ela ions wi hin socie ies: Explo ing he No h-Sou h hypo hesis
o compe ence and wa m h. C oss-Cul u al Resea ch 56: 345–84. [C ossRe ]
Gup a, Alka, Sa al Ba a, and Vishal K. Gup a. 2022. Gende , cul u e, and implici heo ies abou en ep eneu s: A c oss-na ional
in es iga ion. Small Business Economics 58: 1073–89. [C ossRe ]
Gup a, Vishal K., Alice M. Wieland, and Daniel B. Tu ban. 2019. Gende cha ac e iza ions in en ep eneu ship: A mul i-le el in es i-
ga ion o sex- ole s e eo ypes abou high-g ow h, comme cial, and social en ep eneu s. Jou nal o Small Business Managemen
57: 131–53. [C ossRe ]
Gup a, Vishal K., Daniel B. Tu ban, and Ashish Pa eek. 2013. Di e ences be ween Men and Women in Oppo uni y E alua ion as a
Func ion o Gende S e eo ypes and S e eo ype Ac i a ion. En ep eneu ship Theo y and P ac ice 37: 771–88. [C ossRe ]
Gup a, Vishal K., Daniel B. Tu ban, and Nachike M. Bhawe. 2008. The e ec o gende s e eo ype ac i a ion on en ep eneu ial
in en ions. Jou nal o Applied Psychology 93: 1053–61. [C ossRe ]
Ha ison, Albe A. 1977. Me e Exposu e. In Ad ances in Expe imen al Social Psychology. Edi ed by L. Be kowi z. Camb idge: Academic
P ess, ol. 10, pp. 39–83. [C ossRe ]
Hay on, James C., and Gab iella Caccio i. 2013. Is he e an en ep eneu ial cul u e? A e iew o empi ical esea ch. En ep eneu ship &
Regional De elopmen 25: 708–31. [C ossRe ]
Ho s ede, Gee . 1984. Cul u al dimensions in managemen and planning. Asia Paci ic Jou nal o Managemen 1: 81–99. [C ossRe ]
Ho s ede, Gee . 2011. Dimensionalizing cul u es: The Ho s ede model in con ex . Online Readings in Psychology and Cul u e 2: 1–26.
[C ossRe ]
Hogg, Michael A., and G aham M. Vaughan. 2010. Essen ials o Social Psychology. London: Pea son.
Howa d-G en ille, Jenni e , Ge ald F. Da is, Thomas Dyllick, C. Che Mille , S e an Thau, and Anne S. Tsui. 2019. Sus ainable
de elopmen o a be e wo ld: Con ibu ions o leade ship, managemen , and o ganiza ions. Academy o Managemen Disco e ies
5: 355–66. [C ossRe ]
Hö isch, Jacob, Jana Kolla , and S e en A. B iege . 2017. Wha in luences en i onmen al en ep eneu ship? A mul ile el analysis o he
de e minan s o en ep eneu s’ en i onmen al o ien a ion. Small Business Economics 48: 47–69. [C ossRe ]
Jayawa na, Dilani, Julia Rouse, and John Ki ching. 2013. En ep eneu mo i a ions and li e cou se. In e na ional Small Business Jou nal
31: 34–56. [C ossRe ]
Jennings, Jenni e E., and Va uhi Tonoyan. 2022. Resea ch on Gende S e eo yping and En ep eneu ship: Sugges ions o Some Pa hs
Wo h Pu suing. En ep eneu ship Resea ch Jou nal 12: 187–212. [C ossRe ]
Johannisson, Beng . 1990. Communi y en ep eneu ship-cases and concep ualiza ion. En ep eneu ship & Regional De elopmen 2: 71–88.
Kalden, Jan Niklas, James Cunningham, and Alis ai R. Ande son. 2017. The social s a us o en ep eneu s: Con as ing Ge man
pe spec i es. The In e na ional Jou nal o En ep eneu ship and Inno a ion 18: 91–104. [C ossRe ]
Kanaha a, S. 2006. A Re iew o he De ini ions o S e eo ype and a P oposal o a P og essional Model. Indi idual Di e ences Resea ch
4: 306–21.
Kaushik, Vinee , Shobha Tewa i, S ee as Sahas anamam, and P adeep Kuma Ho a. 2023. Towa ds a p ecise unde s anding o social
en ep eneu ship: An in eg a ed bibliome ic–machine lea ning based e iew and esea ch agenda. Technological Fo ecas ing and
Social Change 191: 122516. [C ossRe ]
Kawha u, Me a a, Paul Tapsell, and Ch is ine Woods. 2017. Indigenous en ep eneu ship in Ao ea oa New Zealand. Jou nal o
En e p ising Communi ies: People and Places in he Global Economy 11: 20–38. [C ossRe ]
Keogh, Paul Douglas, and Michael Jay Polonsky. 1998. En i onmen al commi men : A basis o en i onmen al en ep eneu ship?
Jou nal o O ganiza ional Change Managemen 11: 38–49. [C ossRe ]
Kock, Ned. 2020. Ha man’s single ac o es in PLS-SEM: Checking o common me hod bias. Da a Analysis Pe spec i es Jou nal 2: 1–6.
Koma su Cip iani, Tamami, Alessand o Dese i, Ma ia Kle e beck, F ancesca Rizzo, and Judi h Te s iep. 2020. Business models
& social inno a ion: Mission-d i en e sus p o i -d i en o ganisa ions. In e na ional Re iew o Applied Economics 34: 541–66.
[C ossRe ]
Ko nad , Anna E., Peggy Voss, and Klaus Ro he mund. 2017. Age S e eo ypes and Sel -Views Re isi ed: Pa e ns o In e naliza ion
and P ojec ion P ocesses Ac oss he Li e Span. The Jou nals o Ge on ology: Se ies B 72: 582–92. [C ossRe ] [PubMed]
K use, Philipp. 2020a. Can he e only be one?—An empi ical compa ison o ou models on social en ep eneu ial in en ion o ma ion.
In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal 16: 641–65. [C ossRe ]
K use, Philipp. 2020b. Sp eading en ep eneu ial news—In es iga ing media in luence on social en ep eneu ial an eceden s. G een
Finance 2: 284–301. [C ossRe ]
K use, Philipp. 2024. Chance o Shine o Heading o Disas e ?—Explo ing Ge man Social En e p ises’ S akeholde Communica ion
Facing COVID-19-Induced Lockdowns. Jou nal o Social En ep eneu ship. [C ossRe ]
K use, Philipp, and Flo ian Rosing. 2023. An Expe imen al In es iga ion o Pe cei ed Di e ences in Pe sonali y and Leade ship
A ibu es o Social En ep eneu s Compa ed o o P o i En ep eneu s and Non-P o i O ganisa ions Leade s. The Jou nal o
En ep eneu ship 32: 75–110. [C ossRe ]
K use, Philipp, Dominika Wach, and Jü gen Wegge. 2021. Wha mo i a es social en ep eneu s? A me a-analysis on p edic o s o he
in en ion o ound a social en e p ise. Jou nal o Small Business Managemen 59: 477–508. [C ossRe ]
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 22 o 24
K use, Philipp, Dominika Wach, Síl ia Cos a, and Juan An onio Mo iano. 2019. Values ma e , don’ hey?-Combining heo y o
planned beha io and pe sonal alues as p edic o s o social en ep eneu ial in en ion. Jou nal o Social En ep eneu ship 10: 55–83.
[C ossRe ]
K use, Philipp, Eleano Meda Chipe a, and Robe Ven e . 2024. Do good and measu e well!—Examining he alidi y o wo posi i e
social change measu emen s in Sou h A ican social en e p ises. Jou nal o En ep eneu ship in Eme ging Economies 16: 1298–1318.
[C ossRe ]
Kucke z, And eas, Alexande Be nha d, Elisabe h S. Be ge , Ondˇ ej D oule ý, Raine Ha ms, Sa ah Jack, and Ewald Kible . 2023.
Scaling he igh answe s–C ea ing and main aining hope h ough social en ep eneu ship in ligh o humani a ian c ises. Jou nal
o Business Ven u ing Insigh s 19: e00356. [C ossRe ]
Kucke z, And eas, Elisabe h S. C. Be ge , and Alicia P ocho a. 2020. Mispe cep ion o en ep eneu ship and i s consequences o he
pe cep ion o en ep eneu ial ailu e—The Ge man case. In e na ional Jou nal o En ep eneu ial Beha io & Resea ch 26: 1865–85.
[C ossRe ]
Kuppens, Line, A nim Lange , and Sulley Ib ahim. 2018. ‘A eache is no poli ician’: S e eo ypic a i udes o seconda y school eache s
in Kenya. In e na ional Jou nal o Educa ional De elopmen 62: 270–80. [C ossRe ]
Küsshaue , Alexande , and Ma hias Baum. 2023. The good, he bad and he unce ain: Employe s’ pe cep ions o o me en ep eneu s.
Jou nal o Business Ven u ing 38: 106270. [C ossRe ]
Laguía, Ana, C is ina Ga cía-Ael, Dominika Wach, and Juan A. Mo iano. 2019. “Think en ep eneu - hink male”: A ask and
ela ionship scale o measu e gende s e eo ypes in en ep eneu ship. In e na ional En ep eneu ship and Managemen Jou nal
15: 749–72. [C ossRe ]
Lane, Da id. 2016. The assump ion o sphe ici y in epea ed-measu es designs: Wha i means and wha o do when i is iola ed.
Quan i a i e Me hods o Psychology 12: 114–22. [C ossRe ]
La iole e, E ic Michael, Mi una Radu Le eb e, and Oli ie B unel. 2012. The impac o s o y bound en ep eneu ial ole models on
sel -e icacy and en ep eneu ial in en ion. In e na ional Jou nal o En ep eneu ial Beha io & Resea ch 18: 720–42.
Leyens, Jacques-Philippe, Vincen Yze by , and Geo ges Schad on. 1994. S e eo ypes and Social Cogni ion. London: Sage.
Liñán, F ancisco, Juan A. Mo iano, and Inmaculada Jaén. 2015. Indi idualism and en ep eneu ship: Does he pa e n depend on he
social con ex ? In e na ional Small Business Jou nal 34: 760–76. [C ossRe ]
Luna Co es, Gonzalo. 2024. A sys ema ic li e a u e e iew o he s e eo ype con en model in he ields o psychology and ma ke ing:
Main hemes examined in he li e a u e and an agenda o u u e esea ch in ma ke ing. F on ie s in Psychology 15: 1392629.
[C ossRe ]
Malms öm, Malin, Ba ba a Bu kha d, Cha lo a Si én, Dean Shephe d, and Joakim Wincen . 2024. A Me a-Analysis o he Impac o
En ep eneu s’ Gende on hei Access o Bank Finance. Jou nal o Business E hics 192: 803–20. [C ossRe ]
Manzano-Ga cía, Guadalupe, and Juan-Ca los Ayala-Cal o. 2020. En ep eneu ial O ien a ion: I s Rela ionship wi h he En ep eneu ’s
Subjec i e Success in SMEs. Sus ainabili y 12: 4547. [C ossRe ]
McCauley, Cla k, Ch is ophe L. S i , and Ma y Segal. 1980. S e eo yping: F om p ejudice o p edic ion. Psychological Bulle in 87:
195–208. [C ossRe ]
McClelland, Da id C. 1961. The Achie emen Socie y. New Yo k: Von Nos and.
McSweeney, B endan. 2002. Ho s ede’s model o na ional cul u al di e ences and hei consequences: A iumph o ai h-a ailu e o
analysis. Human Rela ions 55: 89–118. [C ossRe ]
Menge , Ka l. 1871. P inciples o Economics. New Yo k: New Yo k Uni e si y P ess.
Menke, Cha lo . 2020. The ole o en ep eneu ial s e eo ypes o comme cial and social s a up in en ions. In The En ep eneu ial
Beha iou : Un eiling he Cogni i e and Emo ional Aspec o En ep eneu ship. Edi ed by A. Capu o and M. M. Pelleg ini. Ben ley:
Eme ald, pp. 113–45.
Mon oya, R. Ma hew, Robe S. Ho on, Jack L. Ve ea, Ma yna Ci kowicz, and Elissa A. Laube . 2017. A e-examina ion o he me e
exposu e e ec : The in luence o epea ed exposu e on ecogni ion, amilia i y, and liking. Psychological Bulle in 143: 459–98.
[C ossRe ] [PubMed]
Mu phy, Pa ick J., Jianwen Liao, and Ha old P. Welsch. 2006. A concep ual his o y o en ep eneu ial hough . Jou nal o Managemen
His o y 12: 12–35. [C ossRe ]
Nai uli, Joseph Gi ile, and Sellah Nasimiyu King’o o. 2018. An examina ion o e hnic s e eo ypes and coded language used in Kenya
and i s implica ion o na ional cohesion. In e na ional Jou nal o De elopmen and Sus ainabili y 7: 2670–93.
No h, Douglass C. 1991. Ins i u ions. Jou nal o Economic Pe spec i es 5: 97–112. [C ossRe ]
Olsson, Ma ia, and Sa ah E. Ma iny. 2018. Does Exposu e o Coun e s e eo ypical Role Models In luence Gi ls’ and Women’s Gende
S e eo ypes and Ca ee Choices? A Re iew o Social Psychological Resea ch [Re iew]. F on ie s in Psychology 9: 2264. [C ossRe ]
Oo, Pyay P., S e en A. C eek, and Leah D. Sheppa d. 2022. Pe cei ed wa m h and compe ence in c owd unding: Which ma e s mo e
and o whom? Jou nal o Business Ven u ing Insigh s 17: e00288. [C ossRe ]
Pa ke , Simon C. 2018. The Economics o En ep eneu ship. Camb idge: Camb idge Uni e si y P ess.
Pe edo, Ana Ma ía. 2003. Eme ging S a egies Agains Po e y: The Road Less T a eled. Jou nal o Managemen Inqui y 12: 155–66.
[C ossRe ]
Pe eaul , William D. 1975. Con olling O de -E ec Bias. The Public Opinion Qua e ly 39: 544–51. [C ossRe ]
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 23 o 24
Pe ini, F ancesco, Clodia Vu o, and Lau a A. Cos anzo. 2010. A p ocess-based iew o social en ep eneu ship: F om oppo uni y
iden i ica ion o scaling-up social change in he case o San Pa ignano. En ep eneu ship and Regional De elopmen 22: 515–34.
[C ossRe ]
Pie e, Anne, on Y onne F ied ichs, and Joakim Wincen . 2014. En ep eneu ship in Socie y: A Re iew and De ini ion o Communi y-
based En ep eneu ship Resea ch. In Social En ep eneu ship. Le e aging Economic, Poli ical, and Cul u al Dimensions. Edi ed by A.
Lunds öm, C. Zhou, Y. on F ied ichs and E. Sundin. Be lin and Heidelbe g: Sp inge , pp. 239–57. [C ossRe ]
Powell, Richa d. 2002. Language Planning and he B i ish Empi e: Compa ing Pakis an, Malaysia and Kenya. Cu en Issues in
Language Planning 3: 205–79. [C ossRe ]
Rawhouse , Hans, Michael Cummings, and Sco L. Newbe . 2019. Social impac measu emen : Cu en app oaches and u u e
di ec ions o social en ep eneu ship esea ch. En ep eneu ship Theo y and P ac ice 43: 82–115. [C ossRe ]
Saebi, Tina, Nicolai J. Foss, and S e an Linde . 2019. Social en ep eneu ship esea ch: Pas achie emen s and u u e p omises. Jou nal
o Managemen 45: 70–95. [C ossRe ]
Sassmannshausen, Sean Pa ick, and Ch is ine Volkmann. 2018. The scien ome ics o social en ep eneu ship and i s es ablishmen as
an academic ield. Jou nal o Small Business Managemen 56: 251–73. [C ossRe ]
Schneide , Da id J. 2005. The Psychology o S e eo yping. New Yo k: Guil o d P ess.
Schumpe e , Joseph Alois. 1934. The Theo y o Economic De elopmen . Camb idge: Ha a d Uni e si y P ess.
Shane, Sco , and S. Venka a aman. 2000. The P omise o En ep eneu ship as a Field o Resea ch. Academy o Managemen Re iew
25: 217–26. [C ossRe ]
Si uma, Ma in, E elyn Mahe o, and Eliud Ki igia. 2018. Gende Based P ejudice and S e eo ypes in E hnic Con lic s: A Case S udy in
Eldo e Township, Kenya. Co e ain Jou nal o Languages, Humani ies, Social Sciences and Educa ion 1: 11–22.
S anciu, Ad ian, J. Ch is ophe Coh s, Ka ja Hanke, and Alin Ga eliuc. 2017. Wi hin-cul u e a ia ion in he con en o s e eo ypes:
Applica ion and de elopmen o he s e eo ype con en model in an Eas e n Eu opean cul u e. The Jou nal o Social Psychology 157:
611–28. [C ossRe ]
S ephan, U e, and Sau a Pa hak. 2016. Beyond cul u al alues? Cul u al leade ship ideals and en ep eneu ship. Jou nal o Business
Ven u ing 31: 505–23. [C ossRe ]
S ephan, U e, Lo aine M. Uhlane , and Ch is ophe S ide. 2015. Ins i u ions and social en ep eneu ship: The ole o ins i u ional
oids, ins i u ional suppo , and ins i u ional con igu a ions. Jou nal o In e na ional Business S udies 46: 308–31. [C ossRe ]
S ephan, U e, Malcolm Pa e son, Cia a Kelly, and Johanna Mai . 2016. O ganiza ions d i ing posi i e social change: A e iew and an
in eg a i e amewo k o change p ocesses. Jou nal o Managemen 42: 1250–81. [C ossRe ]
Swim, Jane K. 1994. Pe cei ed e sus me a-analy ic e ec sizes: An assessmen o he accu acy o gende s e eo ypes. Jou nal o
Pe sonali y and Social Psychology 66: 21–36. [C ossRe ]
Te jesen, Si i, Jan Lepou e, Jus o Rachida, and Niels Bosma. 2010. Global En ep eneu ship Moni o 2009 Repo on Social En ep eneu ship.
London: Global En ep eneu ship Resea ch Associa ion.
Thompson, John L., and Bob Dohe y. 2006. The di e se wo ld o social en e p ise: A collec ion o social en e p ise s o ies. In e na ional
Jou nal o Social Economics 33: 361–75. [C ossRe ]
Tiessen, James H. 1997. Indi idualism, collec i ism, and en ep eneu ship: A amewo k o in e na ional compa a i e esea ch.
Jou nal o Business Ven u ing 12: 367–84. [C ossRe ]
T acey, Paul, and Nelson Phillips. 2007. The dis inc i e challenge o educa ing social en ep eneu s: A pos sc ip and ejoinde o he
special issue on en ep eneu ship educa ion [A icle]. Academy o Managemen Lea ning & Educa ion 6: 264–71.
T acey, Paul, Nelson Phillips, and Helen Haugh. 2005. Beyond Philan h opy: Communi y En e p ise as a Basis o Co po a e
Ci izenship. Jou nal o Business E hics 58: 327–44. [C ossRe ]
Tu ke , Duygu, and Ce en Al un as Vu al. 2017. Embedding social inno a ion p ocess in o he ins i u ional con ex : Voids o suppo s.
Technological Fo ecas ing and Social Change 119: 98–113. [C ossRe ]
an P aag, C. Mi jam, and Pe e H. Ve sloo . 2007. Wha is he alue o en ep eneu ship? A e iew o ecen esea ch. Small Business
Economics 29: 351–82. [C ossRe ]
Vedula, Siddha h, Claudia Doblinge , Desi ée Pacheco, Je ey G. Yo k, Sophie Bacq, Michael V. Russo, and Thomas J. Dean. 2022.
En ep eneu ship o he public good: A e iew, c i ique, and pa h o wa d o social and en i onmen al en ep eneu ship
esea ch. Academy o Managemen Annals 16: 391–425. [C ossRe ]
Vi ak, J. 2017. Facebook as a Resea ch Tool in he Social and Compu e Sciences. In The Sage Handbook o Social Media Resea ch Me hods.
Edi ed by L. Sloan and A. Quan-Haase. London: Sage.
Vole y, Thie y, and Tim Mazza ol. 2015. The e olu ion o he small business and en ep eneu ship ield: A bibliome ic in es iga ion
o a icles published in he In e na ional Small Business Jou nal. In e na ional Small Business Jou nal 33: 374–96. [C ossRe ]
Wach, Dominika, Philipp K use, Síl ia Cos a, and Juan An onio Mo iano. 2023. Explo ing Social and Comme cial En ep eneu ial
In en ions om Theo y o Planned Beha iou Pe spec i e: A C oss-Coun y S udy among Namibian and Ge man S uden s.
Jou nal o Social En ep eneu ship 14: 226–47. [C ossRe ]
Wach, Dominika, U e S ephan, and Ma jan Go gie ski. 2016. Mo e han money: De eloping an in eg a i e mul i- ac o ial measu e o
en ep eneu ial success. In e na ional Small Business Jou nal 34: 1098–121. [C ossRe ]
Wilde, Anne , and Amanda B. Diekman. 2005. C oss-Cul u al Simila i ies and Di e ences in Dynamic S e eo ypes: A Compa ison
Be ween Ge many and he Uni ed S a es. Psychology o Women Qua e ly 29: 188–96. [C ossRe ]
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 302 24 o 24
Yoo, Boonghee, Na een Don hu, and Tomasz Lena owicz. 2011. Measu ing Ho s ede’s i e dimensions o cul u al alues a he
indi idual le el: De elopmen and alida ion o CVSCALE. Jou nal o In e na ional Consume Ma ke ing 23: 193–210.
Young, Dennis R. 1983. I No o P o i , o Wha ? Lanham: Lexing on Books.
Yunus, Muhammad. 1999. The G ameen Bank. Scien i ic Ame ican 281: 114–19. [C ossRe ]
Zellwege , Thomas, Philipp Siege , and F ank Hal e . 2011. Should I s ay o should I go? Ca ee choice in en ions o s uden s wi h
amily business backg ound. Jou nal o Business Ven u ing 26: 521–36. [C ossRe ]
Zimme man, Donald W. 2004. A no e on p elimina y es s o equali y o a iances. B i ish Jou nal o Ma hema ical and S a is ical
Psychology 57: 173–81. [C ossRe ]
Disclaime /Publishe ’s No e: The s a emen s, opinions and da a con ained in all publica ions a e solely hose o he indi idual
au ho (s) and con ibu o (s) and no o MDPI and/o he edi o (s). MDPI and/o he edi o (s) disclaim esponsibili y o any inju y o
people o p ope y esul ing om any ideas, me hods, ins uc ions o p oduc s e e ed o in he con en .
