Ka ic, Sa ah; Heissle , Jan; Al haus, Ma ie-Ch is in
A icle
Digi al and mul i-channel ci izen pa icipa ion in Ge many:
A comp ehensi e o e iew o pa e ns, me hods and
de e minan s
Raum o schung und Raumo dnung / Spa ial Resea ch and Planning
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Leibniz-Fo schungsne zwe k "R – Räumliches Wissen ü Gesellscha und Umwel | Spa ial
Knowledge o Socie y and En i onmen "
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ka ic, Sa ah; Heissle , Jan; Al haus, Ma ie-Ch is in (2024) : Digi al and mul i-
channel ci izen pa icipa ion in Ge many: A comp ehensi e o e iew o pa e ns, me hods and
de e minan s, Raum o schung und Raumo dnung / Spa ial Resea ch and Planning, ISSN 1869-4179,
oekom e lag, München, Vol. 82, Iss. 3, pp. 215-230,
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BEITRAG ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS
Digi al and mul i-channel ci izen pa icipa ion in
Ge many: A comp ehensi e o e iew o pa e ns,
me hods and de e minan s
Sa ah Ka ic , Jan Heissle , Ma ie-Ch is in Al haus
Recei ed: 7 July 2023 Accep ed: 30 No embe 2023 Published online: 9 Feb ua y 2024
Abs ac
Ci izen pa icipa ion has played an inc easingly ele an ole
inspa ialplanningandde elopmen aiming oshapesus ain-
able and inno a i e p ocesses since he 1970s. Ne e heless,
analogue pa icipa ion is associa ed wi h a ious p oblems,
such as social selec i i y and a loss o ci ic us in adminis-
a ion and poli ics. Agains his backg ound, high expec a-
ions lie in he de elopmen o digi al pa icipa ion o ma s,
which ha e signi ican lychanged he pa icipa ion landscape.
Despi e he apid de elopmen o digi al pa icipa ion based
on new echnologies and ex e nal ac o s such as he Co id-
19 pandemic, he e is s ill a lack o comp ehensi e empi i-
cal s udies on spa ial pa e ns and de e minan s. The e o e,
he aim o he pape is o gi e an o e iew o he pa e ns,
me hodsandde e minan so digi aland mul i-channelpa i-
cipa ion in Ge many. We comp ehensi ely in es iga ed digi al
and mul i-channel pa icipa ion p ocesses on he websi es o
Ge man ci ies and dis ic s – abou 4,000 app oaches in o-
al.The esul sshowspa ialdispa i iesindigi al pa icipa ion
D . Sa ah Ka ic, Ins i u ü Geog aphie, Jus us-Liebig-Uni e -
si ä Gießen, Senckenbe gs aße 1, 35390 Gießen, Ge many
sa ah.ka ic@geog .uni-giessen.de
Jan Heissle , Ins i u ü Geog aphie, Jus us-Liebig-Uni e si ä
Gießen, Senckenbe gs aße 1, 35390 Gießen, Ge many
jan.heissle @geog .uni-giessen.de
Ma ie-Ch is inAl haus, Ins i u ü Geog aphie, Jus us-Liebig-Uni-
e si ä Gießen, Senckenbe gs aße 1, 35390 Gießen, Ge many
ma ie.c.al haus@geog .uni-giessen.de
© 2024 by he au ho (s); licensee oekom. This Open
Access a icle is published unde a C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
4.0 In e na ional Licence (CC BY).
p ocesses. While he a ailabili y o b oadband in e ne and
public deb do no signi ican ly in luence he digi al pa ici-
pa ion densi y in dis ic s and ci ies, low elec ion u nou s go
along wi h high densi ies. This sugges s ha he adminis a-
ions a e esponding o poli ical disin e es wi h digi al pa i-
cipa ion.The esul salsoindica e ha digi alpa icipa ioncan
belesssociallyselec i e,ashighsha eso popula ionwi hou
Ge manci izenship,highmig a ion a esandlowemploymen
a es ha e signi ican posi i e e ec s on digi al pa icipa ion.
Keywo ds: Ci izen pa icipa ion digi al pa icipa ion
spa ial planning spa ial de elopmen
Digi ale und meh kanalige Pa izipa ion in
Deu schland: Ein um assende Übe blick übe
S uk u en, Me hoden und De e minan en
Zusammen assung
Bü ge be eiligung spiel sei den 1970e -Jah en in de Raum-
planung und -en wicklung eine zunehmend ele an e Rolle
zu Ges al ung nachhal ige und inno a i e P ozesse. Den-
noch is analoge Pa izipa ion mi P oblemen wie soziale
Selek i i ä und dem Ve lus bü ge scha lichen Ve auens
in Ve wal ung und Poli ik e bunden. Vo diesem Hin e g und
liegen hohe E wa ungen in digi alen Be eiligungs o ma en,
die das Be eiligungsspek um au g und neue Technologien
und ex e nen Fak o en, wie de Co id-19-Pandemie, deu lich
e ände haben. Dennoch ehlen bislang um assende em-
pi ische S udien zu äumlichen Mus e n und De e minan en.
Diese Bei aggib einenÜbe blickübe dieMus e ,Me hoden
und De e minan en digi ale und meh kanalige Be eiligung
in Deu schland.Dazu wu den die Websei endeu sche S äd e
undLandk eiseum assendun e such –insgesam und4.000
Be eiligungsansä ze. Die E gebnisse zeigen äumliche Un-
Raum o schung und Raumo dnung | Spa ial Resea ch and Planning (2024) 82/3: 215–230 215
S. Ka ic e al.
e schiede bei digi alen Be eiligungs e ah en. Wäh end die
Ve ügba kei onB ei bandin e ne undö en licheSchulden
keinensigni ikan enEin lussau dieVe ah ensdich einLand-
k eisen und S äd en haben, geh eine nied ige Wahlbe eili-
gungmi hohenBe eiligungsdich eneinhe .Diesgib Hinweise
da au , dass Ve wal ungen mi digi ale Pa izipa ion au poli-
isches Desin e esse eagie en. Die E gebnisse deu en zudem
da au hin, dass digi ale Be eiligung wenige sozial selek-
i sein kann, da hohe Be ölke ungsan eile ohne deu sche
S aa sbü ge scha , Mig a ions a en und nied ige Beschä i-
gungsquo endigi aleBe eiligungsangebo esigni ikan posi i
beein lussen.
Schlüsselwö e : Pa izipa ion digi ale Be eiligung
Raumplanung Raumen wicklung
1 In oduc ion
Ci ies a e g owing apidly, hus u ban policy aces he chal-
lenges o u ban ans o ma ion and enabling social wel a e
and jus ice (Ho ik/Giannoumis 2022: 2). Since a majo pa
o he wo ld’s popula ion li es in ci ies, an impo an ole is
played by local and u ban go e nance (Sil a 2020:2),which
has wi nessed a collabo a i e and pa icipa o y u n in e-
cen decades (Dean 2018: 180). Ci izen pa icipa ion as he
in ol emen and engagemen o ci izens in decision-making
p ocesses has been key in he con ex o sus ainable plan-
ning and li es yles since he 1970s (Amado/San os/Mou a
e al. 2010: 102; Meschede 2020: 201; Tu ken/Eyuboglu
2021: 173). Ci izens a e mos influenced by he u ban en i-
onmen and should be s ongly in eg a ed in he go e nance
p ocess (Bas os/Fe nández-Caballe o/Pe ei a e al. 2022:
14; Lega d/Ho ik 2022: 168). Collabo a i e and coope a-
i e planning hus elies on ci izen pa icipa ion o enable
inno a i e solu ions o shaping ci ies (Lahode/Schaumann
2022: 292). O e all, ci izen pa icipa ion o ma s can lead
o g ea e anspa ency o planning p ocesses o he public
as well as be e decision- and policy-making by local poli-
ics and adminis a ion (Caddy 2005: 126; Meschede 2020:
202).
Agains his backg ound and in iew o he ele ance o
he a ious le els o go e nance in Ge many, local pa ici-
pa o y go e nance plays a cen al ole in he Ge man plan-
ning sys em (Walk 2008: 45). Ye , pa icipa o y planning
p ocesses a e flawed in p ac ice and associa ed wi h a ious
p oblems including a lack o in e es and us , inequali ies,
selec i i y and pa icipa ion ba ie s o unde ep esen ed
g oups (E ans-Cowley/Hollande 2010: 397; Mo ais 2022:
5; Akmen ina 2023). Due o he c i icism o analogue ci i-
zen pa icipa ion, he use o digi al echnologies o imp o e
digi al pa icipa ion in planning p ocesses is a key s ep o-
wa ds g ea e ci izen empowe men (Sil a 2020: 7). Digi al
pa icipa ion p ocesses ha e he po en ial o be cheape and
mo e efficien and can lowe ba ie s o pa icipa ion as hey
a e easie o access (Kubicek/Aichholze 2016: 16). In Ge -
many, digi al pa icipa ion is booming, especially since pub-
lic esis ance agains S u ga 211(Ma ini/F i zsche 2015:
123) and mos ecen ly due o social dis ancing du ing he
Co id-19 pandemic (Ho ik/Giannoumis 2022: 1). Despi e
he p ac ical ele ance o such app oaches, he e is a s ong
agmen a ion o opic- ela ed empi ical s udies (Kubicek/
Aichholze 2016: 11; F eschi/Rony/No bje g 2009: 65).
Agains his backg ound, he aim o he pape is o p o-
ide an o e iew o he p ac ice o digi al and mul i-channel
ci izen pa icipa ion a he local le el in Ge many and hus
o con ibu e o unde s andings o digi al pa icipa ion in
spa ial planning and de elopmen . Based on sys ema ic e-
sea ch o digi al pa icipa ion p ocesses ini ia ed by ci ies
and dis ic s, we aim o answe he ollowing esea ch ques-
ions:
– How is he digi al pa icipa ion landscape in Ge many
shaped ega ding he a eas o applica ion, he use o me h-
ods and he spa ial dis ibu ion?
– How do socio-economic and demog aphic cha ac e is ics
o Ge man dis ic s impac he applica ion o digi al and
mul i-channel pa icipa ion p ocesses?
The pape is s uc u ed as ollows. In he fi s sec ion, we
p esen he e olu ion o pa icipa ion in he con ex o u ban
and egional go e nance, he legal amewo k and he exis -
ing challenges. On his basis, we discuss he digi alisa ion
o ci izen pa icipa ion, i s chances and associa ed isks. In
he empi ical pa o he pape , we fi s p o ide an o e iew
o he esea ch design and he da a be o e we p esen he
s a us quo o digi al pa icipa ion in Ge many, i s spa ial dis-
ibu ion pa e ns and de e minan s in he findings sec ion.
Finally, we conclude wi h a discussion and summa y.
2 Pa icipa ion in spa ial planning and
de elopmen
2.1 A b ie disambigua ion
Fi s , we b iefly define he concep o ci izen pa icipa-
ion. Acco ding o Ho ik and Giannoumis (2022: 3), ci -
1S u ga 21 is a la ge-scale Deu sche Bahn p ojec o con e
S u ga ’s main ailway s a ion, which was subjec o massi e
p o es s in he nough ies, peaking in 2010, due o in e alia a lack
o democ a ic legi imacy, planning de ici s and high cos s (No y/
Pe e s 2012: 128–129; Ma ini/F i zsche 2015:123).
216 Raum o schung und Raumo dnung | Spa ial Resea ch and Planning (2024) 82/3: 215–230
Digi al and mul i-channelci izen pa icipa ionin Ge many: A comp ehensi eo e iew o pa e ns, me hods and ...
izen pa icipa ion in gene al e e s o “ olun a y con ibu-
ions o in ol emen o ci izens in public decision-making”,
al hough hey do no add ess he go e nance le els o pa -
icipa ion. In he con ex o Ge many, howe e , he a ious
ede al, s a e, egional and local le els o go e nance in
he planning sys em, wi h he cen al significance o he
local le el, mus be aken in o accoun . Jiang, Gee man
and Wi e (2019: 249) e e o he local le el by desc ibing
pa icipa o y planning as aising awa eness o local chal-
lenges and he in ol emen o ci izens in local decision-
making p ocesses. A he u ban le el, Mo ais (2022:3)ad-
d esses he dimensions o pa icipa ion as ins i u ionalised
and non-ins i u ionalised pa icipa ion. Ins i u ionalised pa -
icipa ion p ocesses a e o ganised op-down, such as ci i-
zen assemblies, while non-ins i u ionalised pa icipa ion de-
sc ibes a he bo om-up p o es s and e en s.
In his pape , we unde s and ci izen pa icipa ion as he
in ol emen and engagemen o ci izens in planning and
decision-making p ocesses a diffe en go e nance le els.
Since he 1980s, hie a chical adminis a i e s uc u es o
go e nmen s ha e inc easingly e ol ed in o agile o ms o
go e nance ne wo ks o accommoda e he collec i e needs
o he local popula ion (Taylo 2012: 15; Sil a 2020:2).
This e olu ion is also e e ed o as pa icipa o y go e -
nance wi hin he collabo a i e o pa icipa o y u n (Dean
2018: 180). In Ge many, his pa icipa o y go e nance was
os e ed a he local le el in he 1990s h ough he in oduc-
ion o di ec elec ions, di ec -democ a ic elemen s such as
e e endums, and delibe a i e democ acy in he o m o lo-
cal agenda p ocesses (Walk 2008: 21).
2.2 Rele ance and unc ions o ci izen
pa icipa ion
Pa icipa ion has mul iple unc ions and effec s o ci ies
and egions and hei ci izens. Sil a (2020: 2) desc ibes ci -
izen pa icipa ion as a p ocess ha imp o es he esul s o
planning, educes cos s, inc eases anspa ency and builds
us . Ci izens a e di ec ly affec ed by he de elopmen s in
hei ci y and can he e o e p o ide specific sugges ions
o hei en i onmen (Bas os/Fe nández-Caballe o/Pe ei a
e al. 2022: 14; Lahode/Schaumann 2022: 292). Thus, pa -
icipa ion enables an openness o new ideas and pe spec-
i es. A kind o in e media y a ena be ween poli ical powe
and ci il socie y eme ges (Meschede 2020: 201; Sie a/O
2022: 45). Thus, an ac i e commi men a ises, gi ing he po-
pula ion a sense o empowe men (Kang 2014: 412). T ans-
o ma i e and collec i e ideas need o eme ge o ci ies
o add ess u ban issues, as highligh ed du ing he Co id-
19 pandemic (Mo ais 2022: 1). Pa icipa ion enables ci i-
zens o alue he esou ces used in planning p ocesses and
hus new sus ainable ac i i ies and planning p ocesses can
eme ge (Amado/San os/Mou a e al. 2010: 102). In his
way, ci ies and egions can ake new pa hs owa ds sus-
ainable ans o ma ion h ough new pa icipa o y planning
p ocesses (Amado/San os/Mou a e al. 2010: 107).
2.3 On legal se ings and sho comings o
pa icipa ion in Ge many
The ele ance o pa icipa ion and coope a i e policy-mak-
ing has been ecognised globally and discussed h ough con-
e ences and ag eemen s (i.e. Local Agenda, Sus ainable De-
elopmen Goals) since he 1970s (Tu ken/Eyuboglu 2021:
173). In Ge many, he Fede al Building Code (Baugese z-
buch) cu en ly con ains guidelines o he implemen a ion
o o mal pa icipa ion in planning p ocesses. These include
mee ings, public displays and w i en commen s. In o mal
pa icipa ion, such as u u e wo kshops, is no legally egu-
la ed, bu can be implemen ed in addi ion o o mal pa ici-
pa ion in planning (Kaczo owski 2014: 87). Ne e heless, in
o de o s eng hen a ious o ms o pa icipa ion, he s a e
and ede al minis ies ha e published a g owing numbe
o handbooks on ins i u ionalisa ion in ecen yea s (Sippel
2015: 32).
O e ime, pa icipa ion has been u he enhanced by
a ious inno a ions. Howe e , challenges emain in p ac-
ice. Unequal dis ibu ion o powe in ace- o- ace pa ici-
pa ion is a cen al p oblem. Pa icipa ion is o en only one-
way and is used o in o m and legi imise finalised decisions
(E ans-Cowley/Hollande 2010: 399). Mo eo e , i is chal-
lenging o he adminis a ion o in eg a e disad an aged
and less a icula e popula ion g oups in o he p ocess (E -
iö 2015: 303). Ci izens a e hus excluded om he ac ual
decision-making and a e asc ibed a spec a o ole (Nyse h/
Ringholm/Agge 2019: 14; Ca ajal Be múdez 2022: 160).
The will o mo e anspa en and cons an communica ion
is g owing (Fa hejalali/Jain 2019: 217). In con as , a lack
o in e es in pa icipa ion and us in poli ics and he ad-
minis a ion is e iden among ci izens (Akmen ina 2023).
Fiscal c ises and he associa ed limi ed go e nmen al e-
sou ces lead o a decline in ci izen pa icipa ion and defici s
in he implemen a ion o pa icipa ion esul s on a local le-
el in Ge many (Hol kamp/Ba hge 2012: 47). Fu he mo e,
he esul s o pa icipa ion a e no adequa ely embedded
in planning and hus do no di ec ly influence he p ocess
(Mo ais 2022: 23–24). In addi ion, he in ensi y o pa icipa-
ion is usually insufficien . In planning p ocesses, he ocus
is mainly on p o iding in o ma ion o allowing ci izens o
iden i y u ban defici s, while he ac i e in ol emen o ci -
izens in he p ocess is no a p io i y (Bas os/Fe nández-
Caballe o/Pe ei a e al. 2022: 10). In his con ex , al eady
in 1969, A ns ein iden ified diffe en le els o pa icipa ion
wi h he “Ladde o Ci izen Pa icipa ion”, while c i icising
Raum o schung und Raumo dnung | Spa ial Resea ch and Planning (2024) 82/3: 215–230 217
S. Ka ic e al.
ha only a mino pa o pa icipa ion is designed o ac i ely
in ol e ci izens in he decision-making p ocess and he e
is no gua an ee ha hei opinions a e aken in o accoun
(A ns ein 1969).
3 The digi isa ion o ci izen
pa icipa ion
3.1 De ini ion and e olu ion o new
pa icipa ion modes
In ligh o he sho comings o con en ional pa icipa ion
desc ibed abo e, new o ms o pa icipa ion ha e de el-
oped in ecen yea s h ough digi alisa ion. In he pas wo
decades, he sp ead o in o ma ion and communica ion ech-
nologies (ICT) and he de elopmen o new media ha e
led o new collec i e na a i es and public discou ses in
ci ies (G aziano 2020: 582) and a ans o ma ion o he p o-
cess o de eloping u ban spaces (Tu ken/Eyuboglu 2021:
171). The in o ma ion and consul a ion p ocess has been
di e sified h ough he in oduc ion o digi al pa icipa ion.
Digi al pa icipa ion (o e-pa icipa ion) in ol es he use
o digi al ools o he implemen a ion o ci izen pa ici-
pa ion, media ed by in o ma ion and communica ion ech-
nologies and p ima ily he in e ne (Al-Dalou/Abu-Shanab
2013: 1; Ho ik/Giannoumis 2022: 3). Macin osh (2004:3)
defines h ee le els o e-pa icipa ion: e-enabling desc ibes
he p o ision o in o ma ion such as websi es o newsle e s;
e-engaging e e s o consul a ion ia su eys, discussion o-
ums and he like; and e-empowe ing means he ac i e pa -
icipa ion o he popula ion in o de o influence planning
by, o example, e-pe i ions (Manda ano/Meena 2015: 462;
Ma ini/F i zsche 2015: 125). This connec s o A ns ein’s
(1969) ladde o pa icipa ion.
Meanwhile, digi al pa icipa ion is cons an ly e ol ing
h ough new echnologies and as e and cheape da a a ail-
abili y (An oniou/Po siou 2021: 38; Tu ken/Eyuboglu 2021:
169; Akmen ina 2023). The use o social media by public
adminis a ions is a g owing end (Sobaci 2016: 3). Access
o high-speed in e ne is a p e equisi e. Hence, especially
in highly de eloped coun ies wi h widesp ead high-speed
in e ne and mode n public adminis a ions, digi al pa i-
cipa ion and e-go e nmen a e de eloping apidly (Don-
de s/Ha mann/Kokx 2014: 58). Ne e heless, digi al ci i-
zen pa icipa ion has so a been used less commonly han
assumed (Lebezo a/O cha enko 2022: 79). In Ge many,
he demand o digi al pa icipa ion ools was accen ua ed
by S u ga 21 and he es ic ions on physical con ac s
du ing he Co id-19 pandemic. He e, he local le el in
pa icula se es as a field o expe imen a ion (Ma ini/
F i zsche 2015: 123; Ho ik/Giannoumis 2022:1).Wik-
o ska-Swiecka (2023: 226) obse es o Be lin ha he
pandemic de eloped a window o oppo uni y o e hink
pa icipa o y o ma s and enabled a ans o ma ion owa ds
new pa icipa o y go e nance as he “new no mal”, also
by means o in o ma ion and communica ion echnologies.
Hanninge (2023: 99) finds ha Co id-19 was a kind o
“digi alisa ion ca alys ” o some Ba a ian municipali ies.
In he u u e, digi al pa icipa ion p ocesses will con-
inue o e ol e and be inc easingly used. The suppo o
and combina ions wi h analogue o ma s akes cen e s age
(Tu ken/Eyuboglu 2021: 179), wi h digi al pa icipa ion
iewed as a complemen a he han a subs i u e (F eschi/
Rony/No bje g 2009: 64). Combina ions o digi al and
analogue o ma s a e known as blended, hyb id o mul i-
channel pa icipa ion and a e commonly employed in plan-
ning p ac ice, bo h in he de elopmen o comp ehensi e
planning p ocesses and in he capaci y building o ci izens
(Akmen ina 2023).
3.2 Chances and isks associa ed wi h digi al
pa icipa ion
Digi al pa icipa ion offe s many ad an ages o e adi ional
pa icipa ion. Cheape and mo e efficien me hods and pla -
o ms can be used, hus sa ing ime and cos s o go e n-
men s and adminis a ions (Kubicek/Aichholze 2016: 16;
Sobaci 2016: 11). Mo eo e , new o ms o pa icipa ion
h ough in e ac i e me hods on he in e ne can po en ially
add ess and ac i a e new popula ion g oups ha a e o h-
e wise eluc an o pa icipa e, such as young people (Ny-
se h/Ringholm/Agge 2019: 14). I can also o e come ba i-
e s o pa icipa ion, as digi al app oaches a e mo e flexible
and easie o access (Kubicek/Aichholze 2016: 16). Due
o ime-space independencies, mo e people can be eached
(Ma ini/F i zsche 2015: 124; Tu ken/Eyuboglu 2021: 169;
Lahode/Schaumann 2022: 291). In his way, ci izens a e
be e in eg a ed in poli ical decision-making p ocesses be-
cause hey a e also be e connec ed o poli ics, and in-
o ma ion and communica ion echnologies enable a be -
e unde s anding o he p ocesses (Al-Dalou/Abu-Shanab
2013: 1). The inclusi i y o planning p ocesses can hus
be inc eased and p e iously excluded popula ion g oups
can be mobilised (Lega d/Ho ik 2022: 169). O e all, dig-
i al pa icipa ion can p omo e social cohesion (Damu ski
2012: 40). In addi ion, mo e di e se o ms o eedback op-
po uni ies and da a ha e eme ged, including public geoin-
o ma ion sys ems (Akmen ina 2023). Wi h isual ools,
language is no a gene al ba ie (E ans-Cowley/Hollande
2010: 400). New possibili ies such as gamifica ion enable
a play ul engagemen wi h planning opics and u ban p ob-
lems and inc ease mo i a ion o pa icipa e (Muehlhaus/
Egh ebas/Sei e e al. 2023: 345). Mo eo e , digi al ech-
218 Raum o schung und Raumo dnung | Spa ial Resea ch and Planning (2024) 82/3: 215–230
Digi al and mul i-channelci izen pa icipa ionin Ge many: A comp ehensi eo e iew o pa e ns, me hods and ...
nologies a e inc easingly being used o op imise pa ici-
pa ion in u ban design (Tu ken/Eyuboglu 2021: 179). So-
called digi al co-design o co-c ea ion is cha ac e ised by
design concep s being c ea ed by non-expe s h ough gam-
ing se ups and i ual eali y, wi h suppo om expe s
and planne s. One example o a holis ic digi al co-design
sys em is U_CODE (S elzle/Naumann/Holme e al. 2020:
85). This c ea es a la ge knowledge base by c owdsou cing
local knowledge, ideas and he c ea i i y o ci izens o non-
expe s, allowing u ban design o become an i e a i e, agile
p ocess (Müns e /Geo gi/Heijne e al. 2017: 2396–2397).
Mobile apps allow cons an pa icipa ion o e a long du a-
ion, hus co e ing an en i e decision-making p ocess (Fa-
hejalali/Jain 2019: 216).
In con as , digi al pa icipa ion is also associa ed wi h
a ious new challenges ha canno be sol ed and ha do
no affec analogue pa icipa ion. Resea ch findings indi-
ca e ha ci izens who al eady engage in pa icipa ion a e
mo e likely o use digi al pa icipa ion offe ings (Ca ajal
Be múdez 2022: 162). A s udy by Lega d and Ho ik (2022:
178) shows ha while he age and gende o pa icipan s ep-
esen he en i e popula ion well, people wi h low income
and educa ion le els and a mig a ion backg ound a e unde -
ep esen ed. In addi ion, he p oblem o he digi al di ide
has o be men ioned on se e al le els. Fi s ly, ci ies and e-
gions mus ha e sufficien b oadband in e ne a ailable o
implemen a ion (Sobaci 2016: 13). Acco dingly, he syn-
e gy o ci izen pa icipa ion and digi alisa ion is limi ed in
u al a eas, as a lack o in e ne connec i i y is an obs a-
cle in hese egions (S ein/Pen zold/Pe e e al. 2022: 259).
Secondly, use s ely on sufficien in e ne access. This can
c ea e a di ision be ween popula ion g oups wi h in e ne
access and hose wi hou (E ans-Cowley/Hollande 2010:
406; Donde s/Ha mann/Kokx 2014: 58). Dispa i ies can
be assumed ega ding age and o he social, cul u al and
financial condi ions. A lack o poli ical in e es among ci -
izens also has a nega i e impac on he use o digi al pa -
icipa ion, meaning ha he “democ a ic di ide” does no
dissol e and may e en in ensi y (B ake 2008: 65). In addi-
ion, digi al pa icipa ion is associa ed no only wi h cos -
efficiencies bu also wi h a high le el o effo . Es ablish-
ing he pla o ms is ime-consuming and cos ly (Tu ken/
Eyuboglu 2021: 177). Besides ime esou ces, human e-
sou ces also flow in o digi al pa icipa ion, especially wi h
ini ial cos s. Specific s aff mus be hi ed o ained o his
pu pose (Sobaci 2016: 13–14). The e o e, digi al pa icipa-
ion is po en ially a p oblem o municipali ies and dis ic s
wi h limi ed financial and human esou ces. A key social
and poli ical hu dle o he implemen a ion o digi al pa i-
cipa ion in Ge many is scep icism owa ds he digi isa ion
s a egies o local go e nmen s due o conce ns and ea s
abou p i acy and digi al au oma ion; his equi es solu ions
such as educa ional wo k (Wi z/Kubin 2021: 289–290).
G ea ca e is also needed o ensu e secu i y and p i acy in
digi al pa icipa ion p ocesses (An oniou/Po siou 2021: 42),
and o p e en ake news, cybe -a acks and disc imina ion
(Sobaci 2016: 14).
Mo e esea ch is needed o unde s and how echnologi-
cal de elopmen s and digi alisa ion in ci ies affec o gani-
sa ional s uc u es and ci izens (Mello Rose 2022: 21) and
wha he con ex ual ac o s a e whe e ci izens pa icipa e
digi ally (Ho ik/Giannoumis 2022: 4). Fu he mo e, ba i-
e s o he use o digi al pa icipa ion on he use and sup-
plie sides a e a ely conside ed in esea ch. Kubicek and
Aichholze (2016: 11) iden i y a wo old e alua ion gap
o missing success c i e ia and compa able empi ical s ud-
ies. In addi ion o he local le el, o he le els such as he
egional le el should also be conside ed. He e, ansdisci-
plina y, empi ical esea ch p ojec s can b ing new insigh s
(F eschi/Rony/No bje g 2009: 66).
4 Resea ch design
4.1 Da a collec ion
In o de o desc ibe he digi al pa icipa ion landscape in
Ge many and o analyse he de e minan s o he implemen-
a ion o digi al pa icipa ion, we applied bo h da a-explo -
ing and hypo hesis- es ing quan i a i e analyses. In a fi s
s ep, he aim was o collec da a on digi al pa icipa ion
p ocesses a diffe en go e nance le els in o de o examine
pa icipa o y elemen s a diffe en scales and o add ess he
Ge man planning sys em acco dingly. Fo his pu pose, we
consul ed he websi es o all ede al s a es, egional plan-
ning au ho i ies, dis ic s and adminis a i ely independen
ci ies o hose wi h o e 5,000 inhabi an s o assess whe he
and, i so, which and how many, digi al pa icipa ion p o-
cesses ha e been offe ed by he espec i e adminis a i e
bodies. The basis o he s udy he e o e comp ised 2,437
cases (16 ede al s a es, 69 egional planning au ho i ies,
294 dis ic s and 2,058 ci ies). In his pape , we ocus on
he p ocesses in dis ic s and ci ies in o de o examine lo-
cal ypes o digi al pa icipa ion in he con ex o spa ial
planning and de elopmen . We u ilised he websi es o he
u ban and dis ic adminis a ions as a da abase, as hey a e
an impo an sou ce o in o ma ion ega ding policy p io i-
ies and he se ices p o ided (Neumann/Linde /Desma ais
2022). We assume ha ele an in o ma ion mus be eely
and easily accessible o ci izens ia he websi es. Ci izens
a e able o access in o ma ion o o di ec ly pa icipa e on-
line. Acco dingly, we use he ee a ailabili y o in o ma ion
h ough an in e ne sea ch o s udy digi al pa icipa ion.
The esea ch was di ided in o a p elimina y sea ch, in-
Raum o schung und Raumo dnung | Spa ial Resea ch and Planning (2024) 82/3: 215–230 219
S. Ka ic e al.
Figu e 1 Flow-cha o sea ch app oach
dep h esea ch o he p ocesses by means o he websi es o
he espec i e adminis a ions, and ollow-up esea ch and
examina ion o missing da a be ween June and Sep embe
2022. In o de o ensu e consis en da a collec ion ac oss
all in es iga ed uni s, we defined a s anda dised p ocedu e
wi h a limi ed in-dep h esea ch pe iod o 10 minu es pe
uni . In a fi s s ep, we checked he landing page o he ad-
minis a ion’s websi e o ongoing pa icipa ion p ocesses.
In a second s ep, we examined he d op-down menu o he
websi e o ele an opics, such as pa icipa ion o u ban de-
elopmen . In a hi d cen al s ep, esea ch ocused on key-
wo ds like (digi al/online) (ci izen) pa icipa ion, wo kshop,
in o ma ion e en , assembly, su ey, epo ing o sho com-
ings and o he me hods in he Ge man language. We also
examined ex e nal pa icipa ion po als. The ede al s a es
a e p edominan ly esponsible o hese po als and publish
he a ious pa icipa ion p ocesses o diffe en adminis a-
ion le els. A e he ollow-up, we collec ed he esul s in
a da ase o de e mine du a ion, affec ed a ea, planning field,
s age in he planning p ocess, pa icipan s, me hods used,
pa icipa ion in ensi y, channel, con ac pe son and URL.
By ca ego ising he planning a ea, we wan ed o examine
whe he specific sec o al planning o adminis a i e uni s
a e affec ed ( anspo , en i onmen , in eg a ion, digi alisa-
ion, finance, ou ism, spo and cul u e, economy, educa-
ion), whe he pa icipa ion akes place wi hin in eg a ed
concep s (e.g. u ban de elopmen concep s), o whe he he
econs uc ion o new cons uc ion o specific a eas is ad-
d essed (u ban planning), which also includes o mal land-
use planning p ocesses. In addi ion, he classifica ion by
a iables helped o analyse which s akeholde g oups we e
specifically in ol ed (pa icipan s). By using he a iables
‘s age in he planning p ocess’ and ‘me hods’, we we e able
o examine he in ensi y o pa icipa ion (whe he only in-
o ma ion is p o ided, whe he ci izens a e consul ed in p o-
cesses o whe he hey can ac i ely influence he p ocess).
Fu he mo e, we consul ed seconda y da a o conside
he s uc u e o he ci ies and egions. Finally, he collec ed
da a we e fi s analysed desc ip i ely and hen p esen ed
isually. We iden ified a o al o 3,828 digi al pa icipa ion
p ocesses. Figu e 1illus a es he app oach.
4.2 Hypo heses and analysis o de e minan s
Besides he desc ip i e analysis o he con en and spa ial
dis ibu ion o digi al pa icipa ion p ocesses, we in es i-
ga ed de e minan s o he numbe o p ocesses pe 100,000
inhabi an s, and he pa icipa ion densi y in he dis ic s and
adminis a i ely independen ci ies (ci ies ha by defini ion
do no belong o a dis ic and ac independen ly). The anal-
ysis o ci ies is limi ed o a desc ip i e p esen a ion, as da a
o a eg ession a his le el a e no comp ehensi ely a ail-
able, which would limi he sa is ac o y explana o y powe
o he models. We de i ed he ollowing hypo heses om
he concep ual amewo k o his pape :
H1: The a ailabili y o b oadband in e ne in a dis ic in-
c eases he digi al pa icipa ion densi y
This fi s hypo hesis e e s o he p oblem o he dig-
i al di ide, which add esses he c ucial ac o o suffi-
cien b oadband access o digi al pa icipa ion (Sobaci
2016: 13). This depends on bo h egional loca ion (S ein/
Pen zold/Pe e e al. 2022: 260) and indi idual in e ne
access (E ans-Cowley/Hollande 2010: 406).
H2: The deb o a dis ic has a nega i e effec on he digi al
pa icipa ion densi y
While digi al pa icipa ion is discussed as a mo e cos -e -
ficien me hod on he one hand (Kubicek/Aichholze 2016:
6), on he o he hand he implemen a ion o digi al pa ici-
pa ion p ocesses is associa ed wi h conside able effo and
especially high ini ial cos s (Sobaci 2016: 13–14; Tu ken/
Eyuboglu 2021: 177). Since public financial p oblems can
be conside ed a nega i e de e minan o pa icipa ion in
gene al (Hol kamp/Ba hge 2012: 47) and specifically o
digi al pa icipa ion, his is es ed o dis ic s wi h Hypo h-
esis 2.
H3: A low u nou in ede al elec ions in a dis ic goes
along wi h a high digi al pa icipa ion densi y
Hypo hesis 3 add esses he democ a ic di ide and solu-
ions due o digi al pa icipa ion. Since ci izens wi h a gen-
e ally low le el o poli ical in e es pa icipa e less in spa ial
220 Raum o schung und Raumo dnung | Spa ial Resea ch and Planning (2024) 82/3: 215–230
Digi al and mul i-channelci izen pa icipa ionin Ge many: A comp ehensi eo e iew o pa e ns, me hods and ...
planning and de elopmen (B ake 2008: 65), new digi al
in e ac ion and p esen a ion ools c ea e he po en ial o
be e in ol e less ac i e ci izens (Nyse h/Ringholm/Agge
2019: 14), which could mo i a e hose esponsible o offe
mo e digi al pa icipa ion.
H4: A lowe educa ional le el, highe mig a ion a es and
lowe employmen a es among a dis ic ’s popula ion lead
o a high digi al pa icipa ion densi y
While Lega d and Ho ik (2022: 178) showed ha low-
Table 1 Va iable desc ip ion and desc ip i e s a is ics (dis ic le el)
Name A ea Desc ip ion nMin Max Mean S d. de .
Dependen a iable
Digipa Numbe o digi al pa icipa ion p ocesses pe
100,000 inhabi an s 399 0.00 24.80 2.2316 2.74396
Independen a iables
Fo eign Popula ion Sha e o popula ion wi hou Ge man ci izenship in
%a399 2.1 36.6 10.827 5.3979
Mig a ion Popula ion To al ne mig a ion pe 1,000 inhabi an sa399 -6.3 17.8 4.664 3.2766
G adua es_
high school Educa ion Sha e o school lea e s wi h highe educa ion en-
ance quali ica ion in %a399 0.0 67.5 33.730 10.6108
Lea e s_
wi hou _qual Educa ion Sha e o schoollea e s wi hou lowe seconda y
school quali ica ion in %a399 1.2 14.4 6.202 2.5037
S ud Educa ion Numbe o s uden s a uni e si ies pe 1,000
inhabi an sa399 0.0 379.6 28.723 52.2335
Employ Economy Employees subjec o social insu ance a place o
esidence pe 100 wo king-age inhabi an s in %a399 45.0 71.3 62.238 4.3615
Unemploy Economy Sha e o unemployed among ci ilian labou o ce in
%a399 1.4 16.4 5.170 2.7434
GDP Economy G oss domes ic p oduc in €1,000 pe inhabi an a399 16.6 188.3 38.569 16.9886
Pub_dep Finance Public deb in € pe inhabi an a399 0.0 9808 1487.1 1447.541
Highspeed_in Digi isa ion Sha e o households wi hb oadband co e age a 50
Mbi /s in %a399 36.8 100 86.159 11.4498
Tu nou Poli ics Sha e o all o es ( alid and in alid) among eligible
o e s in % ( ede al elec ions 2021)c399 63.4 85.5 76.281 4.0001
Con ols
Pop_dens Loca ion Inhabi an s pe km2a 399 35.6 4777 540.87 716.3469
Dummy_loc Loca ion Spa ial loca ion ype acco ding o BBSR (1 e y cen-
al, 2 cen al, 3 pe iphe al)b399
A e_age Popula ion A e age age o he popula ion in yea sa399 40.4 50.8 44.827 1.9549
De _ unding Finance P oposed ede al subsidies o u ban de elopmen
in € pe inhabi an a399 3.1 716.6 133.57 105.9465
Women_council Poli ics Sha e o women wi h sea s in dis ic councils in %a399 8.7 60.0 28.513 8.0690
Vo e_CDU/CSU Poli ics Sha e o o es o CDU/CSU in %
( ede al elec ion 2021)c399 11.8 39.2 25.015 6.3740
Vo e_SPD Poli ics Sha e o o es o SPD in % ( ede al elec ion 2021)c399 12.7 43.4 25.673 6.4942
Vo e_g een Poli ics Sha e o o es o Bündnis 90/The G eens in % ( ed-
e al elec ion 2021)c399 0.0 36.0 12.835 5.8888
Vo e_A D Poli ics Sha e o o es o A D in % ( ede al elec ion 2021)c399 2.9 32.5 11.345 5.8960
Vo e_FDP Poli ics Sha e o o es o FDP in % ( ede al elec ion 2021)c399 6.7 18.9 11.089 2.2369
Vo e_le Poli ics Sha e o o es o DIE LINKE in % ( ede al elec ion
2021)c399 1.6 15.6 4.602 2.9527
Sou ce: aBBSR (2021); bBBSR (2015); cDie Bundeswahllei e in (2022)
income, less educa ed and mig an popula ions a e unde -
ep esen ed in digi al as well as in adi ional pa icipa ion,
he assump ion is ha new ways o pa icipa ion h ough in-
e ac i e o ms and oppo uni ies o p o iding in o ma ion
ia he in e ne can each and ac i a e ci izens who ha e
no pa icipa ed be o e (Nyse h/Ringholm/Agge 2019: 14).
Acco dingly, wi h Hypo hesis 4 we aim o es whe he dig-
i al pa icipa ion has he mo i a ion and po en ial o educe
social selec i i y.
Raum o schung und Raumo dnung | Spa ial Resea ch and Planning (2024) 82/3: 215–230 221
S. Ka ic e al.
To es he hypo heses, we conduc ed mul iple linea e-
g ession analyses o he dis ic s and independen ci ies. To
add ess he he e oscedas ici y o he da a, we an OLS e-
g essions wi h s anda d e o es ima ions (HC3; Hayes/Cai
2007). The ollowing a iables shown in Tab. 1a e included
in he eg ession model as dependen , independen and con-
ol a iables. In addi ion o he defini ion o he a iables,
he able shows desc ip i e s a is ics. The dependen a ia-
ble Digipa (pa icipa ion densi y; numbe o digi al pa -
icipa ion p ocesses pe 100,000 inhabi an s) is used o
e e y model. The a iable is in ended o con ibu e o he
compa abili y o he dis ic s and ci ies conside ed in his
analysis o spa ial pa e ns. In addi ion, i is assumed ha
he numbe o inhabi an s o he dis ic s and municipali-
ies de e mines he supply o and demand o pa icipa ion.
In o de o es he o mula ed hypo heses and o po ay
he s uc u e o he dis ic s, we in eg a ed a iables ela -
ing o popula ion, economy, finances, digi isa ion, loca ion
and poli ics in o he model (see column a ea). 399 Ge man
dis ic s and independen ci ies a e included in he analysis.
A cen al ques ion is how he a ailabili y o app op i-
a e in e ne affec s digi al pa icipa ion; hence, we included
he a iable Highspeed_in based on H1. To es whe he
public deb has a nega i e impac on he use o digi al
pa icipa ion (H2), we in eg a ed Pub_dep . In addi ion,
he a iable Tu nou is included o accoun o he influ-
ence o poli ical in e es (H3). Lea e s_wi hou _qual, G ad-
ua es_highschool, S ud, i.e. he sha es o educa ional le els
in he popula ion a e ound in he model o es digi al pa i-
cipa ion o social selec i i y in H4, as well as he a iables
Figu e 2 Sha e o he ela ed planning a eas o he digi al and mul i-channel pa icipa ion p ocesses
Fo eign, Mig a ion, Employ, Unemploy and GDP. In addi-
ion, we add se e al con ol a iables o be e ep esen he
dis ic s in addi ion o he a iables o es ing he hypo he-
ses, and o inc ease he significance o he model. Due o
he a iables o he o e sha es o he diffe en poli ical pa -
ies and in o de o es he obus ness o he analysis, we
conduc ed six models wi h one pa y in each model, keep-
ing he o he a iables cons an . We p esen he esul s and
discussion o he models in he ollowing sec ion o gi e an
o e iew o he de e minan s o digi al ci izen pa icipa ion
a dis ic le el.
5 The s a us quo o digi al and mul i-
channel pa icipa ion in Ge many
5.1 Focal opics and applied me hods o
digi al pa icipa ion
Ini ially, we p o ide an o e iew o he pa icipa ion con-
en s. Fo his pu pose, we fi s look a he planning a eas
ela ed o he pa icipa ion. Figu e 2shows he diffe en
fields descending by hei ela i e impo ance.
I appea s ha o e 25% o he digi al pa icipa ion o -
ma s iden ified canno be clea ly ca ego ised, bu deal wi h
a he gene al ma e s. This is because many ci ies, espe-
cially small ones, ha e a cen al con ac poin o ci izen
sugges ions o c i icism, which a e hen o wa ded o he
app op ia e depa men s. Many ci ies e e o such ools as
p oblem- epo ing wi h a cen al web page ab. Beyond gen-
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