Fe e , Na han
A icle
The ealm o digi al con en egula ion as a social space:
Sociogenesis o mode a ion no ms and policies on Twi ch
pla o m
In e ne Policy Re iew
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y (HIIG), Be lin
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Fe e , Na han (2025) : The ealm o digi al con en egula ion as a social space:
Sociogenesis o mode a ion no ms and policies on Twi ch pla o m, In e ne Policy Re iew, ISSN
2197-6775, Alexande on Humbold Ins i u e o In e ne and Socie y, Be lin, Vol. 14, Iss. 1, pp.
1-25,
h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.2004
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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Volume 14 |
The ealm o digi al con en egula ion as a
social space: Sociogenesis o mode a ion
no ms and policies on Twi ch pla o m
Na han Fe e ENS de Lyon
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.2004
Published: 31 Ma ch 2025
Recei ed: 5 Ap il 2024 Accep ed: 11 Oc obe 2024
Funding: This esea ch was unded by LabEx "TEPSIS," he "Jeu e socié é" scien i ic
in e es g oup, and he IRIS labo a o y (UMR8156).
Compe ing In e es s: The au ho has decla ed ha no compe ing in e es s exis ha
ha e in luenced he ex .
Licence: This is an open-access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e
Commons A ibu ion 3.0 License (Ge many) which pe mi s un es ic ed use,
dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly
ci ed. h ps://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/3.0/de/deed.en
Copy igh emains wi h he au ho (s).
Ci a ion: Fe e , N. (2025). The ealm o digi al con en egula ion as a social space:
Sociogenesis o mode a ion no ms and policies on Twi ch pla o m. In e ne Policy
Re iew, 14(1). h ps://doi.o g/10.14763/2025.1.2004
Keywo ds: Con en mode a ion, Li e s eaming, Digi al pla o ms, No ms
Abs ac : This a icle seeks o explo e he socio-demog aphic de e minan s unde lying he
engagemen o mode a o s and he p oduc ion o con en mode a ion no ms in he F ench Twi ch
scene. Using a mixed-me hod app oach, i highligh s gende , poli icisa ion, social class, and social
ulne abili y mechanisms d i ing hese no ms and hei di e si y ac oss channels. Ta ge ing a
p eca ious and ma ginalised ye poli icised popula ion, Twi ch is engaged by mo al en ep eneu s
who ein o ce hei social posi ioning h ough hei mode a ion p ac ices. The ques ion o gende
and poli icisa ion is cen al, o ganising he posi ioning space o mode a ion p ac ices as a ealm o
social dis inc ion be ween wo poles: on he one hand, he mos p ominen channels, cha ac e ised
by low le els o mode a ion, masculini y, and depoli icisa ion and, on he o he , he mo e igh ly,
eminine and poli icised channels, se ing as sou ces o no ms emb aced by pla o m policies. This
esea ch con ibu es o explaining sociologically Twi ch's dis inc i e policy as compa ed o i s
compe i o s, in i ing policymake s o conside how digi al pla o ms ep oduce exis ing social
s uc u es h ough hei egula o y amewo ks.
Issue 1
This pape is pa o Con en mode a ion on digi al pla o ms: beyond s a es and i ms, a
special issue o In e ne Policy Re iew gues -edi ed by Romain Badoua d and Anne Bellon.
In oduc ion
In eg a ed in o social media, li e s eaming has led o he eme gence o new cul-
u al p oduce s on he web - he “s eame s” - who use his audio isual b oadcas -
ing echnology o ilm hemsel es in a li e s eam while pe o ming a ious
leisu e ac i i ies and in e ac ing wi h hei audience - he “ iewe s”. By mul iplying
he possibili ies o eal- ime in e ac ions be ween in e ne "con en c ea o s" and
he public, (li e) s eaming has also enewed he challenges and ques ions su -
ounding con en and online ela ionships mode a ion pe o med by in e ne
use s. S eams a e indeed a e y popula ye agile o m o collec i e spec acles
and i uals, whe e he in e ac ion o de (Go man, 1983) is pa icula ly suscep ible
o male olen dis up ions. The expansion o his o ma ac oss a ious social me-
dia pla o ms ( om TikTok o Facebook o YouTube) hus encoun e s limi a ions
ied o he necessi y o sa egua ding ideog aphe s and hei communi ies om
wa es o ha e ul commen s in hei cha (B ewe e al., 2023).
Amazon-owned Twi ch, he dominan pla o m in he sec o 1, is egula ly c i icised
by i s use s o no p o iding su icien con en mode a ion, especially conce ning
he nume ous cases o sexis , homophobic, o ansphobic ha assmen p e alen in
his p edominan ly male gaming uni e se (Nakandala e al., 2016; Coa oux &
Roques, 2020). Specialising in he b oadcas ing o ideo game s eams, Twi ch in-
deed o e s a new socio-media s age o exp essions o masculini ies ypical o
ideo game social spaces (Lignon, 2015). This pa icula ly applies o "wa io mas-
culini y," which associa es men wi h comba , wa , and conques (Kline e al., 2003),
and "geek masculini y," which claims a gende ed monopoly o e he mas e y o
compu e echnologies (Kendall, 2002). In he con ex o commen a y ia cha s on
ideo games played by o he s, we obse e he same oxic beha iou s ( olling, in-
sul ing, ha assing) ha occu in many online games and which, bo h on Twi ch and
in games, a e only minimally egula ed h ough puni i e mode a ion measu es (Ma
e al., 2023). Con e sely, he pla o m’s mode a ion policy can some imes be
deemed oo es ic i e. Simila o Ins ag am (Smi h e al., 2021), i s ules on body
isibili y a e c i icised by some as s igma ising acial o gende mino i ies (Zolides,
1. 72% o he o al li e-s eaming hou s wa ched in 2022 (ou side o China) we e on Twi ch - S eam
Ha che . (2022). 2022 yea ly li e s eaming ends epo . h ps://s eamha che .com/2022-yea ly-
li e-s eaming- ends- epo /
2 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
2020), while, as on Wikipedia (de Laa , 2012), con en con ol is pe cei ed by o h-
e s as a o m o “bu eauc a ic” coe cion ha s i les eedom o exp ession - in his
case ha o “whi e men” (Powell & Williams-Johnson, 2023). This duali y o c i i-
cism, highligh ing he some imes o e ly es ic i e and some imes oo lax na u e
o Twi ch’s mode a ion, e lec s he complexi y o i s egula o y model.
Unlike many o he sel -publishing pla o ms p ima ily ocused on connec ing in-
e ne use s h ough ex o image in a de e ed manne , Twi ch can ely on i s nu-
me ous highly engaged mic o-communi ies ope a ing unde a "communi y- elian "
egula ion logic (Caplan, 2018). Unlike pla o ms like X o Facebook, o example
(Gillespie, 2018), Twi ch indeed does no ely on comme cial pa ne s o mode a e
con en and ins ead employs a hyb id model be ween " op-down" egula ion (uni-
la e al and au oma ed imposi ion o cen alised no ms on he digi al public space)
and "bo om-up" egula ion (adop ion o no ms p oduced by use g oups in i s poli-
cy s anda ds). A ac al and hie a chical powe s uc u e ensu es bo h o ien a ions.
On he one hand, Twi ch ac s as an in e media y be ween all i s s eame s and
hei audiences: a he pla o m-wide le el, he company de ines he o e a ching
p inciples o con en mode a ion supposed o be applied ac oss all channels ( he
“Communi y Guidelines") and mode a es he ideo con en s s eamed by i s b oad-
cas e s h ough i s own employees and algo i hms. On he o he hand, s eame s
uphold his p inciple o in e media ion and con ol is-à- is hei channel iewe s:
a his igh e scale, cha mode a ion is a s ake, along wi h he adap a ion o he
Communi y Guidelines o he localised con ex o each communi y. He e, he com-
pany p o ides use s wi h a ious ools (such as commands o banning li e iew-
e s, ei he empo a ily o pe manen ly, o o p ohibi ing ce ain wo ds in he cha ),
and i is up o he s eame s and, mos impo an ly, hei iewe s hemsel es o
ca y ou he cha mode a ion wo k. The la e has hus been cha ac e ised as un-
paid “digi al labou " pe o med by iewe s o he socio-economic bene i o ideo-
g aphe s and he pla o m i sel (Cocq, 2018; Ca don & Casilli, 2015; Li e al.,
2022).
The no ma i e a icula ion be ween he global and local le els implies a ce ain
au onomy o channel mode a ion ules, which in u n gene a es modi ica ions o
he Communi y Guidelines. The de ini ion o hese eme ging communi y no ms is
cons uc ed and s abilised h ough p ac ice, based on exchanges, some imes con-
lic ual (Cai & Wohn, 2023), be ween s eame s and he olun a y iewe s hey
ha e designa ed as mode a o s (See in e al., 2019), bu also be ween hese mod-
e a o s and o he iewe s (Ma ias, 2019). Gi ing ise o o ms o collec i e collabo-
a ion (Cai & Wohn, 2022), his mode a ion is an in eg al pa o s eaming: whe e-
3 Fe e
as egula ion wo k is ypically hidden om use s (Gillespie, 2018), on Twi ch, he
ac s o mode a ion hemsel es a e showcased in he s eam, highligh ing hei sig-
ni icance no only ins umen ally bu also symbolically. S eame s may e en con-
duc "ban cou " s eams, in which hey ac as judges o decide on bans imposed
on iewe s, ei he li ing o main aining he sanc ion (Thach e al., 2022). This dual
na u e, e ec i e and spec acula , o mode a ion on Twi ch mani es s ha he p ac-
ice in ol es "commissi e pe o mances" (Aus in, 1962) con ibu ing o he ans-
o ma ion o he passi e audience in o an ac i e e lexi e public (Dayan, 2000), en-
gaged in communi y building and ela ionships o mu ual ecogni ion wi h he
s eame s. Thus, i is h ough an app oach in e ms o mo i a ions o help he
s eame g ow i s communi y and ensu e a good a mosphe e on he channel ha
he li e a u e has explained he engagemen o olun a y iewe mode a o s
(Wohn, 2019). This in es men is desc ibed ollowing a iple logic, a ec i e ( ela -
ed o emo ional a achmen o he channel), no ma i e ( ela ed o eelings o
obliga ion owa ds he communi y), and a ional (guided by he ecogni ion o a
cos o disengagemen om he ac i i y) (Cai & Wohn, 2023; Ba eman e al., 2021).
Howe e , by u ilising da a ha a e la gely de ached om social con ex and adop -
ing a pe spec i e oo ed in social psychology, his mo i a ional app oach aces
se e al limi a ions. These a e ela ed o he lack o conside a ion o he socio-de-
mog aphic causali y o p ac ices and communi y mode a ion no ms on Twi ch.
While i allows desc ibing he engagemen logic o mode a o s, he g amma o in-
di idual mo i a ion does no accoun o he socialisa ion p ocesses ha ame
his in es men . S icking o online ac i i y masks, in o he wo ds, he o line social
p ocesses ha a e ep oduced in he digi al sphe e and ul ima ely explain he in-
es men logic obse ed among he pla o m's mode a o s. Simila ly, speaking in
mo i a ional e ms ce ainly desc ibes o ms o sel - esponsibili y and in e nalisa-
ion o mode a ion cons ain s bene i ing he pla o m bu ends o lea e in he
shadow he collec i e space wi hin which hese indi idual beha iou s make
sense2. The e o e, ollowing a socio-demog aphic and ela ional app oach, his a -
icle in ends o analyse he engagemen logic o iewe mode a o s and he eme -
gence o communi y no ms on Twi ch. I is, in o he wo ds, abou app oaching how
he pla o m's egula ion policy is de e mined by i s socio-demog aphically ma ked
popula ion.
The a icle p oceeds in h ee s ages, co esponding o di e en social scales. Fi s ,
2. This collec i e space encompasses bo h he in a-pla o m le el (among Twi ch communi ies) and
he c oss-pla o ms one (be ween Twi ch and o he pla o ms o e ing li e s eaming like TikTok o
Kick)
4 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
a he pla o m le el, I will p esen ecen de elopmen s in Twi ch’s policy, whose
p og essi eness o e s i a dis inc i e posi ioning is-à- is i s di ec compe i o in
he con ex o he "pla o m wa s". Nex , a he indi idual le el o iewe s, I will
show ha his policy s ems om he cha ac e is ics o Twi ch's audience and he
sociodemog aphic ac o s ha ame he selec ion o i s mode a o s. Finally, a he
le el o channels, I will discuss conc e e mode a ion p ac ices, showing hei a ia-
ion om one communi y o ano he : his will e ine he connec ion be ween so-
cio-demog aphy and li e s eaming mode a ion no ms, highligh ing he di e se
ways in which Twi ch's gene al policy p inciples a e applied ac oss socially dis inc
egions o he pla o m.
Me hodology
I ely on a mixed-me hod esea ch app oach, combining bo h quan i a i e and
quali a i e me hods, wi h a ocus on he F ench Twi ch scene. The quan i a i e as-
pec is based on he Co ideo online ques ionnai e su ey3, which explo ed Twi ch
and ideo game usage du ing he COVID-19 pe iod4(3,455 esponses in o al, o
which 1,814 we e ela ed o he sec ion on mode a ion). This su ey, ini ially
aimed a cap u ing an accu a e ep esen a ion o he pla o m’s audience, em-
ployed an inno a i e dis ibu ion me hod. Financial pa ne ships we e es ablished
wi h s eame s (a he s anda d paymen a e o ypical p omo ional campaigns
on he pla o m5), who di ec ly sha ed he ques ionnai e link, in oduced he su -
ey o hei audience du ing s eams, and encou aged iewe s o comple e i .
Le e aging he close connec ion be ween s eame s and hei iewe s, as well as
he pla o m's echnical in e ace, all o Twi ch’s isibili y ou le s we e used o he
esea ch. An announcemen in oducing he su ey (including objec i es, su ey
du a ion, and he op ion no o answe ce ain pe sonal ques ions) was accompa-
nied by eminde s om s eame s o e wo o h ee weeks, messages pos ed on
he s eame s' Twi e accoun s and Disco d se e s6, and bo s ha egula ly pos -
ed he su ey link in hei s eam’s cha (a an a e age equency o e e y 20 min-
u es). While dis ibu ing he ques ionnai e di ec ly wi hin he p ac ice en i onmen
3. Fe e N. & Gallina i Sa a P. (2021). Co ideo Su ey. LabEx TEPSIS, "Jeu e socié é" scien i ic in e -
es g oup, IRIS labo a o y (UMR8156).
4. The su ey was conduc ed om ea ly Ap il o he end o May 2021, pa ly du ing he las lockdown
o he F ench popula ion (implemen ed om 3 Ap il o 3 May 2021).
5. This paymen model, linked o he size o he li e audience and he du a ion o he message b oad-
cas , acili a ed he social accep abili y o he su ey by embedding i wi hin he o ma o "digi al
ma ke ing," wi h which s eame s a e amilia .
6. Disco d is a messaging pla o m widely used by ideo game playe s and he Twi ch audience o
communica e ou side o s eams (each channel has i s “own” communi y Disco d)
5 Fe e
mean an o e ep esen a ion o equen use s, he con inui y and a ie y o com-
ple ion eminde s also allowed us o each occasional iewe s who a e less ac i e
on he pla o m.
TABLE 1: O e iew o channels con ibu ing o he su ey
USERNAME GENDER MOST STREAMED
CONTENT
TWITCH
FOLLOWERS
COVIDEO
RESPONSES
Modiiie Woman Jus cha ing 30 000 681
Ma ex Man League o Legends 81 000 551
Na Ali Woman Among us 25 000 365
Zulzo ande Man Jus cha ing 28 000 335
Desas e Man THESO 31 000 302
Dye Man League o Legends 50 000 288
C awling Man Da kes Dungeon 16 000 184
K ok Man Jus cha ing 7 000 107
Bino le
Dino Woman S a dew Valley 10 000 100
Melchio Man Fo ni e 38 000 74
Vi aP Pey Man Fo ni e 102 000 45
M Chonks Man Jus cha ing 4 000 41
Cha desbois Woman League o Legends 10 000 39
Magicknup Man Minec a 80 000 30
O he (spon aneous sha ing o he ques ionnai e link by iewe s) 312
Sou ce (con en and ollowe s): sullygnome.com. In o ma ion collec ed a he end o he
su ey.
The mos s eamed con en was de e mined based on Twi ch ca ego ies (game names
o "Jus Cha ing" when s eame s ilm hemsel es wi hou gaming).
The explo a o y and non- andom app oach o sampling he s eame s in i ed o
pa icipa e in he su ey aimed o cap u e he b oades possible di e si y o chan-
nels. The 14 selec ed s eame s we e dis inguished by: gende (5 women and 9
men), age ( anging om 20 o 33 yea s), expe ience on he pla o m ( anging om
4 o 9 yea s), audience size ( om 4,000 o 102,000 ollowe s on Twi ch), and he
a ie y and ype o con en s eamed—ei he ideo game- ela ed (including ypes
6 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
o games and play s yles) o non- ideo game- ela ed (such as poli ical news e-
iews, scien i ic ou each, and a is ic p ac ices) (Table 1). A consequence o his di-
e si y, compounded by he ac ha iewe s indica ed hey ollowed a ange o
channels in addi ion o hose di ec ly in ol ed in he su ey7, was he une en dis-
ibu ion o esponses acco ding o he s eame s' audiences (Table 1). In e es in
social science su eys a ies wi h esponden s' age and poli ical iews, while he
use o inclusi e language in he ques ionnai e (as was he case o he Co ideo
su ey) in oduces selec ion e ec s (A bogas , 2017). As such, " olun a y espon-
den panels on he in e ne a e no a andom sample o he popula ion" (Lens el -
Mulde s e al., 2009, p. 4): iewe s o olde s eame s o o hose who s eam con-
en on poli ical news o scien i ic popula isa ion a e o e ep esen ed he e com-
pa ed o hei audience on he pla o m. No ably, he mos ep esen ed channel is
ha o Modiiie, known speci ically o he social science ou each s eams, e en
hough she anks only se en h in e ms o ollowe s on Twi ch among he pa ici-
pa ing s eame s. In con as , despi e ha ing mo e han wice as many ollowe s as
Modiiie, Magicknup - a s eame ocused on games wi h a young audience, such as
Minec a and Fo ni e - appea s only a he bo om o he con ibu ion o he
sample.
While he da a se is hus impe ec in i s ep esen a i eness, i cap u es a su i-
cien ly di e se popula ion o enable in a-g oup compa isons, allowing o he
iden i ica ion o he subpopula ion o iewe s engaged in mode a ion wo k (n=185,
ep esen ing 5% o he o al). S a is ical eg ession (conduc ed using R so wa e)
will be used o iden i y he social de e minan s o his in ol emen and i s a ia-
ions wi hin he pla o m's ela ional space. This s a is ical analysis is comple-
men ed by a quali a i e app oach, d awing om an ex ended “ i ual e hnog a-
phy” (Hine, 2000) wi hin a a ie y o Twi ch communi ies (n=5) and based on in e -
iews (n=14) wi h mode a o s om hese communi ies. Las ly, he a icle inco po-
a es an analysis o he e olu ion o Twi ch's no ma i e con en mode a ion policy
ex s, a ailable online8.
The pla o m wa as a socio-poli ical s uggle h ough
mode a ion
In he con ex o in ense compe i ion be ween social media pla o ms ( e e ed o
in he media as he "pla o ms wa "9), mode a ion no ms become a cen al eco-
7. And pa icula ly hose o "s a s eame s" wi h se e al hund ed housand iewe s (such as Kame 0,
Squeezie, An oineDaniel, Mis e MV, o Maghla), who emained un eachable o he su ey.
8. [h ps://sa e y. wi ch. /s?language=en_US], accessed on 1 Ap il 2024.
7 Fe e
nomic issue. Thei di ec ion and le el o s ic ness socially and poli ically shape
he i ual space hey egula e, he eby con ibu ing o a ac o epel speci ic au-
dience segmen s. As in any media o exp ession space, such as he p ess (Degand
& Simonson, 2011), ele ision (Bou dieu, 1996), o o ums (Wojcik, 2007), he di -
e en ules go e ning wha can be said on li e s eaming pla o ms s uc u e hei
compe i ion and dis inc i e s a egies. These ules a e indeed a he hea o he
social cons uc ion o espec abili y o s igma associa ed wi h exp essi e spaces,
sepa a ing "sa e" and " iolen ," "se ious" and " i olous," o "o icial" and "conspi a-
o ial" ones. By egula ing wha can o canno be said, and how one can exp ess
hemsel es, hey also end o selec who ge s o speak, he eby ep oducing socio-
demog aphic opposi ion s uc u es in he media ield. In his way, pla o m policies
a e hea ily communica ed by hese companies. They become a ma ke ing ool o
a ac and e ain an audience and s eame s, by playing on social and poli ical
dis inc ions be ween popula ions.
As a ma ke leade , Twi ch has his o ically implemen ed an "inclusi e" mode a ion
policy aimed a a ac ing a wide audience wi hin he "Twi ch communi y". Fo his
eason, i s policy is pa adoxically based on a na owing o exp essi e possibili ies.
In i s a emp o include as many people as possible, he pla o m no only ex-
cludes exp essions o ha e o in ole ance , bu also ac i i ies socially associa ed
wi h ma ginali y o immo ali y, such as gambling, d ug use, o po nog aphy. In ad-
di ion o imposing legal es ic ions on he pla o m, allowing con en ha p o-
mo es hese elemen s can damage Twi ch's espec abili y (and, by associa ion, ha
o i s s eame s) and i s abili y o main ain a "mains eam" image. I s Communi y
Guidelines hus p ohibi he use o d ugs du ing li e s eams, as well as nudi y.
Simila ly, al hough hese s eams we e pa icula ly p o i able, Twi ch announced in
Oc obe 2022 ha i will ban he b oadcas ing o gambling games om “gambling
si es ha include slo s, oule es, o dice games ha a en’ licensed”, accusing
hem o ”exposing he communi y o po en ial ha m”10. Fu he mo e, like he
b oade media space (Plo u & Macé, 2024), Twi ch has aced in ecen yea s he
ise o a - igh , an i- eminis , and acialis discou se emana ing om in luence s
o he “ ascosphe e” (Bou on, 2017) and he “manosphe e” (I onwood, 2012). On i s
9. Twi ch X e TikTok 2024-2025 : La gue e des pla e o mes con inue. (2024, Sep embe ). PC-Table
F ance. h ps://pc- able . /2024/09/ wi ch-x-e - ik ok-2024-2025-la-gue e-des-pla e o mes-con-
inue/
Twi ch s. Kick : La gue e des pla e o mes de s eaming es décla ée e ous les coups son ai-
men pe mis. (2025, Janua y). Jeux ideo.com. h ps://www.jeux ideo.com/news/1770253/ wi ch- s-
kick-la-gue e-des-pla e o mes-de-s eaming-es -decla ee-e - ous-les-coups-son - aimen -pe -
mis.h m
10. Twi ch. (2022, Oc obe 18). P ohibi ing unsa e slo s, oule e, and dice gambling si es. h ps://sa e-
y. wi ch. /s/a icle/P ohibi ing-Unsa e-Slo s-Roule e-and-Dice-Gambling-Si es?language=en_US
8 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
i ic in e es g oup, IRIS labo a o y (UMR8156).
Sample: 1,814 iewe s om he Co ideo da abase who esponded o all co esponding
ques ions. R²(McFadden) = 0.254
In e p e a ion: wi h pa ame e s o he model ixed, no pa icipa ing in Twi ch cha s
signi ican ly dec eases (a he 10% h eshold) he p obabili y o being a mode a o .
The non-signi icance o many a iables in he model (10 ou o 20) is i sel a no-
able esul , as hese p ima ily pe ain o he su eyed pa icipan s’ usage pa e ns,
cha ac e ised simply as use s. When compa ed wi h a iables si ua ing indi iduals
in o line s uc u es o gende , class, and poli ics, hey seem o ha e a less signi i-
can e ec han ha emphasised by he li e a u e on he subjec , which pa icula -
ly s esses he socially localised dimension o mode a ion wi hin channel g oup-
ings.
In e ms o s eaming usage pa e ns, mode a o s indeed do no seem o signi i-
can ly di e om o he highly engaged iewe s. All else being equal, he weekly
ime spen on Twi ch and he enu e on he pla o m do no ha e a signi ican e -
ec on he p opensi y o become a mode a o (Table 2). The same applies o
s eaming habi s and ela ionships wi h s eame s. The ac o dona ing money o
s eame s and being p esen a he s a o hei s eams, in a logic o daily and
scheduled appoin men s wi h he “con en c ea o ” and hei o he iewe s, also do
no ha e a signi ican e ec on he likelihood o in es ing in mode a ion on Twi ch
(Table 2). While he pla o m is cha ac e ised by i s mul i ude o mic o-communi-
ies pu po edly os e ing engagemen in mode a ion (Wohn, 2019), p e e ing o
wa ch channels wi h ewe iewe s li e ( a he han many iewe s o ha ing no
p e e ence) ac ually has no signi ican e ec in i sel ei he (Table 2).
Alongside he in ensi y o in ol emen in social in e ac ions on channels, he con-
en o hese communi y exchanges is c ucial in en e ing he mode a ion ca ee .
All else being equal, mee ing people, o e en " iends," o egula ly discuss on he
pla o m has a posi i e and signi ican e ec (Table 2). Howe e , when we look a
he con en o hese discussions, whe eas con e sa ions ela ed o ideo games
ha e no signi ican e ec in he model, i is di e en o hose abou "poli ical sub-
jec s" and especially "pe sonal men al heal h issues" (Table 2). Con a y o a ision
ha would cha ac e ise Twi ch p ima ily as a pla o m o ideo game en e ain-
men o ming "communi ies o p ac ice" (Wenge , 1998) and mo e p ecisely “game
communi ies" (Pea ce & A emesia, 2011), mode a o s ec ui ed by s eame s o
suppo communi ies a e b ough oge he by sha ed o line li e expe iences and
a ibu es.
15 Fe e
These esul s ha e signi ican implica ions o unde s anding mode a ion ac i i y
and he socialisa ion mechanisms ha unde pin i . The ac ha iewe s' sociode-
mog aphic a iables ha e an e ec sugges s ha he in e p e a ion should ocus
on he na u e o he social o ces shaping s eaming as a ool o egula ing online
discou se. While, all else being equal, age, le el o educa ion, and bina y gende
(male o emale) do no ha e a signi ican e ec on he likelihood o becoming a
mode a o , he si ua ion is di e en o iewe s who decla e a non-bina y gende
iden i y, a poli ical o ien a ion (as opposed o no decla ed poli ical o ien a ion),
social isola ion, o conce ns abou hei u u e (Table 2). Simila ly, unemployed o
inac i e indi iduals ep esen he mos o e ep esen ed ac i i y g oup among all
mode a o iewe s (Cha 1).
CHART 1: Ra es o mode a o s among iewe g oups de ined by ac i i y s a us
Sou ce: Fe e & Gallina i (2021). Co ideo Su ey. LabEx TEPSIS, "Jeu e socié é" scien-
i ic in e es g oup, IRIS labo a o y (UMR8156).
Sample: 1,380 Twi ch iewe s who p o ided in o ma ion on he co esponding a i-
ables.
16 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
Thus, when adop ing a mo e de ailed scale o analysis beyond income and educa-
ion le els, we unco e he complex in e play o domina ion and ulne abili y, as
well as poli icisa ion and mu ual aid, ha shapes mode a ion ac i i y on Twi ch. By
b inging oge he gende mino i ies, socially isola ed indi iduals, and psychologi-
cally ulne able you h, he pla o m's mode a ion sys em il e s a popula ion in-
clined o ans o m i in o a space o sha ing expe iences, os e ing poli icisa ion,
and collec i ely esis ing o ms o domina ion. This popula ion hen ends o seize
he ools o exp ession and silencing o e ed by he in e ne o shape con e sa-
ions on he pla o m. Th ough collec i e ac ions, i o ms he popula ion a he
sou ce o he pla o m’s policy o ien a ion owa ds p og essi e inclusi i y.
Howe e , his pa icula ly engaged popula ion does no encompass all Twi ch
mode a o s. While i lea es i s gene al ma k on he Communi y Guidelines, i con-
ceals a plu ali y o channels and app oaches o applying hese ules wi hin he
speci ic con ex s o indi idual communi ies. Concluding his explo a ion o he so-
ciogenesis o mode a ion, i becomes essen ial o conside he pla o m i sel as a
space o s uggles and dis inc ions. Simila o he dynamics obse ed a he in e -
pla o m le el, hese ensions mani es in he con ol o e wha can o canno be
said li e.
The spa ialisa ion o mode a ion no ms ac oss
di e en egions o he pla o m
The p ac ical applica ion o Twi ch's policy by mode a o s a ies acco ding o a
s uc u e o opposi ion ha is less s a k bu analogous o he di ide be ween
Twi ch and Kick. In an ideal- ypical sense, we obse e, on he one hand, a se o
channels ha apply he Communi y Guidelines in a loose and minimal way (o , a
imes, no a all), and on he o he , channels cha ac e ised by s ic and poli ically
engaged mode a ion16. The i s g oup can be desc ibed as "mains eam" channels
- p edominan ly male-o ien ed, wi h la ge audiences, ocused on gaming con en ,
and o mally depoli icised. These channels, o en po ous o masculinis exp es-
sions in gaming cul u e and wi h cha s ha a e ha d o manage due o message
olume, a e hose mos a ec ed by a lack o mode a ion no ms (Cai e al., 2021).
The second g oup, by con as , comp ises channels ha can be e med "sa e
spaces" - ending owa ds mo e eminised audiences, smalle and mo e cohesi e
iewe ships, ex a-gaming con en , and explici poli ical engagemen . This di-
cho omy is di ec ly implica ed in ha assmen aids in cha s and he epo ing o
16. Fo a de ailed p esen a ion o he sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics o channels o hese wo e-
gions, see (Fe e & Gallina i-Sa a , 2024).
17 Fe e
channels ha d i e Twi ch's policy e olu ion: due o hei cha ac e is ics, he
"mains eam" egion ends o gene a e wa es o ha assmen , while he "sa e space"
egion is mo e likely o ini ia e epo s. This opposi ion is hen widely ecognised
by he in e iewed iewe -mode a o s, who pe cei e i di e en ly depending on
hei egional a ilia ion. A mains eam mode a o like Ewen downplays he io-
lence in cha exchanges, seeing hem as me e "jokes," and labels sa e space chan-
nels as "woke." In con as , Léo, a sa e space mode a o , uses simila ly poli ical ca -
ego ies o pe cep ion, bu ocuses on unco e ing he iolence behind he appa en
i oli y o online exchanges.
“(...) We don’ o e hink i , eally. Unless someone says some hing o ally ou o
line, you know, like insul s o some hing, I’m no gonna s a making d ama o
no eason o s op people om saying wha hey wan o say. (...) Especially
because, hones ly, i ’s mos ly jus jokes. Tha ’s wha hose woke communi ies
don’ ge , eally—i ’s mos ly jus humo ”17. (Ewen, 23 yea s old, s uden ,
mode a o on a mains eam channel wi h 81,000 ollowe s)
“When you’ e b owsing a ound like ha o check ou o he channels, wha ’s he
i s hing you look a o o m an opinion?
Well, na u ally, when I’m disco e ing some hing new, I y, I y o see how he
s eame in e ac s wi h hei communi y. Spon aneously, I ask mysel , ‘Wha ’s
hei communi y like? Wha ’s he ibe hey gi e o ?’ I hink you can ell p e y
quickly when you land in a Twi ch cha . Jus by looking a he amoun o olling
in he cha , you can al eady guess - i ’s p obably mos ly young people o igh -
wing. So, yeah, ha gi es you a bi o an imp ession. The way people in e ac ,
he kind o eac ions hey ha e, like, ‘Oh look, she’s doing ho ub s eams again,
blah blah blah.’ Yeah, okay, we ge i , you ha e women. Mo ing on o ano he
channel.” (Léo, 22 yea s old, mode a o on a sa e space channel wi h 900
ollowe s)
The wo modes o mode a ion co esponding o he opposing poles o he p e i-
ously desc ibed s uc u e hus become mo e de ined. The ac i i y o mains eam
mode a o s ends o be no only minimal, bu also p ima ily en e ainmen - o-
cused. In hei es imonies, hei cha mode a ion e o s a e pa icula ly gea ed
owa ds ensu ing he smoo h unning o he ideo game en e ainmen spec acle,
helping he s eame s deli e hei con en . They pay close a en ion o p e en ing
messages ha migh spoil he p og ession o he game's s o yline being played
17. The in e iew exce p s a e ansla ed by he au ho .
18 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
li e, as well as p omo ional messages om smalle compe ing s eame s. Tempo-
a y bans can e en be used humo ously, as seen when, a he eques o s eame
Kame 0, a mode a o banned a iewe a guing wi h him abou he bes playable
cha ac e s in League o Legends. These mode a o s o en jus i y hei in ol emen
by highligh ing he p ide o being ecognised and endo sed by well-known s eam-
e s, as well as he p i ileged social s a us hey enjoy wi hin he communi y—sym-
bolised, o ins ance, by speci ic mode a ion badges a ached o hei use name in
he cha . In con as , sa e space mode a o s p ima ily desc ibe hei mo i a ion as
ac i is and se ious, hei in es men in mode a ion being di ec ed owa ds com-
ba ing he disc imina ion expe ienced by mino i ies online:
“Any hing ela ed o eminism, espec o human igh s, he LGBTQ+ communi y
- yes, i someone c osses he line, is openly ansphobic, homophobic, sexis , o
any hing like ha , my ole as a mode a o means I’ll ell ha pe son, ‘You
wo ds a en’ welcome in his communi y. Ei he you change, o you’ e
ou ’”.(Luna, 25 yea s old, enginee , mode a o on a sa e space channel wi h 900
ollowe s)
The case o mode a ing “backsea gaming” (i.e. he ac o c i icising e e y in-game
decision made by he s eame ) illus a es well how he same mode a ion p ac ice
can ca y di e en social signi icance depending on he egion o Twi ch. Rega d-
less o he pole o which he channel belongs, backsea gaming is socially p ohib-
i ed in bo h cases. Howe e , whe e a mains eam mode a o like Ta ek jus i ies his
p ohibi ion as necessa y o p ese e he en e ainmen alue o he s eam om
“imma u e” beha iou , Ma ianne, a sa e space mode a o , in e p e s his p ac ice as
a o m o misogyny, o igina ing no om "kids" bu om "masculinis s":
“Wha ’s backsea ?
I happens all he ime. I ’s when people come in o show o , elling he
s eame , ‘Do his, do ha in he game.’ I ’s no he hing o do, especially when
i makes he s eame s op e e y wo seconds o ead hei ips in cha , e en
hough hey’ e ac ually eally good a he game. I ’s kind o childish”. (Ta ek, 17
yea s old, high school s uden , mode a o on a mains eam channel wi h
120,000 ollowe s)
“[Backsea ] de ini ely has some hing ‘mascu’ behind i , ha ’s o su e. I ’s hese
li le guys coming in o ell you how you should play, basically ying o con ol
19 Fe e
wha you’ e doing. Women in gaming a e s ill p e y new, and he e’s s ill his
s e eo ype o he game gi l being bad a ideo games (…)”. (Ma ianne, 25 yea s
old, local go e nmen employee, mode a o on a sa e space channel wi h
14,000 ollowe s)
O cou se, his opposi ion should no be o e s a ed. The poli icised o non-poli i-
cised na u e o a channel un olds along a spec um, in bo h di ec ions. Mains eam
channels, while p esen ing hemsel es as ou side he ealm o poli ics (as exem-
pli ied by Joueu du G enie , whose "cha ules" on his Twi ch page explici ly ban
“poli ical discou se”), can none heless pe pe ua e highly poli ical masculinis
opes. Simila ly, no all mode a o s o sa e space channels in es in hei ac i i y
wi h he same le el o poli ical in ensi y and au oma ici y. Fo ins ance, Léo no es
ha he only mode a es poli ical discussions on he communi y Disco d a he ex-
plici eques o he s eame :
“I i goes beyond my con ic ions, I’ll alk o he pe son p i a ely a he han
publicly, because he Disco d isn’ supposed o be a poli ical Disco d. I ’s
o iginally a Disco d o a and gaming. We don’ make poli ical opics a ocus
unless he s eame speci ically ells us, ‘Hey, his issue ma e s o me a lo , so
be ca e ul i i comes up on he Disco d—i bo he s me.’ In ha case, yeah, as a
mode a o , I’ll s ep in. O he wise, no.” (Léo)
Ano he example o in a- egion a ia ion, he poli ical dimension o mode a ion is
a mo e explici and p onounced in a small se o channels highly engaged in
Ma xis ideology (such as Bolchegeek o Usul), which a e also less eminised.
Thomas, a 27-yea -old mode a o on one o hese channels, adop s a mo e agonis-
ic app oach o mode a ion. He does no hesi a e o in e ene di ec ly o censo
ha assmen aid messages, which he desc ibes as " ascis ," and o "educa e" iewe s
in esponse o messages he pe cei es as e lec ing a lack o poli icisa ion. Finally,
i is wo h no ing ha ideo games do no inhe en ly equa e o depoli icisa ion,
sa e space channels, such as Bolchegeek (Figu e 3), o en in e wining gaming cul-
u e wi h ac i ism (Fe e & Gallina i-Sa a , 2024).
20 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
FIGURE 3: Bolchegeek channel s eam backg ound (Twi ch, 2024)
Conclusion
The con en mode a ion policies on digi al pla o ms like Twi ch a e deeply in e -
wined wi h he socio-demog aphic de e minan s shaping p ocesses o ma ginali-
sa ion, poli icisa ion, and digi al social dis inc ion. This s udy demons a es ha
he logic o mode a ion canno be disen angled om he b oade gende and po-
li ical s uc u es o o line social li e, which mani es and ep oduce digi ally
ac oss h ee le els: he pla o m-wide guidelines shaped by compe i i e and socio-
poli ical dis inc ions, he indi idual engagemen o mode a o s and he a ia ion
in mode a ion no ms be ween channels.
A he pla o m le el, Twi ch’s posi ion as a leade in he "pla o m wa s" exempli-
ies how mode a ion policies se e as a ma ke segmen a ion ool. By esponding
o use -d i en ac i ism and aligning i sel wi h p og essi e alues, Twi ch has po-
si ioned i sel agains compe i o s like Kick, which emb ace a libe a ian and mas-
culinis e hos. This dialec ic o inclusi i y e sus pe missi eness highligh s he
ole o pla o ms in ep oducing b oade socio-poli ical di isions. A he indi idual
le el, he socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o mode a o s - such as hei gende
iden i y, poli ical o ien a ion, men al heal h and socio-economic s a us - play a
c ucial ole in shaping hei in es men in o mode a ion p ac ices. This highligh s
he way Twi ch policy eme ges om sha ed o line expe iences and sociodemo-
g aphic dynamics a he han me ely om pla o m-speci ic dynamics. Then, be-
ween channels, he con as be ween "mains eam" and "sa e space" egions
demons a es how socio-poli ical dis inc ions in luence he applica ion o mode a-
21 Fe e
ion no ms wi hin he pla o m i sel . Mains eam channels ( ypically mo e mascu-
line) end owa ds depoli icised, en e ainmen - ocused mode a ion, while sa e
spaces ones ( ypically mo e eminine) align mo e closely wi h ac i is and p o ec-
i e app oaches. These a ia ions unde sco e he plu alism wi hin Twi ch’s no ma-
i e and sociodemog aphic ecosys em, challenging he no ion o uni o m pla o m
egula ion and audience.
By add essing social isola ion, economic p eca i y, and psychological ulne abili y
o you h, pla o ms like Twi ch play an ou sized ole in shaping digi al social in e-
g a ion o new gene a ions. Policymake s mus he e o e engage wi h he implica-
ions o communi y-based mode a ion models, ecognising hei dual po en ial o
empowe and exclude. Fo esea che s, his s udy o e s a amewo k o analyze
mode a ion as a mul i-scala phenomenon - b idging pla o m policies, sociode-
mog aphic cha ac e is ics, and communi y dynamics. Fu u e esea ch should ex-
plo e how hese dynamics e ol e ac oss di e en cul u al con ex s and pla o ms,
pa icula ly as compe i i e p essu es and socio-poli ical landscapes con inue o
shi .
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24 In e ne Policy Re iew 14(1) | 2025
