Decoding the digital landscape: An empirically validated model for assessing digitalisation across public administration levels

A is o nik, Aleksande ; Ra šelj, Dejan; Mu ko, E a
A icle
Decoding he digi al landscape: An empi ically alida ed
model o assessing digi alisa ion ac oss public
adminis a ion le els
Adminis a i e Sciences
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MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: A is o nik, Aleksande ; Ra šelj, Dejan; Mu ko, E a (2024) : Decoding he digi al
landscape: An empi ically alida ed model o assessing digi alisa ion ac oss public adminis a ion
le els, Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 14, Iss. 3, pp. 1-22,
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Ci a ion: A is o nik, Aleksande ,
Dejan Ra šelj, and E a Mu ko. 2024.
Decoding he Digi al Landscape: An
Empi ically Valida ed Model o
Assessing Digi alisa ion ac oss Public
Adminis a ion Le els. Adminis a i e
Sciences 14: 41. h ps://doi.o g/
10.3390/admsci14030041
Recei ed: 15 Janua y 2024
Re ised: 21 Feb ua y 2024
Accep ed: 22 Feb ua y 2024
Published: 27 Feb ua y 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Swi ze land.
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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4.0/).
adminis a i e
sciences
A icle
Decoding he Digi al Landscape: An Empi ically Valida ed
Model o Assessing Digi alisa ion ac oss Public
Adminis a ion Le els
Aleksande A is o nik * , Dejan Ra šelj and E a Mu ko
Facul y o Public Adminis a ion, Uni e si y o Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slo enia;
[email p o ec ed] (D.R.); [email p o ec ed] (E.M.)
*Co espondence: aleksande [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : This esea ch ad ances he ield o digi al go e nmen by de eloping and empi ically
alida ing a model o measu ing he digi al s a e o public adminis a ion, wi h a speci ic ocus
on Slo enia. Mo ing beyond adi ional digi al ma u i y models, ou s udy in oduces a holis ic
amewo k ha in eg a es elemen s o echnology, p ocess, s uc u e, people and o ganisa ional
cul u e, en iched by dimensions o digi al p inciples, good go e nance, and ex e nal en i onmen al
ac o s. This amewo k is g ounded in an adap a ion o Lea i ’s diamond model, ailo ed o cap u e
he nuances o digi alisa ion in public adminis a ion. The empi ical alida ion is conduc ed h ough
a comp ehensi e ques ionnai e adminis e ed o Slo enian public adminis a ion o ganisa ions a
bo h local and s a e le els. The esul s p o ide a nuanced unde s anding o he cu en digi al s a e
ha ex ends beyond echnological aspec s, including p ocess op imisa ion, o ganisa ional s uc u e,
people elemen s and cul u e dynamics, and insigh s in o in e nal and ex e nal ba ie s o digi alisa ion
as well as p inciples o good go e nance and digi alisa ion. The s udy’s esul s show ha minis ies
in Slo enia gene ally possess a mo e ad anced digi al in as uc u e han municipali ies, pa icula ly
in a ious aspec s o ICT de elopmen and in eg a ion. While Slo enia aspi es o align wi h he EU
digi al s a egy, i aces a ious challenges, pa icula ly a he municipal le el, in achie ing cohe en
de elopmen o digi al skills and policy implemen a ion. The comp ehensi e app oach allows o a
mo e in o med e alua ion o digi al ans o ma ion e o s, o e ing insigh s in o a eas o s eng h and
oppo uni ies o u he de elopmen . The indings ha e signi ican implica ions o policymake s
and s akeholde s, highligh ing c i ical a eas o a ge ed imp o emen and s a egic planning in he
digi alisa ion o public adminis a ion.
Keywo ds: heo e ical amewo k; digi alisa ion measu emen model; public adminis a ion; public
o ganisa ion; Lea i ’s diamond model
1. In oduc ion
In con empo a y discou se, digi alisa ion eme ges as a pi o al ca alys d i ing ans-
o ma ions ac oss social, economic, and poli ical sphe es (F ach e al. 2017). I s impac is
also no able in public adminis a ion (PA), whe e i is he alded as a co ne s one o e o-
lu ionising public managemen p ac ices. This phenomenon is encapsula ed in concep s
like digi al-e a go e nance (Ma ge s and Dunlea y 2013) and e-go e nmen (Heidelbe g
2009;Dob olyubo a 2021), unde sco ing digi alisa ion’s ole in eshaping public sec o
managemen . Globally, he digi alisa ion o public adminis a ion, ex ending o he b oade
public sec o , ep esen s a signi ican policy e olu ion. The Eu opean Union exempli ies his
end wi h i s s a egic ocus on digi alisa ion. The Eu opean Commission (2016) has been
ins umen al in o mula ing a uni ied app oach, os e ing alignmen o digi al s a egies a
na ional and local le els. Con as ing wi h he New Public Managemen (NPM) doc ines
ha exace ba ed agmen a ion wi hin he public sec o (Hood 1991;Polli and Bouckae
2011;A is o nik e al. 2022a), digi al ini ia i es o e a pa hway o enhanced in eg a ion
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14030041 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 2 o 22
and coo dina ion. Digi alisa ion has been iden i ied as a key d i e o imp o ing in e nal
cohe ence and os e ing be e coo dina ion in public adminis a ion (Ansell and Miu a
2020;Di Giulio and Vecchi 2023).
In Slo enia, a coun y na iga ing i s digi al ans o ma ion, hese global ends es-
ona e wi h unique egional cha ac e is ics. While s i ing o align wi h he Eu opean
Commission’s digi al s a egy, Slo enia aces speci ic challenges in e ms o policy cohe -
ence and he de elopmen o digi al skills, pa icula ly a he local municipal le el. This
con ex in Slo enia unde sco es he need o a nuanced unde s anding o digi alisa ion in
public adminis a ion ha accoun s o egional a ia ions.
In he ealm o digi alisa ion, public adminis a ions a e no me ely acili a o s and
egula o s o he p i a e sec o ’s digi alisa ion; hey a e also di ec pa icipan s in he digi al
a ena. This in ol emen necessi a es he ans o ma ion o hei ope a ional p ocesses and
he digi alisa ion o public se ices. To ha ness he ull po en ial o digi alisa ion, public
adminis a ions need o be well-in o med abou hei cu en digi al s a us (F ach e al.
2017). “You can only manage wha you measu e” (Falk e al. 2017) is pa icula ly ele an
he e. Awa eness o he digi al s a us quo enables PAs o ack hei p og ess, pinpoin
imp o emen a eas, and benchma k hei pe o mance agains compa able o ganisa ions.
This knowledge os e s he exchange o e ec i e p ac ices and allows o moni o ing
ongoing changes. C ucially, i also equips PAs o de ise and implemen obus s a egies
o u u e digi al ad ancemen s, ensu ing con inuous imp o emen in hei digi al jou ney.
To ully g asp he digi al p og ession wi hin public adminis a ion, a shi in ocus is
equi ed om na ional-le el analyses o an in-dep h examina ion a he o ganisa ional le el
(Me gel e al. 2019). Coun y-wide compa a i e s udies like he DESI (Digi al Economy and
Socie y Index) by he Eu opean Commission (Digi al Economy and Socie y Index (Digi al
Economy and Socie y Index (DESI) 2023)), he OECD’s Digi al Go e nmen Index (DGI)
(OECD 2023), and he Uni ed Na ions’ e-Go e nmen De elopmen Index (EGDI) (Uni ed
Na ions 2023) p o ide aluable insigh s in o he na ional pe o mance, de elopmen , and
compe i i eness o coun ies and go e nmen s a he na ional le el, leading o signi ican
policy ecommenda ions o policymake s. Howe e , indi idual public o ganisa ions a e
he key o digi al p og ess (F ach e al. 2017). Since 1999, e-go e nmen esea ch has been
an impo an s eam in de eloping a ious ICT ma u i y models (Meye ho Nielsen 2017).
Acco ding o Chanias and Hess (2016), digi al ma u i y e lec s a company’s digi al ans-
o ma ion p og ess, encompassing bo h ope a ional changes and acqui ed ans o ma ion
mas e y capabili ies. Recen ly, he e has been a su ge in he c ea ion o digi al ma u i y
models (DMMs) due o he high p ac ical ele ance o he digi alisa ion opic (Tho dsen
e al. 2020). Ne e heless, ma u i y models ha e aced c i icism o hei linea s uc u e
and excessi e ocus on echnology, o en o e looking o he i al o ganisa ional ac o s
(No mann e al. 2020;Tangi e al. 2022).
This c i ique and esea ch gap inspi ed he de elopmen o a mo e holis ic model ha
conside s a b oad ange o o ganisa ional elemen s in ol ed in digi al p og ess, including
p inciples o good go e nance and digi alisa ion speci ic o public adminis a ion. Hence,
his s udy is d i en by he pu pose o c i ically examining and unde s anding he com-
plexi ies o digi al p og ession wi hin public o ganisa ions. Speci ically, i seeks o add ess
he gap in he exis ing li e a u e ega ding comp ehensi e assessmen s o digi alisa ion,
highligh ing he need o a model ha anscends adi ional digi al ma u i y me ics by
inco po a ing b oade o ganisa ional elemen s. This pu pose is g ounded in he impe a i e
o enhance s a egic planning and ope a ional e iciency in public adminis a ions h ough
a mo e nuanced unde s anding o digi al p og ess. To achie e his, ou s udy se s o h
he ollowing objec i es. Fi s , o de elop a holis ic model ha measu es he digi alisa ion
s a e o public o ganisa ions a bo h minis y and municipal le els, in eg a ing ope a ional
changes, ans o ma ion mas e y capabili ies, and digi al and good go e nance p inciples.
The second objec i e is o empi ically alida e his model h ough igo ous es ing and
compa a i e analysis, ensu ing i s applicabili y and e ec i eness in iden i ying a eas o
imp o emen and benchma king digi al p og ess. Th ough hese objec i es, ou esea ch
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 3 o 22
endea ou s o p o ide ac ionable insigh s ha acili a e he ad ancemen o digi alisa ion
s a egies wi hin public o ganisa ions, he eby con ibu ing o he b oade discou se on
digi al ans o ma ion in public adminis a ion.
The sec ions a e s uc u ed as ollows. Sec ion 2p esen s he heo e ical backg ound
o ma u i y models, hei c i ics, and he a ionale o ocusing on o ganisa ions. Sec ion 3
ou lines he amewo k upon which he digi alisa ion measu emen model o a public
o ganisa ion is based. In Sec ion 4, we desc ibe he empi ical es ing o he model using
an ex ensi e ques ionnai e p epa ed o heads o public o ganisa ions and in o ma ics
depa men s (whe e applicable). This sec ion also co e s he da a selec ion me hods,
including a de ailed desc ip ion o he esea ch p ocess and measu emen s. Sec ion 5
p esen s he esea ch esul s and discussion. Finally, he las sec ion concludes he s udy,
combining all he indings.
2. Theo e ical Backg ound
Public o ganisa ions, p ima ily hose asked wi h managing in e ac ions wi h ci izens
and aking ca e o hei needs, a e inc easingly seeking digi al de elopmen o mee
e ol ing expec a ions wi hin he cons ain s o hei budge s. As such, o ganisa ions
should be cen al o any digi alisa ion measu emen e o s (Dob olyubo a 2021). I is
c ucial o unde s and ha digi alising se ice deli e y is no an isola ed endea ou o
public en i ies. Ins ead, i is in ica ely linked o b oade in e nal digi alisa ion p ocesses
since digi alisa ion anscends me e echnology adop ion. I ep esen s a comp ehensi e
shi encompassing o ganisa ional s a egies, business p ocesses, o ganisa ional knowledge,
and he o e all socio- echnical amewo k (Alsu yani and Gill 2022).
In he ield o in o ma ion sys ems, especially wi hin digi al go e nmen , unde s and-
ing he de elopmen al ajec o y o echnologies is c ucial. This unde s anding aids in
econs uc ing he his o y o echnology de elopmen and en isioning how new, dis up-
i e echnologies and o wa d- hinking se ices a e e olu ionising go e nmen unc ions
h ough sma se ices (Lemke e al. 2020). O e he pas ew decades, p ac i ione s and
esea che s ha e de ised nume ous models o acili a e his unde s anding. These models
a e known by a ious names, including ma u i y, benchma king, s age, and adop ion
models (No mann e al. 2020). Since 1999, hese models ha e been a ounda ional as-
pec o e-go e nmen esea ch, o e ing amewo ks o measu e and guide he digi al
e olu ion o public adminis a ion o ganisa ions (Meye ho Nielsen 2017). They p o ide
me hodologies o classi y and e alua e, o ins ance, he online se ice p o ision based on
speci ic o ganisa ional and echnical c i e ia (No mann e al. 2020). Among he mos ci ed
e-go e nmen ma u i y models a e Layne and Lee’s ou -s age ma u i y model (Layne and
Lee 2001), Foun ain’s echnology adop ion amewo k (Foun ain 2004), and Da ison e al.’s
ou -s age s a egy and ma u i y model (Da ison e al. 2005), along wi h o he s (I iba en
e al. 2008;Heeks 2015;Janowski 2015;Ande sen and Hen iksen 2006;A is o nik e al.
2022b). These models ha e been c ucial in academic esea ch and in c ea ing indices o
in e na ional o ganisa ions o assess go e nmen digi alisa ion ac oss di e en coun ies
(No mann e al. 2020).
Ma u i y models, widely used in go e nmen digi alisa ion, ace subs an ial c i icism
despi e hei popula i y. C i ics ques ion he alidi y and u ili y o hese models, aising
conce ns abou he app op ia eness o he s ages de ined, he ac ual p og ession h ough
hose s ages, and whe he highe s ages a e inhe en ly supe io o lowe ones (Goldkuhl
and Pe sson 2006). Fu he mo e, ma u i y models o en su e om a weak heo e ical
ounda ion, lack empi ical suppo , and p o ide an inadequa e basis o benchma king
(No mann e al. 2020). They end o make b oad gene alisa ions abou ma u i y, which
a e di icul o apply p ac ically a di e en go e nmen al le els. This is pa ly because
many ma u i y models a e no backed by solid heo y o empi ical e idence, challenging
hei abili y o accu a ely p edic de elopmen s in e-go e nmen (Bibe oglu and Haddad
2002). Ma u i y models end o be mos bene icial in unce ain scena ios, pa icula ly
when echnology is s ill eme ging and has no achie ed a dominan design (No mann e al.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 4 o 22
2020). Con empo a y models o en o e ly ocus on p ocesses, neglec ing o he aspec s like
skillse s o echnological a o dances (Van Looy e al. 2017;Röglinge e al. 2012;Bach 1994).
The linea p og ession implied in hese models owa ds an ul ima e s age is also being
ques ioned o i s alidi y (No mann e al. 2020).
Such c i icisms highligh he need o a model ha ocuses on measu ing he digi al
s a us quo, ega dless o he digi al s age, and in eg a es mul iple o ganisa ional aspec s such
as s uc u e, cul u e and people, addi ionally conside ing good public go e nance and digi al
p inciples (De V ies e al. 2016). This pe spec i e is aligned wi h in e na ional amewo ks
and guidelines ha ha e begun o emphasise accoun abili y, e iciency, use -cen e edness
and anspa ency (Uni ed Na ions 2022;OECD 2014;Eu opean Commission 2014).
O ganisa ional digi alisa ion, which goes beyond me e IT in es men o include he
comp ehensi e in eg a ion o IT wi hin an o ganisa ion, is a complex p ocess. This com-
plexi y a ises no only om in es ing in new IT in as uc u e bu also in ol es aining
employees, inco po a ing new IT unc ions, and ac ual usage o IT (Bu on-Jones and Galli-
an 2007). Digi alisa ion signi ican ly impac s o ganisa ional aspec s, including s a egy,
cul u e, s uc u e, business p ocesses, and knowledge, igge ed by implemen ing new IT
solu ions (Bha adwaj e al. 2013;O likowski 2010;Pa k and Sa a 2016). Mo eo e , he
success o adop ing IT is also con ingen upon public manage s’ comp ehension o how
he adop ed echnology will impac he o ganisa ion. In an e a o apid echnological
ad ancemen and inc easingly complex and dynamic en i onmen s, o ganisa ions a e
compelled o adop a mo e lexible and adap i e app oach. This unde sco es he pi o al
ole o echnology as a ca alys o change and highligh s he signi icance o con inuous
lea ning and adap a ion wi hin o ganisa ions (Di Giulio and Vecchi 2023).
In esponse o hese c i icisms and esea ch gaps, de eloping he p esen model o
measu ing he digi al s a us quo ollowed a pa h o conside ing he basic o ganisa ional
model. Hence, he model d aws on Lea i ’s diamond model (Lea i 1965) o o e a com-
p ehensi e app oach ha includes all he key o ganisa ional elemen s, addi ionally inco po-
a ing good go e nance and digi al p inciples and ac o s om he ex e nal en i onmen .
3. De eloping a Model o Measu ing he Digi al S a e in Public
Adminis a ion O ganisa ions
In mode n public adminis a ion, In o ma ion and Communica ion Technologies
(ICTs) and in o ma ion sys ems a e key o enhancing e iciency and se ice deli e y. They
s eamline adminis a i e p ocesses and o e accessible se ices h ough e-go e nmen
pla o ms. These sys ems aid in da a managemen and analy ics, essen ial o e idence-
based policymaking (Hombu g 2018). ICTs also p omo e anspa ency and accoun abili y,
imp o ing in e nal and ex e nal communica ion (Be o e al. 2010), and a e c ucial in
emo e wo k acili a ion and c isis managemen . Addi ionally, hey ensu e legal compliance,
os e public pa icipa ion in go e nance, and ac as ca alys s o inno a ion in policy and
adminis a ion. O e all, ICTs a e in eg al o mode nising and imp o ing go e nance,
making i mo e esponsi e and ci izen-cen ic (Eom and Lee 2022;Wilson and Me gel 2022).
The inc easing eliance on and in eg a ion o ICTs wi hin o ganisa ional amewo ks
unde sco e a c i ical managemen issue: aligning ICT wi h undamen al o ganisa ional
componen s, including o ganisa ional s uc u e, pe sonnel, asks, managemen p ocesses,
s a egies, and p e-exis ing echnologies. O ganisa ions mus me iculously ailo hei
s uc u es, p ocesses, human esou ces, cul u al dynamics, and managemen p ac ices
o e ec i ely syne gise wi h echnological ad ancemen s o ha ness he po en ial o ICT
in es men s ully. Wigand (2007) ein o ces his iewpoin , ad oca ing o a s a egic
adjus men o o ganisa ional ace s o op imise ou comes de i ed om echnology.
In de eloping a model o assessing he digi al s a e o public adminis a ion o gan-
isa ions, we d aw inspi a ion om Lea i ’s diamond model (1965). Ini ially de ised by
Ha old J. Lea i in 1965, his amewo k se es as a co ne s one o unde s anding he dy-
namics o o ganisa ional change, pa icula ly in he con ex o p i a e o ganisa ions. Lea i
posi ed ha an o ganisa ion comp ises ou key in e dependen elemen s: asks, people,

Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 5 o 22
s uc u e, and echnology. His model, o en e e ed o as Lea i ’s Alignmen Model o
Lea i ’s Sys em Model, emphasises he symbio ic ela ionship among hese componen s,
asse ing ha one modi ica ion ine i ably p ecipi a es adjus men s in he o he s.
In ou adap a ion o Lea i ’s model o he digi al ealm o public adminis a ion, we
e ain he co e elemen s o p ocesses, people, s uc u e, cul u e and echnology ye di e ge
in e ms o applica ion. Unlike he o iginal model, which ocuses on change managemen
and he ipple e ec s o al e a ions in any single componen , ou model aims o measu e
he cu en digi al s a e o hese elemen s. I is a diagnos ic ool designed o assess he
s a us quo o digi alisa ion wi hin an o ganisa ion, conside ing how hese componen s
collec i ely con ibu e o i s digi al ma u i y.
In Lea i ’s model, echnology is seen as a pi o al o ce, di ec ly impac ing he na u e
o asks, he oles and skills o employees, and he o ganisa ion’s s uc u e. Fo ins ance,
in oducing new echnology may necessi a e a shi in employee skills and po en ially lead
o changes in o ganisa ional hie a chy and wo k low. The model unde sco es he signi i-
cance o a balanced and comp ehensi e iew o hese elemen s, pa icula ly in he domain
o knowledge managemen , whe e each componen is deemed equally i al. To elucida e
u he , s uc u e e e s o he o ganisa ional layou , encompassing he hie a chical a ange-
men and he in e ac ion, communica ion, and coo dina ion ac oss di e en le els and
depa men s. I is a dynamic componen ha adap s in esponse o changes in o he a eas
o he model. Tasks a e he speci ic ac i i ies and esponsibili ies unde aken by eams and
indi iduals wi hin he o ganisa ion. The model highligh s he impo ance o unde s anding
hese asks, especially when o ganisa ional changes a e an icipa ed o implemen ed. The
people elemen ocuses on he wo k o ce— hei skills, a i udes, and beha iou s—and how
hese a ibu es a e b ough o bea in hei oles. The model emphasises he need o align
hese human ac o s wi h he e ol ing demands o he o ganisa ion. Cen al o Lea i ’s
model, echnology encompasses he ools and sys ems employed by he o ganisa ion o
acili a e and execu e asks (G an and Me gen 1996;Smi h e al. 1992;Wigand 2007).
In ou model o measu ing he digi al s a e, we apply hese elemen s o e alua e he
cu en le el o digi alisa ion in public adminis a ion. Ou goal is no o ack change pe
se bu o gauge he exis ing digi al ecosys em, p o iding a snapsho o an o ganisa ion’s
digi al jou ney. This app oach allows us o c ea e a nuanced unde s anding o digi al
ma u i y, conside ing he in e play and balance o hese undamen al elemen s. By doing
so, we can iden i y a eas o s eng h and oppo uni ies o enhancemen in he digi al
in as uc u e o public adminis a ion o ganisa ions.
Lea i ’s diamond model was la e ex ended by o he au ho s (Bu ke and Peppa d
1995;Ko aˇciˇc e al. 2004). O ganisa ional cul u e was added as a i h elemen , and he
elemen “ ask” was changed o “p ocesses”. These key elemen s o he o ganisa ion
a e in e dependen . Changes in one cause changes in he o he (Nog ašek and Vin a
2014). Addi ionally, acco ding o he heo y o echnological de e minism, ICT di ec s he
ans o ma ion o public adminis a ion o ganisa ions, which means ha echnology causes
changes in p ocesses, s uc u e, people and o ganisa ional cul u e. Th ough he socio-
echnical heo y, howe e , ICT is only one o he equal componen s o he socio- echnical
sys em, and as long as p ocesses, people, cul u e, and s uc u e emain unchanged, he
po en ial o mode n echnologies canno be ully exploi ed (Laze 2002;Mania opoulos
2005;Nog ašek and Vin a 2014).
Nog ašek and Vin a (2014) u he p oposed an addi ional iew ha allows o a
combina ion o he men ioned pe spec i es, namely: (1) ICT is an impo an ool and key
p omo e o o ganisa ional ans o ma ion and (2) he po en ial o ICT is in e -connec ed
and depends on he de elopmen and eadiness o all he o he key elemen s o an o gani-
sa ion (p ocesses, people, s uc u e, cul u e). ICT hus ep esen s an equi alen elemen o
he socio- echnical sys em and is he ounda ion o ou model o measu ing he s a e o
digi alisa ion in public adminis a ion o ganisa ions (Figu e 1).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 6 o 22
Adm.Sci.2024,14,xFORPEERREVIEW6o 22


echnicalsys em,andaslongasp ocesses,people,cul u e,ands uc u e emainun‐
changed, hepo en ialo mode n echnologiescanno be ullyexploi ed(Laze 2002;
Mania opoulos2005;Nog ašekandVin a 2014).
Nog ašekandVin a (2014) u he p oposedanaddi ional iew ha allows o a
combina iono  hemen ionedpe spec i es,namely:(1)ICTisanimpo an  oolandkey
p omo e o o ganisa ional ans o ma ionand(2) hepo en ialo ICTisin e ‐connec ed
anddependson hede elopmen and eadinesso all heo he keyelemen so ano ‐
ganisa ion(p ocesses,people,s uc u e,cul u e).ICT hus ep esen sanequi alen ele‐
men o  hesocio‐ echnicalsys emandis he ounda iono ou model o measu ing he
s a eo digi alisa ioninpublicadminis a iono ganisa ions(Figu e1).

Figu e1.Amodel o measu ing hedigi als a ea  heo ganisa ionle el.(Sou ces:A is o nike 
al.2022b;Bu keandPeppa d1995;Eu opeanCommission2016;Ko ačiče al.2004;Lea i 1965;
Nog ašekandVin a 2014;OECD2004;Rainey2009;Uni edNa ions2022.)
Buildingon his ounda ion, hemodelis u he en ichedbyin eg a ing h eead‐
di ionaldimensions,each i al ocomp ehensi elyunde s anding hedigi als a ein
publicadminis a ion:(1)Digi alP inciples,(2)GoodGo e nanceP inciples,and(3)Ex‐
Figu e 1. A model o measu ing he digi al s a e a he o ganisa ion le el. (Sou ces: A is o nik
e al. 2022b;Bu ke and Peppa d 1995;Eu opean Commission 2016;Ko aˇciˇc e al. 2004;Lea i 1965;
Nog ašek and Vin a 2014;OECD 2004;Rainey 2009;Uni ed Na ions 2022).
Building on his ounda ion, he model is u he en iched by in eg a ing h ee ad-
di ional dimensions, each i al o comp ehensi ely unde s anding he digi al s a e in
public adminis a ion: (1) Digi al P inciples, (2) Good Go e nance P inciples, and (3) Ex-
e nal En i onmen Fac o s. These dimensions a e inco po a ed o e lec he b oade
con ex in which public adminis a ion ope a es, encompassing bo h in e nal ope a ions
and ex e nal in luences.
(1) The Eu opean Commission’s eGo e nmen Ac ion Plans a e poli ical ools o ad anc-
ing he mode nisa ion o public adminis a ions ac oss he Eu opean Union (Eu opean
Commission 2016). All ci izens and businesses in he Eu opean Union should ha e
access o e icien and inclusi e, bo de less, pe sonalised, use - iendly, end- o-end
digi al public se ices p o ided by public adminis a ion and public ins i u ions in
he EU. Each Ac ion Plan in eg a es essen ial p inciples, encompassing use -cen ici y
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 7 o 22
o easy- o-use, digi al- i s public se ices, alongside us wo hy and secu e han-
dling o pe sonal da a. I emphasises inclusi i y and accessibili y o di e se use
g oups, including mul i-lingual and disabili y conside a ions. In e ope abili y ac oss
EU bo de s and de ices is p io i ised, along wi h openness and anspa ency in
go e nmen p ocesses, p omo ing s akeholde engagemen and accoun abili y. An
inno a ion cul u e is encou aged, wi h public sec o s adop ing new echnologies and
collabo a i e app oaches. Addi ionally, he plan s esses he impo ance o espec ing
da a, cybe , and IT secu i y as being ounda ional o digi al se ice adop ion and
us enhancemen .
(2)
The concep o good go e nance, cen al o social coo dina ion heo ies, has e ol ed
h ough in e disciplina y applica ion and policy analysis, emphasising a shi om
adi ional s a e-adminis e ed monopolis ic hie a chies o a well- unc ioning bu eau-
c a ic sys em ha includes a ious socie al ne wo ks o enhanced coo dina ion
(Ko aˇc e al. 2016;Be i 2011;Pe e s 2012;A is o nik e al. 2022a). This app oach is
ancho ed in eigh key p inciples: ule o law, pa icipa ion, consensus o ien a ion, eq-
ui y, inclusi eness, anspa ency, esponsi eness, e iciency, and e ec i eness (OECD
2004). These p inciples ep esen a Eu opean in e p e a ion o good go e nance,
dis inguishing hemsel es om adi ional models by ad oca ing o adminis a i e
openness o socie y and ci izens. This openness, mani es ing in anspa en ac ions
and ci izen accoun abili y, is seen as essen ial o e ec i ely achie ing public objec i es
(Bileišis e al. 2017).
(3)
In public adminis a ion, unde s anding and adap ing o a ious en i onmen al ac-
o s is c ucial o e ec i e and good go e nance. Legal aspec s p o ide he egula o y
amewo k, guiding ope a ions wi hin he bounds o law. Economic ac o s in luence
esou ce alloca ion and iscal policies, which a e essen ial o sus ainable se ice de-
li e y. Demog aphic shi s dic a e he e ol ing needs and di e si y o he popula ion
se ed. Poli ical clima es shape policy p io i ies and adminis a i e s a egies. Na u-
al en i onmen al conside a ions, such as clima e change and esou ce managemen ,
a e i al o sus ainable de elopmen and disas e esponse planning. Cul u al ac-
o s impac how public se ices a e pe cei ed and ecei ed, necessi a ing cul u ally
sensi i e app oaches. Las ly, echnological ad ancemen s p esen bo h oppo uni ies
and challenges, d i ing inno a ion in se ice deli e y while equi ing adap abili y
o as -paced changes. Collec i ely, hese elemen s shape he e iciency, ele ance,
and e ec i eness o public adminis a ion in se ing and esponding o he needs o
socie y (Ba ce iˇcius e al. 2019;Rainey 2009).
4. Digi al Public Adminis a ion in Slo enia: Knowledge So Fa
Be o e del ing in o he esul s o ou esea ch, le us i s b ie ly p esen he exis ing
knowledge on he digi al landscape wi hin Slo enian public adminis a ion. This back-
g ound will p o ide a con ex o he ou comes o a ques ionnai e aimed a assessing he
digi al s a us quo a bo h he minis e ial and municipal le els in Slo enia.
Slo enia has unde gone signi ican shi s in i s poli ical leade ship, which ha e no ably
impac ed policy p io i ies in he ealm o digi al go e nmen . This luidi y in policy
o ien a ion challenges es ablishing s able and cohe en policies, pa icula ly in c i ical a eas
such as in e ope abili y, digi al iden i y, and se ice design and deli e y. Despi e hese
challenges, Slo enia’s Minis y o Digi al T ans o ma ion (MDT) plays a pi o al ole in
coo dina ing digi al go e nmen policies ac oss a ious sec o s. The MDT’s e o s a e
essen ial o os e ing c oss-sec o and c oss-le el coo dina ion, ensu ing alignmen wi h
he cen al digi al go e nmen s a egy (Digi alna Slo enija 2023).
The legalis ic ins i u ional cul u e in Slo enia, cha ac e ised by a hea y eliance on
de ailed laws and egula ions, ends o ensu e consis ency in policy implemen a ion. How-
e e , his app oach migh also hinde agile policymaking and impede he swi p og ession
o digi al ans o ma ion. A su ey conduc ed by he OECD in 2020 highligh ed a lack o
mo i a ion among public se an s o imp o e hei digi al skills, sugges ing a misalign-
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 8 o 22
men o he pe cei ed alue o digi al compe encies. In esponse, he Minis y o Public
Adminis a ion, h ough he Adminis a ion Academy, has ini ia ed aining p og ammes
o enhance digi al li e acy among ci il se an s. These p og ammes emphasise a eas such
as da a science, business in elligence, and open da a managemen (OECD 2021).
Since 1993, Slo enia has unc ioned as a decen alised uni a y s a e, g an ing signi i-
can au onomy o i s 212 municipali ies. Howe e , his decen alisa ion is con as ed by
a ela i ely cen alised adminis a ion compa ed o o he OECD coun ies. In Slo enia’s
small and homogeneous e i o y, his cen alisa ion could be ad an ageous o imple-
men ing cohe en digi al policies. None heless, balancing his wi h keen a en ion o local
speci ici ies is c ucial o a oid agmen ed policy app oaches (OECD 2021).
The COVID-19 pandemic has ac ed as a ca alys o accele a ing digi al ans o ma ion
wi hin Slo enia. Public ins i u ions ha e shown a ied esponses, wi h some apidly digi-
ising se ices while o he s lagged, hus highligh ing dispa i ies in digi al se ice p o ision
ac oss he coun y. The Eu opean Commission’s Digi al Economy and Socie y Index (Digi-
al Economy and Socie y Index 2021) anked Slo enia 13 h among EU coun ies in o e all
digi al p og ess bu also no ed signi ican gaps in digi al public se ices, pa icula ly a he
local le el (OECD 2021).
Wi h hese obse a ions in mind, we can o mula e ce ain expec a ions o he ou -
comes o ou ques ionnai e ocused on he digi al s a us quo o public adminis a ion in
Slo enia. We an icipa e ha minis ies will demons a e a highe le el o digi al ma u i y
compa ed o municipali ies, p ima ily due o he cen alised na u e o Slo enia’s admin-
is a ion and he leading ole o he MDT. Addi ionally, digi al skills and compe encies
will likely be mo e ad anced a he minis y le el, in luenced by ini ia i es such as he
Adminis a ion Academy’s aining p og ammes. Con e sely, municipali ies, especially
he smalle ones, migh ace inancial cons ain s ha impac hei digi al de elopmen .
These cons ain s could esul in a lack o esou ces o digi al in as uc u e and aining,
leading o a ied le els o digi al implemen a ion ac oss municipali ies. Based on Slo e-
nia’s pe o mance in he DESI and he need o imp o emen in digi al public se ices a
he local le el, he ques ionnai e is expec ed o unde sco e he po en ial o and impo ance
o enhancing digi al se ices in municipali ies.
This sec ion se s he s age o a deepe unde s anding o he esul s ob ained om
he ques ionnai e, p o iding a c i ical backd op o in e p e ing he da a in he con ex o
Slo enia’s unique digi al landscape.
5. Resul s and Discussion
In explo ing he digi al landscape o Slo enia’s public adminis a ion, he da a om
minis ies and municipali ies e eal a mul i ace ed pic u e o p og ess, challenges, and
a ying le els o digi al in eg a ion and compe ence. D awing on speci ic ques ionnai e
esponses, his analysis aims o p o ide a a ie y o insigh s ha he model cap u es and a
nuanced unde s anding o whe e bo h minis ies and municipali ies in Slo enia s and in
hei digi al jou ney and he unde lying ac o s ha con ibu e o hese di e ences.
In a compa a i e analysis o echnological aspec s, minis ies exhibi a mo e ad anced
digi al in as uc u e han municipali ies, pa icula ly in e ms o ICT in eg a ion and
in o ma ion secu i y, hough he di e ences a e no s a is ically signi ican . While minis ies
demons a e obus in o ma ion secu i y amewo ks and use -cen ic digi al channels,
municipali ies show g ea e a iabili y in hese a eas, indica ing a less de eloped digi al
in as uc u e. Bo h en i ies display a di e se app oach o open da a policies, bu minis ies
gene ally ha e a s onge emphasis on digi al skills de elopmen .
In examining he p ocess- ela ed dimensions o public ins i u ions, ou analysis has
elucida ed ce ain pa e ns ha , while no s a is ically signi ican , deno e endencies wo h
no ing. Minis ies display a endency owa ds mo e consis en p ocess op imisa ion and
digi alisa ion. This is e idenced by he ela i ely high mean sco es, sugges ing ha min-
is ies a e ac i ely engaging in s eamlining and enhancing hei p ocesses. The ange o
sco es wi hin he minis y g oup also poin s o an es ablished ye a ied le el o digi ali-
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 15 o 22
o e sigh was ensu ed by he inclusion o heads o IT depa men s, a c ucial componen
ha was uni o mly ep esen ed ac oss all he pa icipa ing o ganisa ions, whe he mu-
nicipali ies o minis ies. This comp ehensi e app oach ensu ed ha each o ganisa ion
con ibu ed insigh s om bo h pe spec i es, en iching he da a wi h mul i ace ed iews
on digi al ans o ma ion ini ia i es, which was c ucial o unde s anding he s a egic
decision-making and ope a ional challenges associa ed wi h digi al e o s wi hin Slo enian
public adminis a ion.
The ec ui men o pa icipan s employed a non-p obabilis ic con enience sampling
me hod, le e aging es ablished in o ma ion communica ion sys ems and channels. Da a
collec ion spanned om Janua y 2022 o Ap il 2023, employing online pe sonal in e -
iews o acili a e an in-dep h e alua ion and a c i ical assessmen o indi idual ques-
ion i ems. The su ey ins umen was a comp ehensi e ques ionnai e comp ising 97
closed-ended ques ions o ensu e ull co e age o he subjec ma e . The in e iew o -
ma no only ensu ed he 100% comple ion a e o he ques ionnai es bu also p o ided
a pla o m o esponden s o o e addi ional insigh s beyond he s uc u ed que ies. To
sa egua d he in eg i y o he esponses, s ic con iden iali y and anonymi y we e assu ed
o all pa icipan s.
6.2. Measu es
The da a we e ob ained h ough a comp ehensi e ques ionnai e (a ailable in he
Supplemen a y Ma e ials) composed o 97 closed-ended ques ion i ems, including all he
supplemen a y ques ions, whe eby 6 ques ions e e ed o esponden s’ gene al demo-
g aphic cha ac e is ics and 91 ques ions e e ed o elemen s o he ins i u ion’s unc ioning,
di ided in o 5 hema ic sec ions. The ques ionnai e’s con en was o mula ed based on a
heo e ical li e a u e e iew by academic expe s in he in o ma ion echnology, economic,
legal, and public adminis a ion ields, which was u he es ed, e ised and e alua ed by
conside ing p ac ical expe iences and ecommenda ions om public manage s. The demo-
g aphic sec ion co e ed six ques ions abou demog aphic da a on gende , o al manage ial
wo k expe ience in yea s, o al wo k expe ience in yea s, he ield o he highes educa ional
a ainmen , ins i u ion size by he numbe o employees, in e na ional in ol emen o he
ins i u ion and he le el o public adminis a ion. The i s hema ic sec ion, echnology,
comp ised 26 ques ion i ems (52 including he supplemen a y ques ions) ega ding he ICT
solu ions, hei in e ope abili y and in eg a ion, in o ma ion secu i y policy, open da a and
da a analy ics usage, digi al channels o communica ion and collec ing eedback, c ucial
in e nal and ex e nal ba ie s o digi alisa ion, inclusi eness and pa icipa ion o use s
when i comes o c ea ing new ICT solu ions, e c. The second sec ion co e ed p ocesses
and included 7 ques ion i ems (12 including he supplemen a y ques ions) measu ing he
cha ac e is ics o business p ocesses, hei documen a ion and diag ams and ha ing p ocess
manage s appoin ed, e c. This was ollowed by a sec ion wi h 7 ques ions on s uc u e,
add essing he digi al in luence on he ins i u ion’s unc ioning, whe he implemen a ion
o new ICT solu ions in luences he ime o decision-making, changes hie a chical le els,
and in luences he ealloca ion o he asks o au ho i ies. The ou h sec ion conce ned
o ganisa ional cul u e and had 10 ques ions on alues, a i udes, and p ac ices wi h ega d
o he digi alisa ion ha cha ac e ises an ins i u ion. Finally, he las sec ion included
10 ques ions on people, ega ding he digi al HRM app oaches. Indi idual aspec s o a
public manage ’s pe cep ion o elemen s o he ins i u ion’s unc ioning (i.e., ag eemen
o equency) we e measu ed on a 5-poin Like scale anging om 1 (lowes alue) o
5 (highes alue) (C oasmun and Os om 2011). Since he su eyed ypes o ins i u ions
a ied, an ex a op ion, “no applicable”, was o e ed.
6.3. S a is ical Analysis
The s a is ical analysis was pe o med using he IBM SPSS S a is ics, he s a is ical
da a p ocessing package S a is ical Package o he Social Sciences, Ve sion: 29.0.0.0 (241).
Ini ial desc ip i e s a is ics we e compu ed o each ques ion, including he means and

Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 16 o 22
s anda d de ia ions. Fo ques ions wi h missing da a, he analysis was conduc ed on
he emaining esponses wi hou elimina ing any ques ions o cases. This app oach en-
su ed a mo e comple e iew o he da ase , e en when some esponden s did no answe
speci ic ques ions.
Be o e conduc ing in e en ial s a is ical es s, assump ions we e e i ied o he no -
mali y and homogenei y o a iances. Shapi o–Wilk es s e ealed ha he da a did no
mee he no mali y assump ion o mos o he ques ions. Le ene’s es u he indica ed
ha some ques ions did no mee he assump ion o equal a iances.
In ligh o he da a’s non-no mal dis ibu ion, as e idenced by he Shapi o–Wilk es s,
and he p esence o unequal a iances o some ques ions, as indica ed by Le ene’s es , we
op ed o he non-pa ame ic Mann–Whi ney U es o compa ing he median alues and
mean anks be ween municipali ies and minis ies. This choice aligned wi h he b oade
unde s anding o handling Like scale da a. As he in e p e a ion o means and s anda d
de ia ions o such da a can be ambiguous, expe s ha e o en ecommended using he
median as he cen al measu e o Like scale da a (Sulli an and A ino 2013;Jamieson
2004). The Mann–Whi ney U es is pa icula ly obus o small sample sizes and does no
equi e he assump ion o a no mal dis ibu ion o equal a iances be ween g oups. The
es ope a es by con e ing da a in o anks and compa ing he dis ibu ion o hose anks
be ween he wo independen g oups. I is ideally sui ed o o dinal da a and can de ec
di e ences in he cen al endency, speci ically he medians, be ween wo independen
samples. Mo eo e , he es also u ilises he mean anks, calcula ed by a e aging he anks
wi hin each g oup. The mean ank is a measu e o he cen al endency, o e ing insigh in o
each g oup’s o e all endency owa ds highe o lowe sco es on he Like scale. A highe
mean ank indica es a s onge ag eemen o a i ma ion, whe eas a lowe mean ank
implies less ag eemen . By assessing he s a is ical signi icance o he di e ences in hese
mean anks be ween he wo g oups, he Mann–Whi ney U es p o ides a comp ehensi e
analysis o o dinal da a (Sulli an and A ino 2013;Jamieson 2004;Lae d S a is ics n.d.).
This dual ocus on bo h he median and mean anks makes he es pa icula ly ap o
da ase s ha do no mee he assump ions equi ed o a pa ame ic - es .
In addi ion o ou p incipal analysis, we conduc ed a a ge ed in es iga ion in o
he ba ie s o digi alisa ion wi hin Slo enian public adminis a ion. This analysis was
bi u ca ed in o wo dis inc ca ego ies: in e nal and ex e nal ba ie s. The da a o his
segmen we e de i ed om speci ic ques ionnai e i ems om he i s hema ic sec ion,
echnology, ha di ec ly pe ained o he challenges ins i u ions ace in he con ex o
digi alisa ion. Ou app oach in ol ed calcula ing he co ela ions o each ba ie and
seg ega ing he da a in o wo g oups—municipali ies and minis ies. Fo in e nal ba ie s,
he ocus was on ac o s inhe en o he ins i u ions, such as he o ganisa ional s uc u e,
p ocess and echnological in e ope abili y, employees’ ea o change and weak digi al
skills, e c. Con e sely, he ex e nal ba ie s encompassed challenges o igina ing ou side he
ins i u ions, like no ma i e es ic ions, lack o s a egic o echnical s anda ds, weak digi al
skills o se ice use s, e c. By sepa a ely analysing he co ela ions be ween o ganisa ional
elemen s and in e nal and ex e nal ba ie s, we sough o iden i y and con as he obs acles
municipali ies and minis ies ace in hei digi alisa ion jou ney. This ace o ou s udy
p o ided a comp ehensi e iew o each ype o ins i u ion’s dis inc hu dles, he eby
o e ing a mo e g anula unde s anding o he digi alisa ion landscape wi hin Slo enian
public adminis a ion.
Las ly, o deepen ou unde s anding o he ope a ional and o ganisa ional di e ences
be ween municipali ies and minis ies, we expanded ou analysis o ocus on he p inciples
associa ed wi h he ques ionnai e i ems. This in ol ed agg ega ing he ques ionnai e
esponses based on he p inciples hey ep esen , ca ego ised in o digi al p inciples and
good go e nance p inciples. Ou objec i e was o disce n whe he ce ain p inciples we e
mo e p e alen o emphasised di e en ly in municipali ies compa ed o minis ies. Using
he non-pa ame ic Mann–Whi ney U es , sui able o ou da a’s non-no mal dis ibu ion
and he p esence o unequal a iances, we compa ed he median alues o esponses
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 17 o 22
associa ed wi h each p inciple be ween he wo ypes o ins i u ions. This app oach allowed
us o assess whe he he p inciples we e simila ly o di e en ly p io i ised o mani es ed
in he ope a ional p ac ices o municipali ies and minis ies.
7. Conclusions
This esea ch con ibu es o he ield o digi alisa ion in public adminis a ion by
in oducing and empi ically alida ing a model designed o measu ing he digi al s a e in
public adminis a ion, exempli ied h ough he Slo enian public adminis a ion, jux apos-
ing p e iously held iews wi h new empi ical indings. Ou analysis e eals ha while
Slo enia aspi es o align wi h he Eu opean Commission’s digi al s a egy, i aces unique
challenges, pa icula ly a he local municipal le el, in achie ing cohe en policy implemen-
a ion and de eloping digi al compe encies. In p epa ing he g oundwo k o ou esea ch,
an examina ion o he exis ing digi al landscape wi hin Slo enian public adminis a ion
e ealed some impo an insigh s. P io obse a ions indica ed ha amids he e ol ing
poli ical dynamics and s ingen legalis ic amewo k, ini ia i es led by he Minis y o
Digi al T ans o ma ion and he Minis y o Public Adminis a ion ha e been pi o al in
s i ing o digi al de elopmen and policy uni o mi y ac oss di e en go e nmen le els.
Howe e , he inhe en ension be ween Slo enia’s cen alised app oach and he au onomy
o i s municipali ies sugges s an expec ed a iance in digi al ma u i y and capabili ies,
wi h minis ies an icipa ed o demons a e supe io digi al ad ancemen owing o a ge ed
digi al skill enhancemen p og ammes and cen alised policy di ec i es. This p e- esea ch
con ex se he s age o ou s udy, p omp ing an expec a ion ha minis ies would ou pace
municipali ies in digi al de elopmen .
The newly de eloped model anscends adi ional ma u i y models and o e s a holis-
ic amewo k o assessing digi alisa ion ac oss o ganisa ional elemen s such as echnology,
p ocess, s uc u e, people, and o ganisa ional cul u e, and addi ionally h ough he lens o
digi al and good go e nance p inciples. This holis ic app oach allows o a nuanced unde -
s anding o he cu en digi al s a e o public adminis a ion, unde sco ing he in e play o
hese elemen s in digi al de elopmen . The s udy’s esul s show ha minis ies in Slo enia
gene ally possess a mo e ad anced digi al in as uc u e han municipali ies, pa icula ly
in a ious aspec s o ICT de elopmen and in eg a ion. This aligns wi h he expec a ion
ha minis ies would demons a e highe digi al ma u i y due o hei cen al ole and
esou ces. Howe e , he a iabili y in municipali ies’ digi al capabili ies unde sco es a
p essing need o a ge ed de elopmen , especially in enhancing digi al in as uc u e
and skills. P ocess op imisa ion and digi alisa ion appea mo e consis en in minis ies,
e lec ing hei ac i e engagemen in s eamlining p ocesses. Municipali ies, howe e ,
display a b oade spec um o p ocess imp o emen , indica ing di e se s ages o digi al
de elopmen . In e ms o o ganisa ional s uc u e and cul u e, minis ies exhibi a mo e
e ec i e and adap able en i onmen , whe eas municipali ies p esen a ying deg ees o
o ganisa ional p ac ices and cul u al ma u i y. Bo h le els show po en ial o g ow h in
p omo ing a cul u e o inno a ion, adap abili y, and c oss- unc ional collabo a ion. The
indings highligh a gap be ween Slo enia’s digi al ambi ion and i s on- he-g ound eali y,
especially a he municipal le el. Despi e Slo enia’s anking abo e he EU a e age in digi-
alisa ion, his s udy e eals a slowe pace o digi al de elopmen and a need o sys emic
solu ions, pa icula ly in e ms o go e nmen e iciency and digi al ans o ma ion.
The comp ehensi e model addi ionally e ealed signi ican insigh s in o bo h in e nal
and ex e nal ba ie s impac ing digi alisa ion wi hin Slo enia’s public adminis a ion.
In e nally, municipali ies ace challenges, wi h high cos s nega i ely a ec ing p ocess
op imisa ion and human esou ce managemen , sugges ing budge a y cons ain s limi
digi al de elopmen . P ocess and echnological in e ope abili y issues u he complica e
o ganisa ional es uc u ing and digi al adop ion, unde sco ing he need o s a egic
solu ions o enhance in e ope abili y. Human ac o s, including esis ance o change and
limi ed digi al skills, a e c i ical ba ie s ac oss bo h municipali ies and minis ies, a ec ing
ask eassignmen and o e all digi alisa ion success. Ex e nally, he lack o digi al skills
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 18 o 22
among se ice use s, especially in u al a eas, and he absence o a cohe en digi al s a egy
eme ge as signi ican obs acles, necessi a ing a ge ed s a egies o skills de elopmen
and s a egic planning. Ou indings highligh he impo ance o add essing bo h se s
o ba ie s o os e a bene icial en i onmen o digi al de elopmen wi hin Slo enian
public adminis a ion.
Finally, he model also allows insigh in o digi al and good go e nance p inciples
wi hin public adminis a ion. Th ough a de ailed analysis, we iden i ied a ying deg ees o
adhe ence o hese p inciples be ween municipali ies and minis ies, e lec ing di e en ial
capaci ies and s a egic p io i isa ions. Minis ies exhibi ed highe mean sco es ac oss mos
digi al p inciples, such as “C oss-bo de by de aul ” and “Openness and anspa ency”,
indica i e o s onge digi al in as uc u es and a b oade ope a ional scope. Simila ly,
in good go e nance, p inciples like “T anspa ency” and “Rule o law” sco ed highe o
minis ies, possibly sugges ing mo e s ingen compliance a he na ional le el. These
indings highligh he need o ailo ed s a egies o suppo municipali ies in o e coming
esou ce and capaci y cons ain s o mee hese digi al and go e nance s anda ds. Enhanc-
ing collabo a ion be ween municipali ies and minis ies may se e as a pi o al s a egy o
b idge hese gaps.
The model’s comp ehensi e na u e enables a nuanced unde s anding o digi alisa ion
ha ex ends beyond echnological aspec s, including p ocess op imisa ion, o ganisa ional
s uc u e, he people elemen and cul u al dynamics, and o e s insigh s in o in e nal and
ex e nal ba ie s and p inciples o good go e nance and digi aliza ion. This b oad pe spec-
i e allows o a mo e in o med and s a egic app oach o digi al ans o ma ion, ca e ing
o di e en public en i ies’ speci ic needs and con ex s. The s udy’s esul s highligh he c i -
ical ole o measu ing he digi al s a e in public adminis a ion. By p o iding a clea pic u e
o cu en digi al capabili ies and gaps, he model se s he s age o in o med decision-
making and s a egic planning. I acili a es he iden i ica ion o a eas equi ing a en ion
and in es men , enabling a mo e ocused and e icien app oach o digi al de elopmen .
In conclusion, he de elopmen and applica ion o his model ep esen a s ide
o wa d in unde s anding and ad ancing digi al de elopmen in public adminis a ion.
While ini ially alida ed wi hin he Slo enian public adminis a ion, i was me iculously
designed wi h a b oade applicabili y in mind. The ques ionnai e and me hodological
amewo k we e de eloped o be adap able and ele an o any public o ganisa ion,
ega dless o he coun y’s size o adminis a i e s uc u e. We aimed o c ea e a ool ha
could cap u e he nuances o he digi al s a e and compe ence in a wide ange o public
adminis a ion se ings, om smalle coun ies like Slo enia o much la ge ones wi h mo e
ex ensi e adminis a i e sys ems. The model’s emphasis on a comp ehensi e e alua ion
o digi al elemen s unde sco es he necessi y o a holis ic app oach o digi alisa ion, one
ha encompasses echnological ad ancemen s, p ocess imp o emen s, o ganisa ional
es uc u ing, and cul u al e olu ion o sus ainable and impac ul digi al p og ess.
Supplemen a y Ma e ials: The ollowing suppo ing in o ma ion can be downloaded a : h ps://
www.mdpi.com/a icle/10.3390/admsci14030041/s1. The ques ionnai e used o his s udy.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, A.A.; me hodology, E.M.; so wa e, E.M.; alida ion,
A.A., D.R. and E.M.; o mal analysis, A.A., D.R. and E.M.; in es iga ion, A.A., D.R. and E.M.;
esou ces, D.R. and E.M.; da a cu a ion, D.R. and E.M.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, E.M.;
w i ing— e iew and edi ing, A.A., D.R. and E.M.; isualiza ion, E.M.; supe ision, A.A.; p ojec
adminis a ion, A.A.; unding acquisi ion, A.A. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published
e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch and he APC we e unded by he Slo enian Resea ch and Inno a ion Agency
(ARIS) unde g an numbe s P5-0093 and J5-1789.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : This s udy was conduc ed in acco dance wi h he Decla a ion
o Helsinki.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 41 19 o 22
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all he subjec s in ol ed in
he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho .
Acknowledgmen s: We wish o hank he manage s o public adminis a ion ins i u ions in Slo enia
o hei pe cep ion on he cu en s a e and u u e oppo uni ies o digi alisa ion in hei ins i u ions.
Fu he , his a icle is a e ised and expanded e sion o he pape s en i led (1) “De eloping and es ing
digi al ans o ma ion model o public adminis a ion: he case o Slo enia”, p esen ed a he NISPAcee
con e ence, Bucha es , Romania, 2–4 June 2022; (2) “De elopmen and empi ical e i ica ion o a digi al
ans o ma ion model o local public adminis a ion” p esen ed a he IIAS Eu omena con e ence, Rome,
I aly, 27 June–1 July 2022; (3) “Ba ie s o digi al ma u i y and o ganisa ional ans o ma ion in local
go e nmen : A case o Slo enia” p esen ed a he EGPA con e ence, Zag eb, C oa ia, 5–8 Sep embe
2023 and o he chap e en i led “Raz oj in p e e ba modela za me jenje s anja digi alizacije na p ime u
slo enske lokalne samoup a e” in he o hcoming monog aph ‘Digi alna p eob azba ja ne up a e
eo iji in p aksi’ (ed. A is o nik, Ko aˇc & Jukiˇc, 2024). We a e g a e ul o colleagues who a ended
he p esen a ion and p o ided in e es ing commen s and sugges ions. Finally, we acknowledge he
inancial suppo om he Slo enian Resea ch and Inno a ion Agency (ARIS) ( esea ch co e unding
no. P5-0093 and p ojec no. J5-1789).
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es . The unde s had no ole in he design
o he s udy; in he collec ion, analyses, o in e p e a ion o da a; in he w i ing o he manusc ip ; o
in he decision o publish he esul s.
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