Zuazu, Izaskun
Wo king Pape
Gende and he pandemic in poli ical ideology: The case o
Spain
i so wo king pape , No. 37
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen, Ins i u e o Socioeconomics (i so)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Zuazu, Izaskun (2024) : Gende and he pandemic in poli ical ideology: The case
o Spain, i so wo king pape , No. 37, Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen, Ins i u e o Socio-Economics
(i so), Duisbu g
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i so wo king pape
Izaskun Zuazu
Gende and he Pandemic
in Poli ical Ideology:
The case o Spain
2024 no.37
Gende and he Pandemic in Poli ical Ideology: The case o
Spain
Izaskun Zuazu, Ins i u e o Socio-Economics, Uni e si y o Duisbu g-Essen
*
June 28, 2024
Abs ac
Gende gaps in poli ical ideology ans o med om adi ional gaps (women showing mo e
igh -leaning han men) o mode n gaps (women showing mo e le -leaning) in he las ou
decades in Wes e n coun ies. Howe e , Spain lagged behind in his ans o ma ion. This pape
analyses how labou ma ke s a us and he pandemic can a ec gende di e ences in le - igh
sel -placemen using da a on 600,000 indi iduals du ing 2008-2021. Using a ious indica o s
o he incidence o COVID-19, he pape associa es he pandemic wi h an inc easing igh -
wing leaning o bo h women and men. Howe e , his co ela ion is s onge o men. While
he pandemic made men mo e mode a e and less le is , i made women less mode a e. The
es ima es c ucially accoun o labou ma ke s a us and gene a ional eplacemen : he esul s
show g ea e pola iza ion among younge gene a ions. The esul s poin o gende as a ele an
poli ical clea age in Spain in he nea u u e.
Keywo ds: poli ical ideology, COVID-19 pandemic, gende -gene a ional gap, labou ma ke s a us
JEL: D72, J16
*
izaskun.zuazu-b[email p o ec ed]
This pape was w i en while being a isi ing ellow a he Max Planck Ins i u e o he S udy o Socie y (MPI G) in
Cologne (Ge many).
1 In oduc ion
Women and men end o show di e en poli ical a i udes, and hese di e ences ha e
e ol ed du ing he las decades. T adi ional gende gaps, by which women show mo e conse a i e
ideals, we e ans o med in o mode n gende gaps, by which women lean mo e o he le , in mos
o he Wes e n economies a he end o he 20 h cen u y (Ingleha & No is, 2000; Ingleha e al.,
2003). The secula ans o ma ion cha ac e ized by he inco po a ion o women in he paid wo k-
o ce, oge he wi h he d op in e ili y, ising di o ce a es and changing gende no ms, among o he
o ces, a e conside ed undamen al aspec s in his con e sion (Edlund & Pande, 2002; Abendsch¨on
& S einme z, 2014; Dassonne ille, 2020). Ge hin e al. (2022) also con i m he e e sal o elec o al
di ides be ween women and men in a long- un analysis o Wes e n coun ies. Spain posi s an in-
e es ing pla o m o s udy gende gaps in poli ical ideology, as oge he wi h I aly and Luxembu g
Ingleha & No is (2000), lagged behind in he adop ion o a mode n pa adigm in gende gaps in
poli ical ideology.
This pape empi ically analyses he ole o gende in he e olu ion o poli ical ideology in
Spain in ecen yea s, paying special a en ion o labou ma ke s a us and gene a ional eplacemen .
The pandemic had ela i ely mo e ad e se e ec s o women in e ms o employmen and unpaid
ca e wo k bu dens (Fa ´e e al., 2021; He n´andez-Alb´uja e al., 2022), which could exace ba e p e-
exis ing gende dispa i ies. Thus, his pape conside s whe he he pandemic could in luence poli ical
ideology di e en ly o women and men. Recen li e a u e p o ides e idence on he in luence o he
pandemic in poli ical a i udes (Ba be ia e al., 2021). The exis ing indings associa e he pandemic
wi h inc easing o e in en ion bu no in poli ical ideology (Bol e al., 2021) and he so-called ally-
a ound- he- lag e ec (Sch a , 2021). This incipien li e a u e shows also gende -di e en ial ends,
by which women we e less likely o suppo he go e nmen and we e mo e likely o suppo s ic e
heal h measu es du ing he pandemic (Mazza & Scipioni, 2022; S ockeme e al., 2021).
This pape cons uc s a unique da ase wi h su ey da a be ween Ap il 2008 and July
2021, collec ed om he Spanish Cen e o Sociological Resea ch Ba ome e (CIS) wi h a mon hly
equency. I me ge hese su ey in o ma ion on an independen c oss-sec ion o indi iduals wi h
o icial s a is ics o he incidence o he pandemic om he Eu opean Cen e o Disease P e en ion
and Con ol (ECDC). Using linea p obabili y models, he pape signi ican ly associa es women wi h
a mo e le is poli ical ideology, bu his hinges upon labou ma ke s a us. Home-make women
1
o pensione s who ne e wo ked in he paid wo k o ce a e mo e likely o sel -place in mo e igh is
posi ions han men.
The pandemic is posi i ely co ela ed wi h mo e igh is posi ions. This associa ion also
hinges upon a gende basis: al hough he pandemic is associa ed wi h a posi i e sign in poli ical
ideology o bo h women and men, i seems o be s onge o men. Complemen ing hese esul s,
he pape sheds ligh s on pape hese gende in e plays o poli ical pola iza ion. The pape sugges s
an impo an gene a ional gende di ide among he Z-Gene a ion and in a-gende gaps (be ween
women in he labou ma ke and home-make women) in Spain in coming yea s. All hese models
a e obus o he use o o de ed p obi models and emain a e including he ole o gene a ional
eplacemen and di e en measu es o he incidence o he pandemic.
The emainde o he pape is s uc u ed as ollows. The nex sec ion e iews he ela ed
li e a u e. Sec ion 3 explains he da a, shows desc ip i e e idence and he empi ical speci ica ion.
Sec ion 4 shows he esul s and obus ness checks. Sec ion 5 discusses he main implica ions o he
esul s.
2 Li e a u e Re iew and Hypo heses
The implica ions o he pandemic o poli ical ideology a e a om clea . The exis en ial
h ead o a i us and he economic down u n o he pandemic could inc ease p e e ences o s abili y
and adi ional alues o e change and p og essi e a i udes, hence os e ing igh -wing ideals (Jos
e al., 2009; Rosen eld & Tomiyama, 2021). To he con a y, ising unemploymen and economic
inequali y can p omo e p e e ences owa ds edis ibu ion and p o-poo policies, hence os e ing le -
wing ideals (Emmenegge e al., 2015; Ku e , 2020; Wie z & Rodon, 2021). On op o hese, gende
dispa i ies in he economic and heal h consequences o he pandemic could lead o gende di e en ial
e ec s in he poli ical ideology. In his sense, he pandemic could ha e ed gende as a poli ical
clea age. This sec ion e iews exis ing e idence and explo es whe he and how he pandemic could
a ec di e en ly he poli ical ideology o women and men’s.
2.1 Gende and poli ical ideology
Gende has been conside ed a ela i ely smalle clea age han ace, eligion o e hnici y
in ac o ing o e u nou and poli ical ideology (Lipse e al., 1967). Howe e , ecen li e a u e
2
sheds new ligh on how gende gaps in u nou , as a ace o poli ical beha iou , depend on he ype
o elec ions (Kos elka e al., 2019). Addi ionally, esea ch has ocused on suppo o adical- igh
populis o ind lowe gende gaps when he e is less coun y-le el gende equali y a la ge (Dono an,
2023). Fu he , gende dispa i ies in le - igh sel -placemen ha e been ound o ma e in elec o al
s a egies (Box-S e ensmeie e al., 2004) and a ec economic policies, such as social expendi u e as a
ac ion o he GDP (I e sen & Rosenblu h, 2008).1The p e ailing e idence sugges s ha women a e
associa ed wi h mo e igh is ideals, bu his is ans o med along he de elopmen spec um, whe e
women in ad anced and pos -indus ial socie ies show mo e le -wing posi ions han men (Ingleha
& No is, 2000; Ingleha e al., 2003). Fo Diekman & Schneide (2010), he co e p inciples o gende
di e gence o poli ical a i udes a e ela ed o di use gende oles (e.g., b oad expec a ions based on
sex) as well as di e en ial speci ic oles (e.g., amily and occupa ional oles).
Abendsch¨on & S einme z (2014) use c oss-coun y da a o 28 Eu opean Union s a es in
2008 o ind e idence ha gende and labou ma ke s a us has a ole in le - igh pa y p e e ences.
They associa e women wi h a lowe le - igh pa y o e, hus placing women a he le o men. They
show ha being employed, o o he labou ma ke s a us inc eases he p obabili y o o ing igh -
wing, wi h espec o unemploymen . None heless, he none in he labou ma ke ca ego y is no
u he disagg ega ed in Abendsch¨on & S einme z (2014). Sho ocks (2018) conside s in de ail he
ole o gene a ional eplacemen by conside ing he yea o bi h and he in e ac ion wi h gende o
a subse o Eu opean coun ies and Canada. While she inds ha women om younge gene a ions
show g ea e suppo o economic equali y and s a e in e en ion and, ela i ely ewe suppo e s
o libe al alues makes hem mo e le -wing han men. She associa ed home-make s a us wi h a
highe poli ical ideology (meaning mo e igh -wing) and less p obabili y o le -wing pa y p e e ence.
Dassonne ille (2020) complemen s he li e a u e by aking a gene a ional pe spec i e o 36 OECD
coun ies du ing 1973-2018. While she p o ides new insigh s on he gende -gene a ional gap in
poli ical ideology, he wo k alls sho in unde s anding he indi idual labou ma ke ole in d i ing
mode n gende gaps. Finally, he li e a u e on he ole o labou ma ke s a us in poli ical a i udes
1The ole o adi ional sexual di ision in gende gaps in poli ical ideology and conse a i e a i udes was al eady
es ablished in ea ly s udies o he poli ical economy o gende . Lipse (1963) a gues ha women ha con o m wi h
adi ional gende no ms o housewi es a e mo e likely o e ain he dominan conse a i e alues o he la ge cul-
u e due o hei ela i e low in ol emen in p og essi e and mo e knowledgeable ne wo ks o social communica ion.
Fu he mo e, o he socio-demog aphics, such as eligiosi y and low le els o educa ional a ainmen can eed he mo e
conse a i e leaning o home-make women (No ande & Wilcox, 2008).
3
does no ha e a clea gende pe spec i e (Ma x, 2014; Wie z & Rodon, 2021), and hus, a e silen
on he in e play be ween gende and labou ma ke s a us in poli ical ideology.
Case-s udies a e mo e likely o ha e indi idual da a on labou ma ke s a us, which speci i-
cally allow o conside ing he poli ical ideology o homemake s. To he bes o my knowledge, he e
a e only wo p o ides ew s udies, o he case o I aly and Tu key, which poin a he une en gende
dis ibu ion o paid and unpaid wo k as an impo an d i e o ( adi ional) gende gaps in poli ical
ideology. Ba isione (2014) uses da a du ing 1994 o 2013 and shows ha he adi ional gende gap
and suppo o Be lusconi’s Fo za I alia was mainly d i en by women ha we e no in he paid
wo k o ce. Simila ly, Ilkka acan (2019) uses indi idual da a o Tu key. Once he labou s a us o
women as home-make s is accoun ed in he eg ession models, women’s suppo o E dogan’s AKP is
no longe signi ican , showing in a-gende gaps on he basis o adi ional sexual di ision o labou .
2.2 Pandemic, gende and poli ical ideology
Recen poli ical economy li e a u e sugges s ha he COVID-19 pandemic can in luence
poli ical a i udes, such as go e nmen suppo and o ing in en ions, bu ails o ind a signi ican
ole o he pandemic in poli ical ideology. Bol e al. (2021) conduc ed a web-based su ey du ing
he i s mon hs o he pandemic and exploi he a ia ion o he lockdown and numbe o dea hs
in a sample o Eu opean coun ies. They did no ind a signi ican ole o he pandemic in poli ical
ideology, howe e , hey use web-based da a o only limi ed da a a ound he i s mon hs o he
pandemic (Ma ch-Ap il 2020). Mazza & Scipioni (2022) combine h ee di e en su eys conduc ed
in a sample o Eu opean coun ies o ind ha women show lowe go e nmen suppo han men
du ing he pandemic. S ockeme e al. (2021) ind a gende dispa i y in he ag eemen on s ic
go e nmen measu es o coun e ail he heal h e ec s o he pandemic. Using da a o he US and
Ge many, hey ind ha he pe cen age o women who p e e s ic e measu es is app oxima ely
one- hi d highe ela i e o ha o men. Finally, Ama e al. (2020) look a he case o Spain and
combine se e al pieces o expe imen al e idence o show ha he pandemic could induce a s ong
na ional bias which coupled wi h highe demands o echno-au ho i a ian decision-making.
O he ela ed wo ks show li le e idence o poli ical ideology consequences o he COVID-19
pandemic. Using da a om web-based su eys conduc ed du ing he pandemic, Bol e al. (2021) ail
o ind a signi ican e ec o he pandemic in poli ical ideology. Likewise, A es e al. (2021) use da a
4
on he ea ly s ages o he pandemic and ail o associa e i o a le no igh -wing shi , bu indica e
inc easing pola iza ion a ound edis ibu i e poli ics.
The gende ed une en economic impac s o he pandemic sha pened p e-pandemic gende
gaps in he labou ma ke and he dis ibu ion o unpaid ca e wo k (Alon e al., 2020). Gende ed
une en economic consequences o he pandemic can lead o gende di e ences in poli ical ideology in
he a e ma h o he c isis. In his pape , I a gue ha aking an in e sec ional pe spec i e in o he
poli ico-ideological consequences o he pandemic can p o ide a be e unde s anding o he wo kings
o economic c ises in o ming poli ical a i udes. Specially, I conside a gende -gene a ional gap
pe spec i e o es ima e he ole o he pandemic in he o ma ion o poli ical ideology.
The pandemic had gende di e en ial e ec s in labou ma ke ou comes and unpaid ca e
wo k, and women and men we e exposed di e en ly o heal h isks. The p e-pandemic sec o al and
occupa ional gende seg ega ion placed women a he o e on o he pandemic, as hey we e he
p ima y heal h and ca e p o ide s in he paid wo k o ce (Kabee e al., 2021; Nie es e al., 2021;
He n´andez-Alb´uja e al., 2022). Indeed, he pandemic de e io a ed p e-exis ing gende inequali ies
in he labou ma ke (Al uza a e al., 2020; Alon e al., 2020, 2022), which can ul ima ely media e an
inc easing le is a i ude among women. A he household le el, women bo e he b un o inc easing
unpaid domes ic and ca e esponsibili ies de i ed om he lockdown and closu e o ma ke ca e
se ices (Adams-P assl e al., 2020; Se illa & Smi h, 2020; Del Boca e al., 2020). Fa ´e e al. (2021)
use su ey da a o Spain o ind ha he pandemic inc eased he pa icipa ion o men in housewo k
and childca e, bu mos o he bu den ell on women. They also ind ha he pandemic seems o
ha e inc eased gende inequali ies in bo h paid and unpaid wo k in he sho - e m. Hence, he paid
and unpaid labou implica ions o he pandemic in poli ical a i udes can di e be ween women and
men.
The p esen pape conside s how he pandemic and gende a e in e ela ed o ans o ming
poli ical ideology. The main hypo hesis o he pape is ha he une en gende socio-economic
consequences o he pandemic could lead o di e en ial e ec s o he pandemic in poli ical ideology
o women and men.
5
3 Empi ical Analysis
3.1 Da a and desc ip i e s a is ics
I collec da a om he Spanish Cen e o Sociological Resea ch (CIS) Ba ome e o con-
s uc a da abase wi h pooled independen c oss-sec ions o indi iduals wi h mon hly equency
be ween Ap il 2008 o July 2021. I me ge his da abase wi h in o ma ion on he mon hly incidence
o COVID-19 i us collec ed om he Eu opean Cen e o Disease P e en ion and Con ol (ECDC).
Thus, I measu e he incidence o he pandemic ei he in e ms o mo ali y, using he weekly 14-day
no i ica ion a e o epo ed dea hs pe 1,000,000 popula ion a ibu ed o he i us a na ional le el,
o he weekly 14-day no i ica ion a e o epo ed cases a egional le el. I compu e he mon hly a e
o be able o me ge wi h he CIS Ba ome e su ey da a.2
The desc ip i e and eg ession analyses he e p o ided a e based on he in o ma ion o
oughly mo e han 600,000 indi iduals. The key ou come a iable o he analysis is le - igh sel -
placemen , ha p oxies poli ical ideology using a Like - ype scale om 1 (ex eme le ) o 10 (ex-
eme igh ) (Like , 1932). The su ey includes he ollowing ques ion ”When alking abou poli ics,
he exp essions ”le ” and ” igh ” a e commonly used. In a 1 o 10 scale, whe e do you place you sel
poli ically?.”
Poli ical scien is ha e long measu ed poli ical ideology on he basis o a Like - ype scale
in which ca ego ies a e o de ed o p o ide a posi ion in he poli ical ideological spec um.3Al hough
he le - igh scale is subjec o adjus o e ime (De V ies e al., 2013), i s easibili y in Wes e n
coun ies is gene ally jus i ied by he high le els o pa isan le – igh knowledge among he elec o a e
(Ingleha & Klingemann, 1976; Fo una o e al., 2016; Wie z & Rodon, 2021).
Figu e 1 shows he e olu ion o a e age poli ical ideology o women and men (Panel A) and
he gende gap in poli ical ideology (Panel B) du ing he pe iod a sc u iny. The e is an o e all end
owa ds mo e le is posi ions, and o e he mos pa o he pe iod, women placed a he igh o
2The da a p o ided by he ECDC is on a weekly basis. To be able o me ge his da a wi h he su ey in o ma ion,
I compu e he mon hly a es o COVID-19 dea hs and cases a he co esponding na ional o egional le els.
3Al e na i e measu es o poli ical ideology use o he scales ha di e in wo main aspec s: whe he he scale is
di ided in o a small o la ge numbe o answe ca ego ies o whe he he e is a midpoin in he ca ego ies. Using da a
o Ge many, K oh (2007) shows ha hese choices a e no i ial, and sugges s he use o 11-poin scales. See Baue
e al. (2017) o a g ea e discussion on he alidi y o he Le -Righ scale o measu ing poli ical ideology.
6
on women. Columns 1 and 2 use men in he sample, whe eas Columns 3 and 4 use women, and include
he incidence o he pandemic, and la e he in e ac ions be ween he incidence o he pandemic and
labou ma ke s a us. T iple in e ac ions, such as he in e ac ion among gende , labou ma ke
s a us and he incidence o he pandemic can be di icul o in e p e . Using ins ead pa i ions, in
his case based on gende , migh help ad ance ou unde s anding o how he pandemic in luence
women and men di e en , and whe he labou ma ke s a us media es he gende -di e en ial impac
o he pandemic. Fo he male sample, unemploymen and s uden s a us a e signi ican a 1%, and
bo h a e associa ed wi h mo e le is posi ions o being employed o e i ed. howe e , o women,
he signi icance o his co a ia e is only a 10%, al hough wi h he same sign. In e es ingly, home-
make o pensione s a us is signi ican a 1% le el o he emale sample, and i is associa ed wi h a
posi i e sign, meaning ha home-make women a e mo e likely o place a he igh o o he women.
Finally, ega ding he incidence o he pandemic, he pa i ions show ha he e is a signi ican ole
o poli ical ideology o men, bu a a he insigni ican o women. None heless, he ole o labou
ma ke s a us in poli ical ideology is g ea e in magni ude (a ound 14% in case o unemploymen and
22% in case o s uden s), han ha o he pandemic (0.2%). The in e ac ions wi h labou ma ke
s a us show ha he e is no in e play be ween labou ma ke s a us and he pandemic in poli ical
ideology.
13
Table 2: Sample Pa i ions by Gende
Dependen a iable: 1-10 le - igh sel -placemen
(1) (2) (3) (4)
Men Men Women Women
Unemployed -0.148∗∗∗ -0.149∗∗∗ -0.030∗-0.031
(0.031) (0.031) (0.017) (0.019)
S uden -0.218∗∗∗ -0.216∗∗∗ -0.069∗-0.070∗
(0.053) (0.051) (0.038) (0.039)
Home-make /pensione 0.057 0.043 0.170∗∗∗ 0.169∗∗∗
(0.078) (0.083) (0.019) (0.020)
COVID incidence ( egional le el) 0.022∗∗∗ 0.022∗∗∗ 0.009 0.010∗∗
(0.006) (0.006) (0.005) (0.004)
Unemployed*COVID incidence -0.002 -0.003
(0.007) (0.010)
S uden *COVID incidence 0.005 -0.003
(0.009) (0.014)
Home-make /pensione *COVID incidence -0.043 -0.002
(0.048) (0.013)
No. o Obse a ions 146042 146042 141504 141504
R-sq. 0.151 0.151 0.156 0.156
No e Table 2: Full se o con ols include cohabi a ion, age, age sq., educa ional a ainmen , eligiosi y,
ma i al s a us, mig an s a us, wo king class and o e u nou .
Clus e ed s anda d e o s by egion and coho in pa en heses.
∗p<.1, ∗∗ p<.05, ∗∗∗ p<.01
4.2 The Gende -Gene a ional Gap
Nex , I include he in e ac ion be ween gene a ion and gende in he augmen ed model (1)
o conside whe he women om di e en gene a ional ha e signi ican ly di e en poli ical ideology.
While p e ious models include gene a ion as a con ol, and hus educe omi ed a iables biases in
he es ima es, hey a e silen on he ac ha gende migh impac poli ical ideology di e en ac oss
gene a ional. As he base le el o gene a ion I use he G ea es gene a ion, while as in p e ious
models, he labou ma ke s a us base le el is being employed o e i ed.
Figu e 4 shows es ima es on his model ( ull model is in Table A3 in Appendix). The
14
coe icien o women is no signi ican , bu he in e ac ion be ween gende and gene a ions, and ha
o gende and labou ma ke s a us a e signi ican in speci ic alues o hese a iables. Conc e ely,
women om he Z gene a ion a e pa icula ly mo e le is han he o he s. Once I conside he
ole o gene a ional eplacemen , labou ma ke s a us, and mo e speci ically, home-make s a us
becomes no signi ican . One in e p e a ion o he esul s is ha gene a ional eplacemen is a
he co e o he e olu ion o gende gaps in poli ical ideology, as al eady s a ed in Sho ocks (2018)
and Dassonne ille (2020). Howe e , he esul s in his pape shed new ligh on he ele ance ha
gene a ional eplacemen migh play in coming yea s in Spain, and speak di ec ly o he inc easing
ole o gende clea ages in poli ics. While Dassonne ille (2020) a gues ha gende will no become
a eal clea age in poli ics in Wes e n coun ies, he esul s he e sugges o he wise. Women o he Z
gene a ion a e signi ican ly associa ed wi h mo e le is ideals, whe eas bo h Y and Z gene a ions a e
associa ed wi h mo e igh is posi ions. This di e gen ends in poli ical ideology on he basis o
gende in younge gene a ions migh be exace ba ed by mode n sexis ideals, which migh be mo e
appealing o men Anduiza & Rico (2022) and eminis mo emen s Ca a an es (2021). In his sense,
my esul s suppo he
Figu e 4: Gende -Gene a ional Gap and LMS in Poli ical Ideology
15
4.3 The Gende -Gene a ion Gap in Poli ical Pola iza ion
The nex s ep o his pape conside s he ole o gende , labou ma ke s a us and he
pandemic in d i ing poli ical pola iza ion. To do so, I compu e he p obabili ies o being le is ,
de ined as sel -placing equal o 3 o lowe in he Le -Righ scale, being mode a e, de ined as sel -
placing 4, 5 o 6 , o being igh is , de ined as sel -place equal o 7 o highe .
Figu e 5 shows p obi model es ima es on he h ee di e en p obabili ies, namely being
le is , mode a e o igh is . ull esul s a e elega ed a Table A4 in Appendix. Women a e no
signi ican ly associa ed wi h being le is o mode a e, bu posi i ely and signi ican ly associa ed
wi h being igh is . None heless, he in e ac ions wi h labou ma ke s a us and gene a ions p o ide
u he in o ma ion on how gende is associa ed wi h he h ee ypes o poli ical ideology.
Being home-make o pensione al e s he associa ion o women o he di e en poli ical
ideologies. Women home-make s a e mo e nega i ely associa ed wi h being le is and posi i ely as-
socia ed wi h being mode a e. To he con a y, home-make o pensione women a e no signi ican ly
associa ed wi h being igh is (nei he posi i ely no nega i ely). The e o e, hese models allow us
o iden i y be e how home-make s a us shapes poli ical ideology, by educing he p obabili y o
being le is and inc easing mode a e ideals.
As o he ole o gene a ion and i s in e ac ion wi h gende , wo impo an esul s om
hese h ee p obi models eme ge. Fi s , o he 3 younges gene a ions (X, y and Z) a e signi ican ly
less likely o being le is and mo e likely o be igh is (wi h no signi ican e ec in being mode a e).
Howe e , gende plays a c ucial ole in al e ing he p obabili ies o being le is and igh s o women:
women om younge gene a ions a e mo e likely o be le is and less likely o be igh is , wi h no
signi ican ole in being mode a e. Impo an ly, he young he gene a ion, he highe he magni ude
o hese associa ions.
16
Figu e 5: Gende -Gene a ional Gap in Poli ical Pola iza ion: Le , Mode a e and Righ
4.4 The Gende -Gene a ional Gap and he Pandemic
Finally, he ole o he pandemic in d i ing he p obabili y o sel -place in he le , mode a e
o igh posi ions is ep esen ed in Figu e 6, espec i ely o he case o being le is (le side) and
being mode a e ( igh side). As shown in Table A4 in he Appendix, he pandemic has no signi ican
associa ion wi h he p obabili y o being igh is . Simila o he models o using he Le -Righ scale,
he p obi models using al e na i ely he p obabili y o being le o being mode a e, sugges ha he
pandemic is signi ican ly associa ed wi h poli ical ideology. While highe incidence o he pandemic is
associa ed wi h less p obabili y o being le is o men, o women, his e ec is ma ginal. In he case
o being mode a e, one s anda d de ia ion inc ease in he incidence o he pandemic is associa ed
wi h an inc easing p obabili y o being mode a e o men. Fo women, howe e , he pandemic is
associa ed wi h sligh ly educing p obabili y o being mode a e.
17
Figu e 6: Gende and Pandemic in Poli ical Pola iza ion (Le and Mode a e, P obi models)
5 Conclusion
Gende gaps in poli ical ideology ha e long been conside ed in he li e a u e. The pio-
nee ing wo ks o Ingleha e al. (2003) pa h he g ound o empi ical c oss-coun y analyses ha
helped iden i y ac o s behind gende di e ences in he o ma ion o poli ical ideology. The ole o
gene a ions, as women om di e en gene a ions we e a di e en exposu es o p og essi e ideas and
pe o med di e en oles in he labou ma ke , is deemed o be c ucial in ou unde s anding o u u e
ends o gende dispa i ies in poli ical ideology. Pa allel o hese analyses, he ole o labou ma ke
s a us (Wie z & Rodon, 2021) as well as he pandemic (Bol e al., 2021; Mazza & Scipioni, 2022;
S ockeme e al., 2021) ha e been ound o be ela ed o poli ical ideology o a i udes. On op o
hese, he e a e con lic ing a gumen s in he li e a u e ega ding he ele ance o gende as a poli ical
clea age in he coming u u e (Dassonne ille, 2020; Ge hin e al., 2022). D awing on hese p e ious
accoun s, he cu en pape aimed a p o iding new e idence on he in e play be ween labou ma ke
s a us and he pandemic in al e ing poli ical ideology o women and men di e en ly. Impo an ly,
he pape p o ides some insigh s o he ex en o which gende will play a ole in Spanish poli ics in
he nea u u e.
18
The pape cons uc s a da abase wi h mon hly equency du ing Ap il 2008 o July 2021
on mo e han 600,000 indi iduals, combining in o ma ion on su ey da a om he Spanish CIS
Ba ome e and he ECDC o o icial eco ds o he pandemic, a ei he na ional o egional le els.
Fu he , he ex ensi e in o ma ion o he CIS Ba ome e allows us o del e in o he ole o labou
ma ke s a us and gene a ion in shaping poli ical ideology. The esul s sugges ha home-make
s a us is impo an o unde s and he con e sion in o a mode n gende gap in Spain in Oc obe
2018. The esul s gene ally associa e women om he Z-Gene a ion wi h a endency owa ds le is
ideals, whe eas he esul s iden i y he opposi e end o Z-Gene a ion men. Thus, one o he main
esul s o he econome ic analysis he e is ha gene a ional eplacemen can con ibu e o uelling
gende as a eal poli ical clea age in Spain.
The esul s he e con ibu e di ec ly o he wo ks o Dassonne ille (2020), Ge hin e al.
(2022) and Wie z & Rodon (2021). Wie z & Rodon (2021) ind ha unemploymen inc eases he
p obabili y o leaning le , and ail o associa e people ha a e no in he labou o ce wi h a signi ican
ole in poli ical ideology. Sepa a ely, Wie z & Rodon (2021) ind e idence ha women a e also mo e
likely o lean le . Howe e , he in e ac ion be ween gende and labou ma ke s a us emains la gely
unexplo ed in p e ious esea ch. In his pape , I p o ide i s e idence ha labou ma ke s a us
impac s he poli ical ideology o women and men di e en ly. By he pa , Dassonne ille (2020)
analyses how gene a ional eplacemen migh impac on gende gaps in poli ical ideology. While
she in e ac s gende wi h ime dummies o decades, she does no conside he join e ec o gende
and labou ma ke and gende and gene a ion. In his pape , I speci ied models ha allow us o
disce n he ex en which ac o , among gene a ional eplacemen and labou ma ke s a us, is a
be e p edic o o gende gaps in poli ical ideology. Finally, he esul s he e suppo he a gumen
in Ge hin e al. (2022) ha gende is a eal clea age in Wes e n coun ies’ poli ics.
The esul s ega ding he ole o he pandemic go in line wi h ecen li e a u e on he po-
li ical beha iou al consequences o he pandemic and gende di e ences i hem (Mazza & Scipioni,
2022). Fo he in e p e a ion o hese esul s, I d aw on he Jos ’s heo y ha sugges ha eco-
nomic down u ns and c isis posi an exis en ial h ea ha has psychological e ec s ha p omo e
mo e conse a i e ideals. A he same ime, he expe ience o disc imina ion p omo es mo e le is
ideals, and pa ies n he le usually p opose p o- edis ibu i e and p o-poo policies ha co ec o
dispa i ies in he labou ma ke and he socie y a la ge. In he case o gende and he pandemic,
he p e-exis ing gende dispa i ies in bo h he labou ma ke and unpaid p oduc ion we e ein o ced
19
in he COVID-19 c isis. The ole o women a he o e on o he p o isioning o heal h se ices,
bo h a paid and unpaid sides, couple wi h he widening o gende dispa i ies in he labou ma ke
and gende unbalanced dis ibu ion o ca e esponsibili ies. Thus, he p o-conse a i e e ec o he
exis en ial h ea inhe en in he pandemic, which is demons a ed o men, could be coun e ailed
and e en ually domina ed by a p o-p og essi e e ec o he expe ience o disc imina ion in he labou
ma ke and unequal gende dis ibu ion o home p oduc ion in he case o women. I is ele an in
his con ex how gende poli ics and eminis ideals we e emb aced by he le o unde s and he
u n o poli ical ideology o women, and speci ically, women employed in he labou ma ke (Ba i-
sione, 2014; Ilkka acan, 2019). Thus, he ul ima e e ec o he pandemic in poli ical ideology di e
by gende , as women and men expe ienced di e en exis en ial h ea s and (paid and unpaid) wo k
expe iences.
The indings p o ided he e a e pa icula ly in e es ing o unde s and he e olu ion o gende
dispa i ies in poli ical ideology in Spain in he pos -pandemic e a. The pe pe ua ion o gende
dispa i ies in he dis ibu ion o household p oduc ion, and a he same ime, gende inequali ies and
disc imina ion in he wo kplace, can u he he gende clea age in poli ical ideology. The pape has
b ea hed new li e in he gende -gene a ional gap, which could be an impo an ea u e in he Spanish
pa y poli ics, as eminis populis pa ies and a - igh pa ies migh compe e o gaining suppo
om younge o e s. This pape could be expanded in wo main ways. Fi s , using addi ional da a on
he ole o mo he hood and penal ies in he labou ma ke can allow o in a-gende conside a ions
in poli ical ideology di ides. Second, a c oss-coun y compa ison using o he Wes e n coun ies can
p o ide u he le e age o he gende and pandemic linkages wi h poli ical ideology.
Acknowledgmen s
I am hank ul o commen s and sugges ions o Lucio Bacca o and Jakob Kapelle . I am also g a e ul
o he audience o he Eu opean Public Choice Socie y annual mee ing in Hano e in Ma ch 2023.
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22
Figu e A3: Dis ibu ion o Labou Ma ke S a us by Gende
Table A2: Gende -Gene a ional Gap and he Pandemic in Poli ical Ideology
Dependen a iable: 1-10 le - igh sel -placemen
(1) (2)
Women -0.189∗∗∗ -0.185∗∗∗
(0.018) (0.017)
Unemployed -0.130∗∗∗ -0.129∗∗∗
(0.032) (0.032)
S uden -0.121∗∗ -0.121∗∗
(0.046) (0.046)
Home-make /pensione 0.051 0.051
(0.078) (0.078)
Women*Unemployed 0.083∗∗∗ 0.081∗∗∗
(0.031) (0.030)
Women*S uden -0.057 -0.058
(0.038) (0.038)
Women*Home-make 0.181∗∗ 0.179∗∗
(0.079) (0.079)
Na ional-le el COVID-19 dea hs 0.015∗∗∗ 0.020∗∗∗
(0.005) (0.005)
Women*Na ional-le el COVID-19 dea hs -0.009∗∗
(0.004)
Region, and ime FE yes yes
Full se o con ols yes yes
Gene a ion FE yes yes
No. o Obse a ions 287546 287546
R-sq. 0.152 0.152
No e Table A2: Full se o con ols include cohabi a ion, age, age sq., educa ional a ainmen , eligiosi y, ma i al s a us, mig an s a us, wo king
class and o e u nou . Va iable o measu e he pandemic incidence is na ional o al numbe o dea hs a ibu ed o COVID-19 i us.
Clus e ed s anda d e o s by egion and coho in pa en heses.
29
Table A3: Gende -Gene a ional Gap and he Pandemic in Poli ical Ideology
(1)
Dep. a iable: Le -Righ scale
Women -0.122
(0.118)
Silen 0.289∗∗
(0.122)
Boome 0.052
(0.128)
X Gen 0.259∗
(0.132)
Y Gen 0.321∗∗
(0.137)
Z Gen 0.444∗∗∗
(0.147)
Women*Silen 0.083
(0.123)
Women*Boome 0.000
(0.120)
Women*X Gen -0.109
(0.118)
Women*Y Gen -0.217∗
(0.118)
Women*Z Gen -0.355∗∗∗
(0.126)
Women*Unemployed 0.129∗∗∗
(0.024)
Women*S uden 0.128∗∗∗
(0.036)
Women*HM/pensione 0.127
(0.077)
Unemployed -0.152∗∗∗
(0.030)
S uden -0.208∗∗∗
(0.051)
Home-make /pensione 0.059
(0.078)
COVID-19 0.022∗∗∗
(0.004)
Women*COVID-19 -0.014∗∗∗
(0.004)
No. o Obse a ions 287546
R-sq. 0.153
No e Table A3: Full se o con ols include cohabi a ion, age, age sq., educa ional a ainmen , eligiosi y, ma i al s a us, mig an s a us, wo king
class and o e u nou .
Clus e ed s anda d e o s by egion and coho in pa en heses.
30
Table A4: Gende -Gene a ional Gaps in Poli ical Pola iza ion - P obi Models
(1) (2) (3)
Dep. a iable: P ob. o being Le is Mode a e Righ is
Women -0.109 -0.110∗0.125∗∗
(0.074) (0.059) (0.052)
Silen -0.207∗∗∗ 0.012 0.152∗∗∗
(0.072) (0.044) (0.058)
Boome -0.078 -0.008 0.070
(0.070) (0.054) (0.069)
X Gen -0.223∗∗∗ -0.022 0.201∗∗∗
(0.073) (0.062) (0.075)
Y Gen -0.238∗∗∗ -0.017 0.213∗∗∗
(0.083) (0.060) (0.075)
Z Gen -0.251∗∗∗ -0.010 0.229∗∗∗
(0.087) (0.066) (0.080)
Unemployed 0.084∗∗∗ -0.057∗∗∗ -0.004
(0.021) (0.012) (0.017)
S uden 0.163∗∗∗ 0.047 -0.188∗∗∗
(0.042) (0.039) (0.027)
Home-make /pensione -0.020 -0.136∗∗∗ 0.171∗∗∗
(0.049) (0.036) (0.040)
Women*Unemployed -0.110∗∗∗ 0.043∗∗∗ 0.041∗∗
(0.016) (0.016) (0.017)
Women*S uden -0.066∗∗ 0.031 0.026
(0.032) (0.025) (0.027)
Women*HM/pensione -0.117∗∗ 0.084∗∗ -0.043
(0.051) (0.038) (0.042)
Women*Silen 0.066 -0.020 0.004
(0.077) (0.056) (0.051)
Women*Boome 0.127∗0.035 -0.042
(0.076) (0.058) (0.051)
Women*X Gen 0.189∗∗∗ 0.032 -0.104∗∗
(0.072) (0.059) (0.051)
Women*Y Gen 0.232∗∗∗ 0.021 -0.139∗∗
(0.077) (0.060) (0.055)
Women*Z Gen 0.336∗∗∗ -0.070 -0.144∗∗
(0.080) (0.069) (0.059)
COVID-19 cases ( egional le el) -0.019∗∗∗ 0.009∗∗∗ 0.003
(0.002) (0.002) (0.003)
Women*COVID-19 0.017∗∗∗ -0.013∗∗∗ 0.001
No. o Obse a ions 356500 356500 356500
Pseudo R-sq 0.1099 0.0225 0.0738
No e Table A4: Full se o con ols include cohabi a ion, age, age sq., educa ional a ainmen , eligiosi y, ma i al s a us, mig an s a us, wo king
class and o e u nou .
Clus e ed s anda d e o s by egion and coho in pa en heses.
31
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