Ba ba y, Mahmoud Magdy; Taw iq, Abdalla Ramadan
A icle
The ole o cus oms policy in maximizing he bene i s o
economic blocs: The case o Egyp
Economies
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Ci a ion: Ba ba y, Mahmoud Magdy,
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The Role o Cus oms Policy in
Maximizing he Bene i s o Economic
Blocs: The Case o Egyp . Economies
12: 237. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
economies12090237
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economies
A icle
The Role o Cus oms Policy in Maximizing he Bene i s o
Economic Blocs: The Case o Egyp
Mahmoud Magdy Ba ba y 1,2,* and Abdalla Ramadan Taw iq 2
1Depa men o Finance, College o Business Adminis a ion in Haw a Bani Tamim,
P ince Sa am Bin Abdulaziz Uni e si y, Al Hulwah 16524, Saudi A abia
2Depa men o Economics and Fo eign T ade, Facul y o Comme ce and Business Adminis a ion,
Helwan Uni e si y, Cai o 4034572, Egyp ; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: mahmoudmagdy@comme ce.helwan.edu.eg
Abs ac : This s udy aims o examine he ela ionship be ween cus oms policy and he economic
blocs o which Egyp is a membe , wi h a ocus on he heo y o New Regionalism and mode n
ends in cus oms policies. Egyp joined nume ous economic blocs ollowing i s accession o he
wo ld ade o ganiza ion (WTO) in 1995, ye his membe ship has no yielded signi ican posi i e
impac s on he pe o mance o Egyp ian expo s o he ade balance. The s udy u ilized panel da a
analysis o Egyp ’s in e na ional ade om 2001 o 2023. The esul s indica e ha , despi e Egyp ’s
limi ed success in eaping he bene i s o mos economic blocs, la gely due o he concen a ion o
Egyp ian expo s in p ima y and ag icul u al p oduc s and he low a i a es, ac o s such as cus oms
clea ance p ocesses, a i ba ie s, non- a i ba ie s, egional ade ag eemen s, and echnology
adop ion s ill play a c ucial ole in in luencing ade olume among membe coun ies. The indings
highligh he signi icance o e ec i e cus oms p ocedu es and he educ ion o ade ba ie s in
boos ing ade olumes wi hin egional ade ag eemen s. The s udy p oposes a s a egy o Egyp ’s
cus oms policy o maximize bene i s om economic blocs, ocusing on ou key a eas: aligning
cus oms policy planning wi h a ge ed expo sec o s o ealize ade c ea ion and ade di e sion
e ec s; ully implemen ing ade acili a ion p og ams and libe alizing cus oms policy p ocedu es;
adop ing a na ional s a egy o s imula e high alue-added expo indus ies as a long- e m solu ion;
and adop ing egional ade ag eemen s ha suppo cumula i e o igin as a sho - e m solu ion.
Keywo ds: cus oms policy; a i s; economic blocs; balance o paymen s
JEL Classi ica ion: F2; F13; F15
1. In oduc ion
Mos coun ies seek o join economic blocs o achie e se e al goals, he i s o which
a e comme cial goals o achie e access o in e na ional ma ke s wi h he aim o maximizing
he alue o expo s. The dynamic e ec s o his may ex end o inc easing in es men and
p oduc ion in e nally and achie ing bene i s om economies o scale on one hand. By
joining economic blocs, coun ies also aim o enhance he impo en i onmen o achie e
e icien o eign ade ope a ions, which is e lec ed in he le el o well-being wi h ega d
o he impo o inal goods, he p ices o which a e supposed o dec ease due o educing
o elimina ing a i s wi hin he amewo k o he economic bloc o os e ing he p ocess o
impo ing in e media e inpu s o domes ic p oduc ion.
Expo o ien a ion is conside ed he bes policy o con on s uc u al imbalances in
he ade balance. Among he measu es aken by Egyp o inc ease expo s is joining many
bila e al and mul ila e al ade ag eemen s. This end inc eased wi h Egyp ’s accession
o he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion (WTO) in 1995. The mos impo an ag eemen s a e
common ma ke o eas e n and sou he n A ica (COMESA), he g ea e A ab ee ade
Economies 2024,12, 237. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies12090237 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/economies
Economies 2024,12, 237 2 o 19
a ea (GAFTA), he Eu opean Pa ne ship Ag eemen (EU), Me cosu , and he Agadi
Ag eemen . I should be no ed ha mos o hese ag eemen s did no succeed in achie ing
a boom in Egyp ian expo s in a way ha would enable hem o educe he ade balance
de ici , acco ding o mos s udies ha e alua ed he e ec s o ade ag eemen s, whe he
on he pe o mance o Egyp ian expo s, he posi ion o he me chandise ade balance, o
he alue o he domes ic cu ency (Egyp ian pound) o e ime.
Among he ac o s a ec ing he bene i s o any coun y joining an economic bloc,
ega dless o i s le el o libe aliza ion, is he o mula ion o he coun y’s cus oms policy,
whe he a he le el o cus oms a i s o cus oms p ocedu es, which a ec he cos o
c oss-bo de ade. This aises se e al ques ions abou he dis inc ion be ween cus oms
policy and cus oms a i policy, as cus oms a i policy a ies acco ding o he le el o
in eg a ion, so he p ima y goal o cus oms policy planning is o maximize he bene i om
joining economic blocs.
Cus oms policies ha e been linked o he de elopmen o in e na ional ade. His-
o ically, cus oms du ies we e p ima y e enue sou ces o go e nmen s. Howe e , wi h
he ise o globaliza ion and egional ade ag eemen s, he ocus o cus oms policies has
shi ed owa ds ade acili a ion and economic in eg a ion. Regional ade ag eemen s
(RTAs), such as he Eu opean Union (EU), he No h Ame ican F ee T ade Ag eemen
(NAFTA), and he Associa ion o Sou heas Asian Na ions (ASEAN), ha e signi ican ly
in luenced cus oms policies in hei espec i e egions (Baldwin 2006).
The esea ch p oblem is ha despi e he mul iple economic blocs and egional ade
ag eemen s ha Egyp has joined, especially a e i s accession o he Wo ld T ade O ga-
niza ion in 1995, hey ha e no achie ed he esul s expec ed o hem in e ms o impac
on he balance o me chandise ade o on he pe o mance o expo s, no ing ha all o
hese blocs did no each he s age o he cus oms union, and he e o e, i did no each he
s age o he common ma ke (e en i he bloc is called a common ma ke ), which makes
he le el o in eg a ion o he economic blocs ha Egyp joined ei he p e e en ial ade
ag eemen s (PTAs) o ee ade a eas (FTAs) and, hus, his esea ch aims o analyze he
ela ionship be ween cus oms policy and he economic blocs in Egyp , wi h he aim o
p epa ing a p oposed amewo k o designing cus oms policy ha maximizes he bene i
o Egyp ’s joining any new bloc, especially wi h Egyp ’s joining o he BRICS bloc. So,
his esea ch in es iga es how cus oms policies can be designed and implemen ed o max-
imize he bene i s o RTAs, ocusing on ade acili a ion, cos educ ion, and imp o ed
economic in eg a ion.
Based on he o egoing, he esea ch will be di ided in o eigh sec ions, a e he
in oduc ion, he heo e ical backg ound and he li e a u e e iew, which consis o ou
sub-sec ions, hen he hi d sec ion o he analysis o he ade pe o mance in he economic
blocs o which Egyp is a membe , he ou h sec ion is he me hodology o he s udy,
he i h sec ion is esul s and indings o he s udy, he six h is discussion ollowed by
he conclusion o he s udy, he eigh h sec ion is a p oposed s a egy o de eloping he
cus oms policy o achie e he mos bene i s om economic blocs, and inally, he limi a ions
o he s udy and ends o u u e esea ches.
2. Theo e ical Backg ound and Li e a u e Re iew
Many applied s udies and in e na ional economic o ganiza ions ha e ocused on he
impac o cus oms policy on he pe o mance o in e na ional ade. The Wo ld Bank’s
Doing Business epo s emphasize he impo ance o e icien cus oms p ocedu es in
p omo ing ade (Wo ld Bank 2020a).
The coun y’s cus oms policy con ols a numbe o p ocedu es ha a ec in e na ional
ade lows, as he cus oms policy is esponsible o aligning cus oms p ocedu es and
egula ions wi h he es o he wo ld o acili a e ade lows. Also, he ha monized
cus oms p ocedu es can imp o e ade e iciency and educe non- a i ba ie s (NTBs)
(G ainge 2011). Elec onic da a in e change (EDI) and au oma ed cus oms sys ems ha e
Economies 2024,12, 237 3 o 19
been c ucial o he p ocess o mode nizing cus oms p ocesses, as he imp o ed echnology
has a posi i e impac on educing cus oms clea ance imes (Hollensen 2014).
Rega ding he ade lows, Eu os a (2020) ound ha in a-EU ade olumes inc eased
a e he implemen a ion o ha monized cus oms p ocedu es. Also, Wo ld Bank (2020a)
ound ha he educ ion in cus oms clea ance imes wi hin he EU has been signi ican .
The a e age ime o cus oms clea ance dec eased om 2.4 days in 2005 o 1.2 days in 2019.
Also, ha monized cus oms p ocedu es ha e led o a educ ion in bo h a i and non- a i
ba ie s. The a e age a i a es wi hin he EU dec eased om 3.6% in 2005 o 2.1% in 2019
(WTO 2020).
Regions ha ha e adop ed ad anced cus oms echnologies, such as ASEAN, epo
imp o ed e iciency and anspa ency in cus oms ope a ions. The ASEAN Single Window
ini ia i e, which allows o elec onic submission o cus oms documen a ion, has signi -
ican ly educed clea ance imes and enhanced ade acili a ion, which has esul ed in
signi ican e iciency gains. Da a om he ASEAN Sec e a ia indica es ha he a e age
cus oms clea ance ime dec eased by 40% ollowing he implemen a ion o he ASEAN
Single Window (ASEAN 2019).
Se e al s udies ha e examined he impac o cus oms policies on ade. F eund and
Rocha (2011) ound ha imp o emen s in cus oms p ocedu es signi ican ly enhance ade
lows in Sub-Saha an A ica. Simila ly, Wilson e al. (2003) highligh ed he posi i e e ec
o ade acili a ion measu es on global ade. S udies ocusing on RTAs, such as (Baie and
Be gs and 2007), emphasize he impo ance o educing ade ba ie s o maximize he
bene i s o RTAs.
This chap e consis s o ou main pa s. The i s is he e olu ion o economic blocs
and economic in eg a ion, hen he dis inguishmen be ween cus oms policy and a i
policy, he hi d pa is he ole o uni ied cus oms a i in economic blocs, and inally, he
ecen ends o New Regionalism.
2.1. Economic Blocs and Economic In eg a ion
Coun ies seek o achie e accele a ed a es o economic de elopmen so ha he
ole o in e na ional ade appea s o s imula e domes ic p oduc ion, in es men , and
employmen by inc easing expo s as one o he expec ed esul s o ade libe aliza ion.
The e o e, mos coun ies aim o engage in economic blocs o achie e maximum possible
economic bene i s. Despi e he di e ences and di e si y o mo i es o joining economic
blocs, he economic mo i es men ioned abo e emain among he mos impo an ac o s in
explaining he g ow h o economic blocs, while no neglec ing he ole o poli ical ac o s in
hei o ma ion (Shiells 1995).
Al hough he WTO has adop ed he basic p inciple o na ional ea men and non-
disc imina ion, i has app o ed an impo an excep ion h ough A icle 24 o GATT, allow-
ing membe s a es o join RTAs o economic blocs ha enable hem o g adually libe alize o
in eg a e cus oms a i s among hei membe s while main aining a di e en a i owa ds
coun ies ou side he bloc, e en i hey a e membe s o he WTO (K ishna 2012).
Acco ding o (Balassa 1976), economic in eg a ion goes h ough se e al s ages, he
lowes deg ee o which begins wi h ade in eg a ion, which means he libe aliza ion o
es ic ions on c oss-bo de lows o goods be ween membe s o he bloc. This is achie ed
ei he in PTA o in FTA and eaches he highes deg ee in he Cus oms Union (CU). The
second le el includes he in eg a ion o ac o s o p oduc ion, which means he comple e
libe aliza ion o he mo emen o ac o s o p oduc ion be ween he membe s a es o he
bloc, which is achie ed in he common ma ke s age. The highes s age o in eg a ion is
known as policy in eg a ion, which in ol es coo dina ing he economic policies o he
bloc’s membe s a es, and inally, comple e economic in eg a ion, which includes mone a y
uni y, and conside ing he bloc as one coun y, no ing ha he s a e o comple e in eg a ion
was no achie ed excep in he Eu opean model.
The cus oms union is conside ed he highes deg ee o ade in eg a ion, as he s a ing
poin in he in eg a ion s ages is he p e e en ial ade ag eemen s, which include he
Economies 2024,12, 237 4 o 19
g adual educ ion o cus oms a i s in acco dance wi h he schedules o mu ual obliga ions
be ween membe s a es wi h he aim o inc easing in e na ional ade lows. The nex s age
is he ee ade a ea s age, which includes he aboli ion o cus oms a i s be ween membe
s a es, al hough some coun ies ha e he igh , in acco dance wi h he p o isions o he
GATT ag eemen , o e ain he cus oms a i o some p oduc s ha ep esen a ce ain
sensi i i y o he s a e’s economy. The cus oms union includes, in addi ion o he comple e
aboli ion o cus oms a i s be ween membe s a es, he exis ence o a uni ied a i o he
union owa ds o he coun ies.
The Eu opean model is conside ed he mos p ominen in he economic in eg a ion
expe ience because i is he only one ha has eached he peak o he s ages o economic
in eg a ion. No h Ame ica also wi nessed he NAFTA ag eemen , and Sou h Ame ica
wi nessed he Me cosu bloc. As o he con inen o A ica, i wi nessed many blocs,
pe haps he mos p ominen o which is he COMESA, and A ican blocs a e wi nessing an
a emp a con inen al in eg a ion wi hin he amewo k o he A ican Con inen al F ee
T ade a ea (AFCFTA), which is an ag eemen o he A ican con inen al ee ade a ea, in
addi ion o many ag eemen s such as GAFTA, he Gul Coope a ion Council (GCC), and
he ASEAN Ag eemen .
Acco ding o he da abase o he Commi ee on Regional T ade Ag eemen s o he
WTO, which e e s o any economic bloc a di e en s ages s a ing om he p e e en ial
ade ag eemen and ending wi h comple e economic in eg a ion wi h he e m egional
ade ag eemen s, he numbe o RTAs egis e ed wi h he WTO eached 362 ag eemen s in
Decembe 2023 and has been ac i e since 1948. Below is a simpli ied analysis o he mos
impo an ea u es o he e olu ion o egional ade ag eemen s.
•
The numbe o RTAs eached 29 be ween he 1950s and he launch o he WTO in 1995.
•The pe iod (1995–2000) wi nessed he launch o 47 new RTAs.
•
The pe iod (2000–2023) wi nessed he launch o 286 new RTAs, which means ha
app oxima ely 80% o RTAs we e es ablished du ing ha pe iod.
•
The numbe o RTAs ha eached he cus oms union s age was only 12, which ep e-
sen s only 3% o he o al RTAs, and only one RTA, he Eu opean Union, eached he
s age o ull in eg a ion.
2.2. Cus oms Policy and Ta i Policy
Cus oms policy is conside ed pa o economic policy and is a se o p ocedu es and
a angemen s a ec ing he coun y’s o eign ade sec o . T adi ionally, cus oms policy is
seen as synonymous wi h a i policy, which means using cus oms axes o in luence a
coun y’s o eign ade lows. Cus oms axes a e usually used o p o ec local indus ies
by inc easing he cos o impo ed p oduc s, in addi ion o hei main ole as a sou ce o
go e nmen e enue (Shebl and Jabba 2023).
Conside ing he commi men s imposed by he WTO ega ding he g adual educ ion
in cus oms a i s wi h he aim o libe alizing in e na ional ade, he e has been a ole o
he new p o ec ionis policy h ough non- a i ba ie s (NTBs), which coun ies can use o
es ic impo s.
Al hough non- a i ba ie s include many p ocedu es ha a e no subjec o cus oms
ju isdic ion, cus oms clea ance p ocedu es also include many hidden es ic ions, such as
cus oms alua ion and inspec ions. Acco dingly, cus oms a i policy has become pa o
he comp ehensi e cus oms policy, which includes all p ocedu es ela ed o he cus oms
clea ance p ocess, om he poin o en y o goods in o he po un il i s cus oms elease.
NTBs a e a se o p ocedu es ela ed o he cus oms elease o goods o he han cus oms
a i s, which ha e an economic impac on ade lows due o he inc ease in cos s associa ed
wi h he ade p ocess. Mos o hese measu es a e o en in e p e ed as aimed a p o ec ing
heal h, sa e y, and he en i onmen in impo ing coun ies. Howe e , p ac ical eali y
indica es i s use o p o ec ionis pu poses by inc easing he deg ee o complexi y o ade
p ocedu es associa ed wi h hese ba ie s (UNCTAD 2022).
Economies 2024,12, 237 5 o 19
Despi e he impac o cus oms policy on in e na ional ade lows, i s ole as a iscal
policy ool canno be o e looked, especially in de eloping coun ies, as i has a di ec
impac on cus oms e enues as a componen o he coun y’s public e enues.
The ea u es o cus oms policy ha e changed o e ime, as a ge ing he g adual
libe aliza ion o cus oms a i s is no longe he co ne s one o cus oms policies o many
easons, such as:
•
A easonable educ ion in cus oms a i schedules o each coun y a he global le el
has been achie ed.
•
The impo ance o logis ics cos s and hei ole in explaining in e na ional ade lows
is inc easing.
•
Inc eased eliance on new p o ec ionis policy ools as a means o o e coming coun ies’
obliga ions o ade libe aliza ion o he Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion.
•
The impo ance o in e na ional compe i i eness in a ac ing FDI and he impac o
complex cus oms p ocedu es on in e na ional o eign in es men lows a e inc easing.
Toge he , hese easons ha e led o an inc ease in he ela i e impo ance o ade
acili a ion p og ams (TFPs) in cus oms policymaking, which has led o a change in he
ela i e weigh s o policy a ge s owa ds mo e ocus on educing he cus oms clea ance
ime a he expense o neglec ing o educe cus oms a i a es (Mo ini e al. 2021).
The impo ance o cus oms policy eme ges when discussing in e na ional economic
blocs because cus oms adminis a ions a e p ac ically esponsible o implemen ing p e e -
en ial ade ag eemen s, as well as ee zones and cus oms unions, no ing ha he i s and
second ypes ep esen mos o he egional ag eemen s a he in e na ional le el, and he
ole o cus oms adminis a ions is no only collec ing axes and o he ees bu also includes
cus oms alua ion, inspec ion, and all p ocedu es ela ed o he c ossing o ade ac oss
bo de s (Zielinski 2017).
The WTO’s ade acili a ion p og am (TFP) ocused on cus oms and bo de c ossing
p ocedu es wi h ega d o documen s, equi emen s, he me hod o p ocessing documen s,
he physical mo emen o shipmen s, and elec onic acili ies, as hey ha e a di ec impac
on he cos o ade. The Wo ld Cus oms O ganiza ion (WCO) also ocuses on imp o ing
he e ec i eness and e iciency o he cus oms adminis a ions o i s membe s a es by
c ea ing he necessa y ools o econcile, s anda dize, uni y, and simpli y cus oms sys ems
in di e en coun ies (Salman 2002).
Based on he o egoing, he impo ance o p ocedu al and p ac ical aspec s should no
be o e looked in explaining he success o egional blocs in e ms o cus oms clea ance
mechanisms o he han cus oms a i s. As cus oms a i s may be comple ely emo ed,
he cos o c oss-bo de ade is an impedimen o ade. Recen ends in in e p e ing
global alue chains (GVCs) also indica e ha ade acili a ion has become one o he mos
impo an in as uc u e pilla s necessa y o a ac FDI by educing he cos s associa ed
wi h c oss-bo de ade (Takpa a e al. 2023).
The Wo ld Bank has p o ided an annual epo since 2003 on he pe o mance o
business (Doing Business), which is an index ha anks coun ies in he wo ld in e ms o
he ease and ins i u ionali y o doing business. I consis s o se e al sub-indices, including
he c oss-bo de ade index, which includes all cos s associa ed wi h he impo and expo
p ocesses o he han a i s. Cus oms du ies, eigh cos s, and insu ance once again indica e
a change in he ela i e weigh s o cus oms policy a ge s in a o o he cus oms clea ance
ime index a he expense o he cus oms a i index. Egyp came in posi ion (114) ou
o 190 coun ies acco ding o he 2020 epo on he Doing Business Index. I is wo h
no ing ha he T ading C oss Bo de s sub-index came in a 170, which indica es i s ole
in lowe ing he o e all anking o Egyp ’s Doing Business Index, as i is he wo s - anked
sub-index (Wo ld Bank 2020b).
2.3. Uni ied Cus oms Ta i and Economic Blocs
The i s s ages o economic in eg a ion, whe he p e e en ial ade ag eemen s (PTAs)
o ee ade a eas (FTAs), include educing o elimina ing a i es ic ions on ade
Economies 2024,12, 237 6 o 19
be ween membe s a es. Thus, each membe s a e in he bloc main ains a sepa a e na ional
cus oms a i policy owa ds coun ies ou side he bloc. The e o e, joining he bloc in his
case equi es a change in he cus oms a i policy owa ds coun ies wi hin he bloc by
educing o canceling he cus oms a i only.
The Cus oms Union (CU) includes a change no only in he s uc u e o he cus oms
a i wi hin he bloc bu also equi es he exis ence o a uni ied cus oms a i policy o
coun ies ou side he Cus oms Union. This ma e may ex end o coo dina ion ega ding he
uni ica ion o cus oms clea ance sys ems. The e o e, i can be said ha he cus oms union
is he i s s age o economic in eg a ion ha wi nesses he coo dina ion o cus oms policy
among he membe s a es o he union and ha cus oms e enues migh be sha ed h ough
a mechanism ag eed upon wi hin he amewo k o he union ag eemen (Zielinski 2017).
Al hough egional ade ag eemen s (RTAs) ha e inc eased signi ican ly in he 21s
cen u y, cus oms unions ep esen only a small pe cen age, no exceeding 3.3% o he o al
ag eemen s, as he WTO has egis e ed 12 cus oms unions as o Decembe 2023. Pe haps
one o he mos impo an easons o he di icul y o ans o ming ee zones in o cus oms
unions lies in uni ying he ex e nal cus oms a i s o he union coun ies owa ds he
wo ld, which is aced wi h poli ical conside a ions o he membe s o he bloc ha di e
om each o he , and because o he di icul y o ag eeing on he mechanism o sha ing he
cus oms e enues o he cus oms union (Clausing 2000).
Many applied and empi ical s udies also con i m ha he nego ia ion p ocess plays a
pi o al ole in es ablishing cus oms unions, which is conside ed he main ba ie o c ossing
he ee ade zone owa ds deepe s ages o economic in eg a ion (Alimbeko e al. 2017).
Wang (2014) ound ha e ec i e cus oms adminis a ion can con ibu e o he success
o he Eas Asian Cus oms Union by pe o ming a se o unc ions, in addi ion o collec ing
cus oms axes on a uni ied basis. Among he mos impo an o hese unc ions is he ole
o he cus oms policy o he coun ies o he Union in comba ing he smuggling o goods
ac oss bo de s, acili a ing c oss-bo de ade ope a ions, encou aging change in he ax
sys ems o he union membe s o uni y he ade- ela ed ax ea men , and pa ing he way
o coo dina ing he na ional policies o he union coun ies.
Ko mych (2018) indica es ha he success o egional ag eemen s in gene al, including
cus oms unions, does no depend only on he aboli ion o a i es ic ions be ween he
coun ies o he bloc; a he , i equi es he need o ocus on simpli ying and s anda dizing
he p ocedu es ela ed o he c ossing o ade ac oss bo de s, as well as uni ying echnical
equi emen s and de eloping mechanisms o he low o in o ma ion and documen s
ela ed o ade.
2.4. Recen T ends in New Regionalism
The concep o egionalism was linked o he concep o egional in eg a ion acco ding
o he w i ings o (Vine 1950;Balassa 1962), as i ep esen s successi e in eg a ion s ages
s a ing wi h he p e e en ial ade a ea un il eaching comple e economic uni y, based
on geog aphical con igui y, which he eali y indica es ha economic blocs ha e eme ged
wi hou he geog aphical con igui y condi ion. This means ha he bloc is a ailable o
join whene e he condi ions speci ied by he ag eemen a e me , which is known as New
Regionalism (F ankel and Wei 1998).
Al hough he phenomenon o es ablishing egional economic blocs is no ecen , he
ecen ends in New Regionalism ha e a se o cha ac e is ics ha di e om T adi ional
Regionalism (Es e adeo dal e al. 2001), including:
•Regional blocs ha e become mul i- ace ed and do no a ge only economic goals.
•
The new egional blocs ocus on non-comme cial economic goals such as a eas o
in es men , scien i ic and echnological coope a ion, in e na ional inance, and en i-
onmen al issues.
•New Regionalism ocuses on FDI.
•
New Regionalism a angemen s seek o inc ease in eg a ion in o he global economy
and no isola e hemsel es in o a speci ic geog aphical egion.
Economies 2024,12, 237 7 o 19
The concep o New Regionalism is a dynamic concep ha goes beyond comme cial
goals o include poli ical goals such as he case o he Eu opean Union, ASEAN coun ies,
Me cosu , and inally, he BRICS bloc, which began poli ically and has no ye eached
p e e en ial ade a angemen s. I also includes complemen a y ini ia i es a he eco-
nomic le el in addi ion o p e e en ial ade ag eemen s. New Regionalism also includes
he es ablishmen o ins i u ions o manage and acili a e egional in eg a ion, such as
in es men unds and inancing p og ams, he es ablishmen o dispu e se lemen mecha-
nisms, acili a ion o FDI lows, and coo dina ion o he bloc’s membe s’ mac o policies
(Abdel-Lawi 2015).
One o he cha ac e is ics o New Regionalism is ha i is buil on economic and
echnological ounda ions and no on ideological and geog aphical ounda ions. Fo
example, he BRICS bloc is conside ed a model ha desc ibes mos o he ea u es o New
Regionalism, which is cha ac e ized as a mul i-objec i e p ocess as i seeks o achie e
mul iple poli ical and economic goals. I is no limi ed o comme cial objec i es only, as
in addi ion o comme cial issues, i also ocuses on FDI lows and in e na ional inancing,
scien i ic and echnical coope a ion, and coope a ion in he ields o heal h and clima e
change issues. The New Regionalism a angemen s a e cha ac e ized by he geog aphical
o e lap o i s membe s, as membe s a es in he bloc combine membe ship in mo e han
one bloc a he same ime (Wheele 2008).
BRICS is conside ed an embodimen o he undamen al di e ences be ween T adi-
ional Regionalism and New Regionalism, as New Regionalism ocuses on he con e gence
o in e es s o bloc coun ies as a basis o i s o ma ion, ega dless o geog aphical p ox-
imi y, while T adi ional Regionalism ocuses on geog aphical p oximi y o ideological
con e gence as a basis o achie ing in eg a ion, such as he wo cases o he union. The
Eu opean Union and he G ea e A ab F ee T ade A ea, ega dless o he di e ence in he
le el o esul s eached in bo h examples (Bu ishe e al. 2004).
I is wo h no ing ha he BRICS bloc has unique cha ac e is ics. In e ms o geo-
g aphical p esence, we ound ha BRICS includes membe s who a e geog aphically dis an .
Al hough he e is ela i e geog aphical p oximi y among China, India, and Russia, his
ma e is e y di e en in B azil and Sou h A ica. The di e ence be ween he BRICS
membe s was no only geog aphical. Ra he , he poli ical sys ems, as well as local economic
s uc u es and he backg ound o he local economic sys ems, di e ed. Despi e his, hese
coun ies ep esen eme ging coun ies ha hope o eshape hei global economic sys ems.
Rega ding he sp ead o egional blocs ha all unde he concep o New Regionalism,
he numbe o ag eemen s ha include p e e en ial a angemen s ega ding bo h goods and
se ices has eached 194 ag eemen s acco ding o he WTO’s da abase o egional ag ee-
men s, which ep esen s abou 54% o he o al egional ag eemen s. The phenomenon o
geog aphical dispe sion o blocs wi hin he amewo k o New Regionalism can be clea ly
obse ed in many blocs, such as Egyp ’s ag eemen wi h Me cosu , he FTA ag eemen be-
ween he USA and Singapo e, he Sou h Ko ea–Chile ag eemen , he China–New Zealand
ag eemen , he Jo dan–Singapo e ag eemen , and he FTA be ween he USA and Aus alia.
The IORA Union, which e e s o he Union o Coun ies o e looking he Indian
Ocean, began wi h Indian leade ship since i s es ablishmen in 1997 and now includes
23 coun ies in Asia and A ica. The ma e has e en been ex ended o include membe ship
in F ance, Aus alia, and Sou h A ica so ha he ag eemen alls wi hin he concep o
New Regionalism. The sp ead o New Regionalism based on geog aphically dis an blocs,
o whose o ma ion depends on non-geog aphical ounda ions, has con ibu ed o he
eme gence o he e m geo-economic agmen a ion (Aiya e al. 2023).
3. Egyp and In e na ional Economic Blocs
The Egyp ian economy su e s om a ch onic and s uc u al de ici in ade balance
due o he inc ease in Egyp ian impo s a a es g ea e han he inc ease in expo s. I is
clea om Figu e 1 ha du ing he pe iod (2003–2022), he de ici inc eased o e ime.
Economies 2024,12, 237 8 o 19
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 20
o whose o ma ion depends on non-geog aphical ounda ions, has con ibu ed o he
eme gence o he e m geo-economic agmen a ion (Aiya e al. 2023).
3. Egyp and In e na ional Economic Blocs
The Egyp ian economy suffe s om a ch onic and s uc u al de ici in ade balance
due o he inc ease in Egyp ian impo s a a es g ea e han he inc ease in expo s. I is
clea om Figu e 1 ha du ing he pe iod (2003–2022), he de ici inc eased o e ime.
Figu e 1. T ade balance de ici in Egyp (2003–2022) in USD (billions). Sou ce: Au ho ’s calcula ions
based on he in e na ional ade cen e (ITC) da abase. No e: The alue o he de ici in 2003 amoun ed
o abou 4.7 billion dolla s, and his alue jumped o almos double, o 9.1 billion dolla s in 2005, and
hen doubled o abou 21 billion dolla s in 2009. The alue o he de ici doubled again o abou 40
billion dolla s in 2012, and he la ges absolu e alue o he ade de ici eached abou 53 billion dolla s
in 2018. Due o many in e nal and ex e nal ac o s, he alue o he de ici s a ed o dec ease du ing
he pe iod (2019–2022) compa ed o 2018, and i eached abou USD 33 billion in 2022.
I is wo h no ing ha dealing wi h he s uc u al de ici in Egyp ’s ade balance by
educing impo s may con lic , in he Egyp ian case, wi h he de elopmen s a egy, gi en
ha Egyp ian impo s con ain a la ge p opo ion o capi al and in e media e impo s nec-
essa y o domes ic p oduc ion, in addi ion o he ine i able impo s, ep esen ed by ood
impo s, which a e difficul o achie e sel -sufficiency, especially wi h he wa e po e y
ha Egyp suffe s om, such as g ains, oils, mea , and Egyp ian impo s, including min-
e al uel and i s de i a i es ( he mos impo an o which is diesel). The e o e, ea ing he
s uc u al de ici in he ade balance by educing impo s is inconsis en wi h achie ing
economic p ospe i y, especially since he olume o Egyp ian impo s is no conside ed
excep ional compa ed o he de elopmen o he olume o economic ac i i y as well as
he popula ion.
The e o e, he s uc u al p oblem lies in he sou ces o inancing o impo s h ough
o eign exchange. His o ically, USD sou ces o he han hose linked o expo s ha e been
used o co e he de ici , such as se ice expo s and sho - e m and long- e m capi al
lows, which is no hing mo e han a empo a y mechanism ha does no ise o he ank
o adical solu ions. I is concluded om he abo e ha he op imal ea men o he s uc-
u al imbalance in he ade balance depends on a na ional s a egy o inc ease expo s.
Since he p oblem o ma ke access o o eign ma ke s is one o he impo an
4.733 5.16
9.166
6.74
10.86
27.26
21.21
26.67
30.69
40.44
37.88
44.52
52.13
47.69
40.33
52.96
46.48
33.46
33.0731.56
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Egyp 's ade balance de ici (2003-2022) in USD Billions
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Figu e 1. T ade balance de ici in Egyp (2003–2022) in USD (billions). Sou ce: Au ho ’s calcula ions
based on he in e na ional ade cen e (ITC) da abase. No e: The alue o he de ici in 2003 amoun ed
o abou 4.7 billion dolla s, and his alue jumped o almos double, o 9.1 billion dolla s in 2005,
and hen doubled o abou 21 billion dolla s in 2009. The alue o he de ici doubled again o abou
40 billion dolla s in 2012, and he la ges absolu e alue o he ade de ici eached abou 53 billion
dolla s in 2018. Due o many in e nal and ex e nal ac o s, he alue o he de ici s a ed o dec ease
du ing he pe iod (2019–2022) compa ed o 2018, and i eached abou USD 33 billion in 2022.
I is wo h no ing ha dealing wi h he s uc u al de ici in Egyp ’s ade balance
by educing impo s may con lic , in he Egyp ian case, wi h he de elopmen s a egy,
gi en ha Egyp ian impo s con ain a la ge p opo ion o capi al and in e media e impo s
necessa y o domes ic p oduc ion, in addi ion o he ine i able impo s, ep esen ed by
ood impo s, which a e di icul o achie e sel -su iciency, especially wi h he wa e
po e y ha Egyp su e s om, such as g ains, oils, mea , and Egyp ian impo s, including
mine al uel and i s de i a i es ( he mos impo an o which is diesel). The e o e, ea ing
he s uc u al de ici in he ade balance by educing impo s is inconsis en wi h achie ing
economic p ospe i y, especially since he olume o Egyp ian impo s is no conside ed
excep ional compa ed o he de elopmen o he olume o economic ac i i y as well as
he popula ion.
The e o e, he s uc u al p oblem lies in he sou ces o inancing o impo s h ough
o eign exchange. His o ically, USD sou ces o he han hose linked o expo s ha e been
used o co e he de ici , such as se ice expo s and sho - e m and long- e m capi al lows,
which is no hing mo e han a empo a y mechanism ha does no ise o he ank o adical
solu ions. I is concluded om he abo e ha he op imal ea men o he s uc u al
imbalance in he ade balance depends on a na ional s a egy o inc ease expo s. Since he
p oblem o ma ke access o o eign ma ke s is one o he impo an de e minan s o he
expo s a egy, he e is a need o discuss he ole o p e e en ial ade ag eemen s (PTAs)
and egional ade ag eemen s (RTAs) as incen i es o inc ease he abili y o he coun y’s
domes ic p oduc s o pene a e o eign ma ke s, especially since egional economic blocs
ha e become one o he ea u es o he global economic sys em.
The e a e many mo i es o coun ies o join ade ag eemen s, and he heo e ical
backg ound o hese mo i es goes back o he classical heo y o ade, as ee ade achie es
mu ual gains o all pa ies, and p ac ical expe iences indica e ha some coun ies achie e
Economies 2024,12, 237 15 o 19
P oposed S a egy o De eloping Cus oms Policy wi hin he F amewo k o In e na ional
Economic Blocs
Based on he p e ious analysis, he equi emen s o maximizing he bene i o joining
economic blocs can be summa ized in he ollowing ou main axes:
a. Planning a cus oms a i policy o maximize he ade c ea ion and di e sion e ec s
o economic blocs.
b. Fully ac i a ing ade acili a ion p og ams and libe alizing cus oms policy p ocedu es.
c. A na ional s a egy o maximizing added alue o expo -o ien ed indus ies.
d. Adop ing egional ag eemen s suppo ing he accumula ion o o igin (sho - e m).
The ollowing is a b ie explana ion o each axis:
A.
Planning cus oms a i policy o maximize he ade c ea ion and ade di e sion
e ec s o economic blocs.
In ligh o he modes esul s o Egyp ’s accession o egional economic blocs on he
pe o mance o bo h Egyp ian expo s and he balance o me chandise ade, despi e he
mul iplici y o hese ag eemen s and he esul s o he analysis o he expec ed e ec s
o Egyp ’s accession o he BRICS i a p e e en ial ade ag eemen is launched, and in
applica ion o exis ing expo sec o s on he p oduc le el, i could be concluded ha i
is no expec ed ha Egyp ’s accession o BRICS h ough a p e e en ial ade ag eemen
will con ibu e o imp o ing he Egyp ian ade balance in e ms o inc easing expo s
(Ramadan 2024).
Acco dingly, he s udy ecommends he necessi y o e alua ing he schedules o
mu ual obliga ions on a pa ial basis (e e y p oduc sepa a ely) so ha ade ag eemen s do
no con ibu e o acili a ing mo e impo s, wi hou ha ing an impac on he pe o mance o
expo s, by aiming o nego ia e he emo al o a i es ic ions o expo sec o s ha allow
hem o c ea e a compe i i e ad an age in a ge ed expo ma ke s ( ade c ea ion e ec ).
B.
Fully ac i a ing ade acili a ion p og ams and libe alizing cus oms policy p ocedu es.
Cus oms adminis a ions a e esponsible o implemen ing p e e en ial ade ag ee-
men s, as well as ee zones and cus oms unions, and hei ole is no limi ed only o
collec ing axes; a he , he ole ex ends o impo an p ocedu es, such as cus oms e alu-
a ion, and all p ocedu es ela ed o he c ossing o ade ac oss bo de s, which inc eases
he impo ance o p ocedu al aspec s in explaining he success o egional blocs om he
pe spec i e o cus oms elease mechanisms o he han he cus oms a i . As he cus oms
a i may be comple ely emo ed, he cos o c oss-bo de ade emains an impedimen o
ade due o o he logis ical cos s.
Cus oms alua ion p ocedu es could be elied upon as e idence o show he ex en
o he impac o cus oms policy measu es o he han a i s on in e na ional ade lows,
as (Ramadan 2023) indica ed ha cus oms e enues due o egional ade ag eemen s a e
much less han hey should be acco ding o he alue o impo s and he exis ing a i a e;
acco dingly, he e is no signi ican impac o changing he cus oms alua ion me hod o
consuming much ime in he alua ion p ocess on cus oms e enues as long as he e a e
cus oms exemp ions.
The e o e, conside ing he la ge olume o Egyp ian impo s om p e e en ial ade
ag eemen s, he applica ion o he A icle VII ag eemen on cus oms alua ion me hods
did no esul in an inc ease in cus oms e enues bu a he led o he eme gence o alue
dispu es be ween impo e s and he cus oms adminis a ion, as mos impo e s su e om
he o e alua ion o hei impo s by he cus oms adminis a ion. Thus, paying loo s
in a o o shipping companies and po s, inc easing dolla bleeding, p ice dis o ion,
o e aluing cus oms du ies, and in la iona y e ec s on mos impo ed goods wi hou
achie ing any hing posi i e, no ing ha a la ge pe cen age o Egyp ian impo s a e exemp
om cus oms du ies due o egional ade ag eemen s.
The e o e, i can be ecommended o accep he alue o he deal and no exagge a e
he cus oms alua ion p ocess o a oid hese dispu es, and he nega i e e ec s men ioned
abo e. In gene al, he s udy ecommends, in his ega d, he necessi y o ac i a ing ade
Economies 2024,12, 237 16 o 19
acili a ion p og ams o imp o e he c oss-bo de ade index in Egyp , which encou ages
a ac ing o eign di ec in es men . This is especially ue in he expo s sec o s.
C.
A na ional s a egy o maximizing added alue o expo -o ien ed indus ies
(long- e m).
The main objec i e o de eloping coun ies, including Egyp , in joining egional blocs
is o maximize expo s by inc easing access o o eign ma ke s. The necessa y condi ion o
achie ing his objec i e is he p esence o expo sec o s ha p o ide domes ic added alue
wi h a high deg ee o compe i i eness. Conside ing his, he s udy ecommends adop ing
a na ional s a egy o encou age expo -o ien ed indus ial sec o s as an al e na i e o
adi ional p ima y sec o s be o e joining new p e e en ial ade ag eemen s.
D.
Adop ing egional ag eemen s suppo ing he accumula ion o o igin (sho - e m).
The e is no doub ha all e o s ela ed o maximizing he bene i s o joining economic
blocs become wo hless in he absence o expo able p oduc s in he i s place since
p epa ing and implemen ing a na ional s a egy o quali y indus ial sec o s ha achie e
high added alue and compe i i eness equi es a long ime. The s udy sugges s ocusing on
acqui ing he Egyp ian o igin o expo ed p oduc s h ough he in eg a ion o he p ocesses
o FDI e-expo s.
Gi en ha Egyp enjoys a unique geog aphical loca ion and has membe ship in many
egional economic blocs, emphasis should be placed on ag eemen s ha enhance he use o
he accumula ion o o igin. This is a sho - e m al e na i e ha enables Egyp o expo
p oduc s wi h Egyp ian added alue, especially because Egyp possesses he equi ed
in as uc u e in e ms o de eloped po s, whe he on he Medi e anean o he Red Sea.
Gi en ha he BRICS bloc is he mos ecen bloc ha Egyp has joined, and ha i
is conside ed a mul idimensional bloc whose ins i u ions ha e no ye been comple ed,
especially in he ield o ade libe aliza ion, policymake s mus ocus on nego ia ions
ega ding capi al lows o s imula e FDI in lows, especially in he p esence o he Suez
Canal economic zone, which al eady includes he Chinese TEDA zone. Sou h A ican
in es men s in he au omobile indus y can also be a ge ed. I is possible o he Suez
Canal Special Economic Zone o wo k as a hub o achie e a cumula i e o igin among
BRICS membe s a es.
8. Limi a ions and Fu u e S udies
E en hough his s udy p o ided an ex ensi e analysis o he economic blocs and he
impac o ade and cus oms policy on Egyp ’s ade pe o mance in ligh o he egional
and in e na ional ade ag eemen s and blocs o which Egyp is a membe and p oposing a
s a egy o de elop cus oms policy o enhance he bene i s om economic blocs, he sca ci y
o s a is ical da a on a i s and cus oms p ocedu es in Egyp o a easonable pe iod o ime
was a majo obs acle o he s udy in using an econome ic model o suppo he indings.
The exclusion o a iables such as global economic condi ions, poli ical ins abili y,
and co up ion om he analysis is a limi a ion ha should be add essed in u u e s udies.
These ac o s a e in e ela ed and can signi ican ly in luence he e ec i eness o cus oms
policies. Fo a mo e comp ehensi e unde s anding o how Egyp can maximize he bene i s
o i s membe ship in economic blocs, u u e esea ch should seek o inco po a e hese
a iables, pe haps h ough a combina ion o quali a i e analysis and quan i a i e modeling,
o be e cap u e he complexi y o in e na ional ade dynamics. The e o e, he s udy
sugges s ha u u e esea ch ocus on collec ing an app op ia e da a se and ocusing on
mic oeconomic analysis on a sec o le el o p oduc le el, and also o expand he analysis
o include a la ge geog aphical a ea.
Economies 2024,12, 237 17 o 19
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, M.M.B. and A.R.T.; me hodology, M.M.B.; so wa e,
M.M.B.; alida ion, M.M.B. and A.R.T.; o mal analysis, M.M.B. and A.R.T.; in es iga ion, M.M.B.
and A.R.T.; esou ces, M.M.B.; da a cu a ion, M.M.B. and A.R.T.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion,
M.M.B. and A.R.T.; w i ing— e iew and edi ing, M.M.B. and A.R.T.; isualiza ion, M.M.B.; supe i-
sion, M.M.B.; p ojec adminis a ion, M.M.B. and A.R.T.; unding acquisi ion, M.M.B. All au ho s
ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: The au ho s ex end hei app ecia ion o P ince Sa am bin Abdulaziz Uni e si y o
unding his esea ch wo k h ough he p ojec numbe (2024/02/29000).
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : No applicable.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : All da a a e con ained wi hin he a icle.
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es o any kind.
Abb e ia ions
WTO Wo ld T ade O ganiza ion
RTAs Regional T ade Ag eemen s
COMESA Common Ma ke o Eas and Sou h A ica
GAFTA The G ea e A ab F ee T ade A ea
Me cosu The Sou he n Common Ma ke (Me cado Común del Su )
PTAs P e e en ial T ade A eas
FTAs F ee T ade A eas
EU The Eu opean Pa ne ship Ag eemen
BRICS In e go e nmen al O ganiza ion Comp ising B azil, Russia, India, China, Sou h A ica
GATT Gene al Ag eemen on Ta i s and T ade
NAFTA No h Ame ica F ee T ade A ea
ASEAN The Associa ion o Sou heas Asian Na ions
AFCFTA A ican Con inen al F ee T ade A ea
GCC Gul Coope a ion Council
NTBs Non- a i Ba ie s
TFP T ade Facili a ion P og am
FDI Fo eign Di ec In es men
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