Midamba, Dick Chune; Ouko, Ke in Oko h
A icle
Gende dispa i ies in ag icul u al ex ension among
smallholde s in Wes e n Uganda
Cogen Economics & Finance
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Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Midamba, Dick Chune; Ouko, Ke in Oko h (2024) : Gende dispa i ies in
ag icul u al ex ension among smallholde s in Wes e n Uganda, Cogen Economics & Finance, ISSN
2332-2039, Taylo & F ancis, Abingdon, Vol. 12, Iss. 1, pp. 1-18,
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Gende dispa i ies in ag icul u al ex ension
among smallholde s inWes e n Uganda
Dick Chune Midamba & Ke in Oko h Ouko
To ci e his a icle: Dick Chune Midamba & Ke in Oko h Ouko (2024) Gende dispa i ies in
ag icul u al ex ension among smallholde s inWes e n Uganda, Cogen Economics & Finance,
12:1, 2391938, DOI: 10.1080/23322039.2024.2391938
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© 2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma
UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis
G oup
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GENERAL & APPLIED ECONOMICS | RESEARCH ARTICLE
Gende dispa i ies in ag icul u al ex ension among smallholde s
in Wes e n Uganda
Dick Chune Midamba
a
and Ke in Oko h Ouko
b
a
Depa men o Ru al De elopmen and Ag ibusiness, Gulu Uni e si y, Gulu, Uganda;
b
Depa men o Ag icul u al
Economics and Ag ibusiness Managemen , School o Ag icul u e and Food Sciences, Ja amogi Oginga Odinga Uni e si y
o Science and Technology, Bondo, Kenya
ABSTRACT
In his s udy, we aimed o assess gende dispa i ies in access o ag icul u al ex ension
se ices and he de e minan s o access o ex ension among male and emale-headed
households in Wes e n Uganda. A c oss-sec ional su ey was conduc ed o ex ac p i-
ma y da a om 200 a me s using a semi-s uc u ed ques ionnai e. The collec ed da a
we e analyzed using desc ip i e s a is ics and Bina y Logi model. Ou indings
e ealed ha majo i y o he male-headed households had access o ex ension com-
pa ed o hei emale-headed household coun e pa s. This was also e iden in he
sou ces o ag icul u al ex ension. The socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o a me s
also indica ed ha male-headed households we e be e o in many a eas, o
example, male-headed households boas ed 498.83 kg/ha maize p oduc i i y, while
households headed by emales p oduced 405.36 kg/ha, indica ing a 94 kg/ha yield
gap. Simila ly, adop ion o ag icul u al p ac ices was high among he male-headed
households han hei ellow emale-headed coun e pa s. Finally, he es ima es om
he Bina y Logi e ealed ha male-headed households’access o ex ension was in lu-
enced by age, educa ion, a m size, c op di e si y, and g oup membe ship. The p e-
dic o a iables ha signi ican ly in luenced emale-headed households’access o
ex ension include age, educa ion, expe ience, household size, a m size, dis ance o
ex ension, c op di e si y, non- a m income, and c edi access. The s udy concluded
ha he e a e gende dispa i ies in ag icul u al ex ension as e iden in he access o,
sou ces and de e minan s o access o ag icul u al ex ension. To b idge he gende
gap, he s udy ad oca es o mo e aining and ex ension se ices o emale-headed
households ega ding access o and sou ces o ex ension se ices.
IMPACT STATEMENT
Ex ension se ice p o ision is one o he pilla s o ag icul u al p oduc i i y among he
smallholde a me s in Sub-Saha an A ica. The ole o ag icul u al ex ension se ices
in ol es linking a me s and he go e nmen s. Th ough ex ension se ices, smallholde
a me s a e able o acqui e mode n ag icul u al echniques ha inc eases a m p od-
uc i i y. Wi h inc eased a m p oduc i i y, a me s a e able o come ou o he ca a-
s ophic le els o ood insecu i y. Female headed households no mally epo less
p oduc i i y o majo c ops, leading o ood insecu i y amongs hem. This esea ch
wo k con ibu es o he global discussions on access o ex ension among he male
and emale headed households. The s udy p esen s esul s on he s a e o access o
ag icul u al ex ension se ices as well as he de e minan s o access o ex ension
among he male and emale headed households. Ou indings and ecommenda ions
can be adop ed by ele an au ho i ies o inc ease access o ex ension, leading o
highe c op p oduc i i y among emale headed households. In he long un, he e will
be a decline in ood insecu i y as a esul o he inc eased c op p oduc i i y among
he emale headed households.
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 4 Ap il 2024
Re ised 3 July 2024
Accep ed 6 Augus 2024
KEYWORDS
Gende dispa i y; Ex ension;
P oduc i i y; Wes e n
Uganda; Gende analysis
SUBJECTS
De elopmen S udies; Ru al
De elopmen ; Gende &
De elopmen ; Sociology;
Gende S udies - Soc Sci;
Sociology & Social Policy
CONTACT Dick Chune Midamba [email p o ec ed] Depa men o Ru al De elopmen and Ag ibusiness, Gulu Uni e si y, Gulu,
Uganda
Supplemen al da a o his a icle can be accessed online a h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2024.2391938.
ß2024 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE
2024, VOL. 12, NO. 1, 2391938
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23322039.2024.2391938
In oduc ion
I is es ima ed ha mo e han 60% o he Sub-Saha an A ica (SSA) popula ion depends di ec ly o indi -
ec ly on ag icul u e as a sou ce o hei li elihood (FAO, 2018a,2018b; Wo ld Bank, 2015). The ag icul-
u al sec o pe o ms mo e han jus ood p oduc ion bu also con ibu es signi ican ly o he
achie emen o he i s wo global Sus ainable De elopmen Goals [No Po e y and Ze o Hunge ]
(Langyin uo, 2020; Wo ld Bank, 2022). Popula ion g ow h in SSA has a ac ed much a en ion, which
has also been aligned o ag icul u al p oduc i i y. The majo i y o SSA coun ies need o p oduce almos
h ee imes hei cu en p oduc ion o mee he inc easing ood equi emen s (FAO, 2022; Mango e al.,
2018; WFP, 2023). S ikingly, he ood equi ed o eed hung y and g owing popula ions is mainly
sou ced om ag icul u al ac i i ies. The e o e, he ag icul u al sec o equi es in ensi e policies o
achie e op imal p oduc i i y.
To achie e he desi ed household ood p oduc ion, ag icul u al p oduc i i y equi es mode n a m
p oduc ion skills on mode n ag icul u e (Po e e al., 2015; Sanogo e al., 2023). These may include he
adop ion o mode n ag icul u al echnologies, pes and disease managemen , clima e change mi iga ion
s a egies, ag icul u al ma ke ing, pos -ha es loss managemen , and inpu combina ions o a ain a m
e iciency, among o he s (Feyisa, 2020; Sanogo e al., 2023). Howe e , such skills a e be e dissemina ed
h ough ex ension se ices. Th ough ex ension agen s, he go e nmen s o SSA can ain smallholde
a me s on ag icul u al p oduc i i y, o e hem inpu subsidies, and pass on any ag icul u al in o ma ion
and ad iso y se ices, among o he se ices (Asan e e al., 2024). Thus, ex ension agen s play key oles
by ac ing as in e media ies be ween smallholde a me s and SSA go e nmen s (Abdallah & Abdul-
Rahaman, 2016; Abdullahi e al., 2021; A ukunda e al., 2022). Simila ly, a me s who ac i ely pa icipa e
in ex ension p og ams a e a be e o han hei coun e pa s wi hou access o ex ension se ices in
e ms o a m p oduc i i y (Biswas e al., 2021).
E iden ly, he e has been a gende biasness in access o ex ension se ices and pa icipa ion in ex en-
sion p og ams among Sub-Saha an A ican households. The majo i y o he s udies conduc ed in SSA
ha e epo ed skewed pa icipa ion in and access o ex ension p og ams among male and emale-
headed households. Fo ins ance, Ragasa e al. (2013) epo ed ha emale-headed households a e less
likely o access ex ension se ices in E hiopia, con ibu ing o low ag icul u al p oduc i i y among such
ulne able households. In he same coun y, Neway and Zegeye (2022) no ed ha he adop ion o ag i-
cul u al echnology was low among emale-headed households compa ed o hei ellow male-headed
coun e pa s, which was a ibu ed o he low pa icipa ion in ex ension p og ammes among emale-
headed households. Masanja e al. (2023) also epo ed skewed access o ex ension se ices among
a me s in Tanzania. They speci ically obse ed a highe a e o access o ex ension among male-headed
households han emale-headed households. This was also e iden in ag icul u al p oduc i i y, ood inse-
cu i y, and po e y le els among he wo gende g oups. A policy b ie published by UN-Women (2018a,
2018b) indica ed gende gaps in ag icul u al p oduc i i y, as male-headed households a e a be e in
e ms o a m p oduc i i y han hei emale-headed coun e pa s. This was a ibu ed o low access o
ag icul u al se ices, such as ex ension, inpu s, ma ke in o ma ion, seeds, and e ilize -imp o ed a i-
e ies, among o he s. These esul s a e simila o hose epo ed in a s udy conduc ed in E hiopia by
Geb e e al. (2021), which showed ha male-headed maize p oduc i i y was 44.3% highe han ha o
hei emale coun e pa s. Simila ly, high a es o po e y, ood insecu i y, and malnu i ion ha e been
mo e e iden among emale-headed households han among households headed by males in many
coun ies in sub-Saha an A ica (FAO, 2010; Wo ld Bank G oup, 2018). Howe e , acco ding o he gende
equali y heo y, male and emale-headed households should be gi en equal chances o access o ex en-
sion, ag icul u al p oduc i i y, access o p oduc i e esou ces, a m inpu s, ad iso y se ices, among
o he s (Unice , 2017). This implies ha male and emale headed households should equally and ac i ely
pa icipa e in ag icul u al p oduc ion wi hou any biasness o any kind. When male and emale headed
households a e gi en equal oppo uni ies, hei p oduc i i y and ex ension gap will be educed, ena-
bling equal ag icul u al p oduc i i y among hem (Kabee , 2003) and (UN-Women, 2015).
Inc easing a m p oduc i i y, ood secu i y, and po e y alle ia ion among ulne able emale-headed
households equi es s udies ha p esen empi ical esul s on he s a e o gende issues in access o ag i-
cul u al ex ension se ices among households. Howe e , he majo i y o s udies ha e been conduc ed
2 D. C. MIDAMBA AND K. O. OUKO
on gende and adop ion o echnologies (Geb e e al., 2019; Obisesan, 2014), gende and a m p oduc -
i i y (Geb e e al., 2021), and gende dispa i ies in c edi access (Hewa-Wellalage e al., 2020), wi h li le
wo k on gende issues in ag icul u al ex ension. Gende dispa i ies in access o and de e minan s o ag i-
cul u al ex ension do no seem o be well documen ed, especially in Sub-Saha an A ica. In addi ion, he
li le wo k done on gende dispa i y in ex ension access has also p esen ed a ied esul s, which calls o
mo e empi ical s udies on gende and ag icul u al ex ension. Thus, his s udy aimed o assess gende
di e ences in ag icul u al ex ension among smallholde s in Uganda. Speci ically, his s udy aimed o
assess gende dispa i y in access o and sou ces o ex ension. The s udy also aim o assess he de e mi-
nan s o access o ex ension among male and emale-headed households in Wes e n Uganda. I is o
ou s ong con ic ion ha he indings and ecommenda ions om his s udy will guide policy make s
and use s on how o imp o e ag icul u al ex ension access and pa icipa ion among emale-headed
households. This would educe po e y, ood insecu i y and malnu i ion among he emale headed
households. In he long un, a me s’li ing s anda ds and social wel a e will be imp o ed o a be e
li ing.
Resea ch objec i es
The gene al objec i e o his s udy was o assess gende dispa i ies in ag icul u al ex ension among
smallholde a me s in Wes e n Uganda. The s udy is suppo ed by he ollowing speci ic esea ch
objec i es.
a. To assess gende dispa i y in access o and sou ces o ag icul u al ex ension
b. To assess he de e minan s o access o ag icul u al ex ension among he male and emale headed
households
Li e a u e e iew
The heo ies o gende dispa i y
A ican Union, AU (2019) and Kabee (2003), de ine gende as ‘ he socially and cul u ally cons uc ed di -
e ences be ween men and women, boys and gi ls, which gi e hem unequal alue, oppo uni ies and
li e chances’. The e a e ou majo heo ies ha explain gende di e ences among he a me s. These
include socio-cul u al heo y, selec i i y hypo hesis heo y, e olu iona y heo y and he ho mone-b ain
heo y. Acco ding o he socio-cul u al heo y, gende di e ences is a ibu ed o he social, cul u al, psy-
chological, among o he en i onmen al ac o s. I u he explains ha cul u al in luences and physical
di e ences be ween gende a e he main de e minan s o gende dispa i y in he oday’s communi y
(Meye s-Le y & Loken, 2015). Men a e muscula and ene ge ic han women, hus a ac ing di ision o
oles in he socie y. This leads o men ha ing oles di e en om women. On he o he hand, women’s
child bea ing abili y, speed, among o he s make hem a ac ed o he household wo k. Thus, men do
he ha d wo k including land p epa a ion, decision making, and p oduc ion while women may help in
weeding bu make less decisions on he c op ypes, and ha e less access o ag icul u al se ices.
The selec i i y hypo hesis heo y a ibu es gende dispa i y o he ac ha male and emale poses
di e en s a egies and ha e di e en ways o p ocessing in o ma ion. The selec i i y hypo hesis u he
explains ha emales a e likely o de ec , elabo a e mo e ex ensi ely, and use ela i ely less accessible
and mo e dis ally ele an in o ma ion when o ming assessmen s han hei ellow male coun e pa s,
leading o gende dispa i y. On he o he hand, males end o p ocess da a selec i ely han emales
(Meye & Le y, 1989). This can esul in o di e ence in access o and pa icipa ion in ag icul u al ex en-
sion se ices among he males and emales. The e olu iona y heo y o gende dispa i y is based on he
e ec s o human biology such as he e ol ed mechanisms ha humans de eloped o adap i ely add ess
en i onmen al challenges aced by hei ances o s. The cen al p emise is ha na u al selec ion spawned
a human. This leads o di e en ac ions and beha io s among he males and emales in a gi en socie y
(Boye & Ba e , 2015). Ho mone-b ain heo y a gues ha gende di e ence a ise om he p e-neo, and
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 3
pos na al exposu e o gonadal ho mones, esul ing in o he b ain de elopmen pe manen ly and hus
he p opensi ies people display. This makes males and emales beha e di e en ly (Hines e al., 2002).
Howe e , his s udy is unde pinned by he socio-cul u al heo y o gende di e ences in he socie y.
F om his heo y, i is e iden ha as a esul o he cul u al and physical di e ences, male and emales
end o ha e di e en pa hs, leading o di e en esou ces bases. In he end, he e is di e ence in ag i-
cul u al p oduc i i y since land igh s, and access o ag icul u al se ices such as ex ension, inpu use,
among o he s end o a y ac oss di e en socio-cul u al se ings. I has been epo ed ha males o
male headed households end o be be e o in e ms o ag icul u al ex ension and p oduc i i y
(Ragasa e al., 2013), ag icul u al esou ces (Joseph e al., 2021), adop ion o ag icul u al echnologies
(Geb e e al., 2019) and (Ndeke e al., 2021), adop ion o c op di e si ica ion (Ge e al., 2023), li elihood
asse s (Musa e al., 2024), among o he s.
S udies on gende issues in ag icul u e
Weal h o li e a u e exis on gende issues in ag icul u e. Many s udies ha e ou lined gende issues in
ood secu i y, adop ion o ag icul u al echnologies, access o c edi , access o esou ces, access o a m
inpu s, access o amily land, among o he s. Joseph e al. (2021) conduc ed a s udy in Wes e n Kenya o
de e mine gende gaps in access o p oduc i e esou ces among smallholde s. Thei indings epo ed
gende gaps in access o a m p oduc ion esou ces, such as land, a m inpu s, and adop ion o ag icul-
u al echnologies, among o he s. Acco ding o hei indings, women we e less likely o access p oduc -
i e a m esou ces han hei male coun e pa s. As such, hey ecommended he p io i iza ion o emale
a me s o access such esou ces in o de o imp o e hei p oduc i i y.
Using Bina y logis ic model, Neway and Zegeye (2022) analyzed gende di e ences in echnology
adop ion among 796 a me s in E hiopia. F om hei indings, male-headed households had an adop ion
a e o 87.3%, while he adop ion a e o emale-headed households was 61.2%. This indica es a 26.1%
di e ence in adop ion a es be ween he wo g oups. I was e iden ha male-headed households a e
much be e o in accessing ag icul u al echnologies han hei emale coun e pa s. Thei esul s u -
he showed ha he adop ion o ag icul u al echnologies was in luenced gende among o he a ia-
bles. Male household heads had a 12.3% highe p obabili y o adop ing ag icul u al echnologies han
hei emale-headed coun e pa s. O he s udies wi h simila esul s on gende dispa i ies in echnology
adop ion include Ge e al. (2023), Geb e e al. (2019), Neway and Zegeye (2022), and Obisesan (2014).
A ube e al. (2021) assessed gende esponsi eness in he adop ion o clima e change adap a ion
s a egies in No he n Uganda using a Bina y Logi Model. Thei s udy eco ded a la ge gende dispa i y
in he adop ion o clima e change adap a ion s a egies. They obse ed ha households headed by
males depic ed a 0.78 imes highe likelihood o adop ing clima e change adap ion s a egies han hei
ellow emale-headed households. They also no ed ha in e ms o use o pes icides, male-headed
households depic ed a 0.66 imes highe p obabili y han hei ellow emale households.
Fa m p oduc i i y depends la gely on access o ag icul u al c edi . Smallholde a me s who a e inan-
cially cons ained may no achie e op imal ag icul u al p oduc i i y. This is as a esul o he un imely access
o and inadequa e pu chase o a m inpu s and a m machine y, esul ing in delayed p oduc ion. Male-
headed households ha e been epo ed o ha e highe c edi access han households headed by emales.
In Kenya, Johnen and Mußho (2023) obse ed skewed access o c edi ac oss gende . Male-headed house-
holds we e epo ed o ha e highe access o c edi han hei ellow emale-headed households.
A s udy conduc ed in Tanzania, Nige ia, and Uganda on gende dispa i y in ag icul u al p oduc i i y
e ealed ha emale-headed households s ill lag behind in c op p oduc i i y (Mukasa e al., 2015). Male-
headed households p oduce much be e esul s han households headed by emales. In he h ee coun-
ies, he e was less access o land and labo among emale-headed households, con ibu ing o low a m
p oduc i i y. The indings o Mukasa e al. (2015) illus a ed ha he e was a 18.6%, 27.4%, and 30.6% less
land p oduc i i y among emale headed households in Nige ia, Tanzania and Uganda, espec i ely.
O e he pas decades, emales ha e su e ed om many social disc imina ions. Fi s , A ican adi ion
did no ecognize emale’s o own land igh s. A ican households alloca e hei lands o he male gen-
de , while emales a e le wi h li le ac eages (FAO, 2018b; UN-Women, 2018a;2018b). As such, emale-
headed households wi h limi ed land a e ulne able o low a m p oduc i i y. To p oduce con inuously,
4 D. C. MIDAMBA AND K. O. OUKO
hey end o lease land o eed hei amilies. I has also been no ed ha women we e denied educa ion
oppo uni ies in A ica (Riegle-C umb, 2019). They we e ega ded as lesse humans, leading o many
social p edicamen s among he emale gende . Simila ly, access o labo , a m inpu s, and go e nmen
se ices seems o be low among he emale gende han hei male coun e pa s.
Many A ican households a e cha ac e ized by po e y, malnu i ion, and ood insecu i y (FAO, 2005;
IFRC, 2021). In SSA, he majo i y o a ming households li e below he po e y line, li ing less han a
dolla daily. Howe e , he emale gende seems o be highly poo and ood insecu e compa ed o hei
male coun e pa s (S ephens, 1991). Repo s eleased by he Wo ld Bank G oup (2018) on he s a e o
po e y ac oss gende indica e ha he e a e highe po e y a es among emale-headed households
han among households headed by males. No ably, UNPD (2012) also ag ees ha emale-headed house-
holds a e mo e se e ely po e y-s icken han households headed by males.
The e is a weal h o esea ch on gende dispa i y in ag icul u e, as discussed abo e (summa ized in
Table 1). These include gende issues in he adop ion o echnologies, po e y, ood insecu i y, inances,
g oup o ma ion and ac i i y, and ag icul u al p oduc i i y. Howe e , gende dispa i y in ex ension se -
ices has no been adequa ely and well-s udied, especially in SSA. The e is a dea h o li e a u e on he
de e minan s o access o ag icul u al ex ension among male and emale-headed households in SSA.
Mo eo e , he limi ed wo k done on gende and ex ension also ends o p oduce a ied esul s, which
may no be uni e sally accep ed o policy implemen a ion globally. Fo ins ance, a s udy by Ragasa
e al. (2012) showed access o ex ension among he male headed households was in luenced by age,
educa ion, a m size and li es ock uni , while emale headed households’access o ex ension was in lu-
enced by a m size, li es ock uni and p opo ion o male membe s. In con a y, a s udy conduc ed in
E hiopia by Haile (2016) showed ha pa icipa ion in ex ension se ices among women a me s was
in luenced by ma ke access, ma i al s a us, and a me s’age. Thus, gende issues in ag icul u al ex en-
sions should he e o e be adequa ely s udied in e e y egion in o de o adequa ely in o m egion based
policy make s and use s. Thus, ou s udy aims o de e mine gende dispa i y in access o and sou ces o
ex ension, and assess he de e minan s o access o ex ension among emale and male-headed house-
holds in Uganda. The esul s om he s udy will guide he go e nmen s o SSA on how o inc ease
access o ag icul u al ex ension among bo h male and emale headed households. This will in u n
inc ease ood secu i y and educe po e y among SSA households, especially he ulne able emale
headed households.
Ma e ials and me hods
S udy locale
We pu posi ely selec ed Wes e n Uganda o his s udy. Speci ically, Ki yandongo dis ic was selec ed
o da a collec ion (Figu e 1). Smallholde a me s in Ki yandongo we e selec ed o pa icipa e in he
Table 1. Summa ized li e a u e on gende issues in ag icul u e.
Au ho Coun y Me hods Majo indings
Ragasa e al. (2013) E hiopia OLS Female headed households a e less likely o access o
ex ension se ices
Masanja e al. (2023) Tanzania Bina y logi Male a me s a e less likely o access ex ension se ices
Midamba e al. (2022) Uganda Bina y logi Male a me s ha e highe p obabili y o accessing
ex ension se ices
A sbeha and Geb e (2021) E hiopia Bina y logi Women headed households a e less likely o access
ex ension se ices
Naga e al. (2021) India Bina y Logi Male headed households ha e highe access o ex ension
han emale
UN-Women (2018b) A ica Re iew Women ha e less land igh s
Women ha e lowe chances o g owing high alue
c ops
FAO (2018a,2018b) A ica Discussion Women own ela i ely small po ions o land han male
FAO (2010) A ica Policy b ie Male headed households a e mo e ood secu e han
emale headed households
Wo ld Bank G oup (2018) Global Economic HH Consump ion
Classi ica ion
Female headed households a e mo e poo han male
headed households
Olajumoke e al. (2021) Nige ia Fac o ial analysis No signi ican di e ence in access o a m inpu s among
he male and emale gende
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 5
s udy. Bo h la ge and small scale a me s we e selec ed o pa icipa e in he s udy, wi hou any biasness
on he le el o p oduc ion. Ki yandongo is bo de ed by he Nwoya, Oyam, Apac, and Masindi Dis ic s.
The coo dina es o he dis ic a e 02 00 N, 32 18E. The dis ic co e s a o al a ea o 3621 Km
2
, which is
mainly used o ag icul u al ac i i ies. The popula ion comp ises o app oxima ely 380,000 people. The
sus ainable wea he and clima e in Ki yandongo a ac ed se e al households o a ming as a sou ce o
li elihood. The dis ic ecei es an a e age o 292 mm ain days pe yea . Women engage in se e al eco-
nomic ac i i ies ha p o ide li elihoods o hei amilies in his dis ic . I is e iden ha women a e
ac i e no only in ag icul u al ac i i ies bu also in o he economic en u es. Ag icul u al ac i i ies ha
ha e a ac ed women in his egion include c op (maize, obacco, beans, cassa a, ege ables, among
o he s) and li es ock p oduc ion. Despi e women’s ac i e pa icipa ion in economic ac i i ies in
Ki yandongo, Abigaba (2015) obse ed a gende imbalance in e ms o access o p oduc i e esou ces.
They epo ed ha women a e always le behind in e ms o access o ag icul u al se ices, esou ces,
and land igh s. As such, se e al p ojec s ha e been implemen ed by he Ki yandongo dis ic leade ship,
aiming o empowe women o unde ake economic ac i i ies. Fo example, he e a e business skills
ainings, including ag ibusiness and a m managemen aining, which a ge emale en ep eneu s.
Thus, his egion becomes he a ge a ea, especially o gende dispa i y s udies.
Da a sou ces, sampling and sample size
Con enience sampling echnique was used o collec da a om he a me s. Con enience sampling was
selec ed because i is cheap and easie o use (Manikas e al., 2023; Ruzzan e & Bil on, 2021). I has been
widely used and p o en o be one o he bes sampling me hods which educes non- esponse a e in
ag icul u al s udies (Al-Jab i & Sohail, 2012; Joseph e al., 2021; Ruzzan e e al., 2021; Shahnaz Mahdzan,
2013). Fa me s we e sampled based on hei a ailabili y du ing he s udy. Simila ly, hose who we e
a ailable and consen ed o pa icipa e in he s udy we e andomly selec ed. The s udy employed a
semi-s uc u ed ques ionnai e (Appendix 1) o collec da a om a me s. Open Da a Ki (ODK) was speci -
ically used by expe ienced and ained esea ch assis an s o collec da a om he a me s. The enume -
a o s who unde s ood he local languages assis ed a me s who aced challenges in eading and w i ing
(Acholi, Langi, and Swahili) in he s udy a ea. The sample size was de e mined using a o mula by
Figu e 1. S udy locale.
6 D. C. MIDAMBA AND K. O. OUKO
Coch an (1963). We began da a collec ion in Ki yandongo sub-coun y and hen summa ized in Kigumba
sub-coun y. The da a collec ion p ocess ook h ee weeks, s a ing om 3
d
o 24
h
Sep embe , 2021.
Da a we e hen downloaded om he ODK se e , cleaned, and analyzed using an econome ic model.
n¼Z2Pð1−PÞ
e2
n¼1:96 1:96 0:85 ð1−0:85Þ
0:0025
n¼200
Whe e Pis he p opo ion o a me s’popula ion, which is 0.85 (UBOS, 2018a), nis he numbe o
sampled a me s, and Zis he 95% con idence in e al.
E hical clea ance and consen seeking
A e de eloping he da a collec ion ool, we sough e hical clea ance om he Gulu Uni e si y Resea ch
E hics Commi ee (GUREC). We we e hen gi en he oppo uni y o de end ou wo k be o e he commi -
ee. A e success ully de ending and submi ing all he equi ed documen s, ou s udy was app o ed by
he Gulu Uni e si y Resea ch E hics Commi ee (GUREC) unde App o al Numbe : GUREC-084-20.
Simila ly, he Chie Adminis a i e O ice o Ki yandongo Dis ic w o e an in oduc o y le e ha
allowed us o collec da a om he a me s wi h he help o he Dis ic p oduc ion o ice . Simila ly, we
also sough olun a y w i en consen om he a me s. The a me s olun a ily consen ed o pa icipa e
wi hou coe cion. All e hical conside a ions we e ollowed du ing he s udy pe iod. W i en in o med
consen was ob ained o pa icipa ion in he s udy. A he ime o he s udy, he e was Co id -19 ou -
b eak. To a oid he sp ead o he Co id –19 pandemic du ing he s udy, we de eloped Co id -19 p e-
en ion measu es, which we e also app o ed by GUREC.
Econome ic analysis
Gende was coded as an independen ca ego ical a iable, whe e males we e coded as 1 (male), 0
(o he wise), and emale. As such, he e we e columns o bo h male-headed households (1-male-headed
households, 0-o he wise) and emale-headed households (1- emale-headed HH, 0- o he wise). Fac o s
a ec ing access o ex ension se ices among male and emale-headed households we e independen ly
de e mined using a Bina y Logis ic Model (BLM). The BLM has been widely applied in ag icul u al
esea ch o assess he in luence o socio-economic ac o s on bina y independen a iables. BLM was
he e o e selec ed because he dependen a iable in his s udy was bina y, also called dicho omous.
Au ho s such as A ube e al. (2021) adop ed BLM o es ima e he de e minan s o CSA adop ion in
No he n Uganda; Alemu (2021) explo ed BLM o assess how socio-economic ac o s in luence pa icipa-
ion in ainings in E hiopia; In Rwanda, Nahayo e al. (2017) de e mined d i e s o smallholde s’pa ici-
pa ion in c op in ensi ica ion; Okeyo e al. (2020) assessed how socio-economic ac o s in luence
so ghum p oduc ion in Kenya; Using BLM, Masanja e al. (2023) s udied he d i e s o access o ex en-
sion in Tanzania. BLM is speci ied below. Equa ion 1 ep esen s he p obabili y o access o ex ension,
Equa ion 2 ep esen s he p obabili y o no access o ex ension, and Equa ion 3 ep esen s he bina y
logis ic Equa ion, which is a combina ion o Equa ion 1 and 2.
P Y¼1
ðÞ
¼; Xk
k¼1bkXk
hi 1
P Y¼0
ðÞ
¼1−;Xk
k¼1bkXk
hi 2
ln Pi
1−Pi
¼xibþei3
whe e Pi is he p obabili y o accessing ex ension se ices while 1 −Pi on he o he hand is he p obabil-
i y o no access o ex ension, bis he coe icien o be es ima ed, and eiis he e o e m. Xiis he
explana o y a iable in Table 2.
COGENT ECONOMICS & FINANCE 7
Ex ension agen s should ex end hei ex ension se ices o olde a me s. This includes bo h male-
and emale-headed households and ain hem.
Dis ance o he ex ension cen e s had a nega i e and signi ican in luence on access o ex ension
among emale-headed households. Thus, ex ension agen s should each emale-headed households
loca ed a away om he ex ension cen e s. Simila ly, he go e nmen should se up mo e ex ension
cen e s o suppo emale-headed households.
C edi access had a posi i e in luence on access o ex ension se ices among emale-headed house-
holds. Ex ension agen s should ain emale-headed households on how o access c edi om inan-
cial ins i u ions wi h low in e es a es.
The e was low p oduc i i y, which was a ibu ed o he low use o hyb id seeds and e ilize s
among emale-headed households. Ex ension agen s should ain such households in c op p oduc i -
i y h ough he adop ion o ag icul u al echnologies.
Male headed households should con inue joining and pa icipa ing in a me g oups, as hey inc ease
hei p obabili y o accessing ex ension se ices.
A eas o u he s udies
Gende issues in ag icul u al ex ension is a signi ican s udy ha p o ides policies o upholding ood
secu i y among he emale headed households. F om pas esea ch epo s, emale headed households
end o be highly ulne able o ood insecu i y as a esul o low a m p oduc i i y, which is also a ibu-
ed o poo access o ex ension. While ou s udy ocused on one dis ic , we ecommend u he s udies
on gende dispa i y in ag icul u al ex ension in o he egions o Uganda. Such s udies should include
he cons ain s limi ing access o ex ension among he emale headed households. This would p o ide
comple e esul s and policy implica ions on access o ex ension among he emale-headed households.
Au ho s’con ibu ion
This s udy was conduc ed by wo au ho s: Dick Chune Midamba and Ke in Oko h Ouko. The wo au ho s pa ici-
pa ed in he concep ion and design, analysis and in e p e a ion o he da a, d a ing o he pape , e ising i c i ic-
ally o in ellec ual con en , and inal app o al o he e sion o be published. All au ho s ag ee o be accoun able
o all he aspec s o his s udy.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial compe ing in e es was epo ed by he au ho s.
Funding
No unding was ecei ed.
Abou he au ho s
Dick Midamba holds a Bsc. in Ag icul u al Economics om Laikipia Uni e si y, Kenya and an Msc. in Ag i-En e p ises
De elopmen om Gulu Uni e si y, Uganda. Midamba is cu en ly a PhD Candida e a Maseno Uni e si y, whe e he
s udies hi Doc o a e deg ee in Ag icul u al Economics. Midambas’ esea ch in e e es include Food sys ems, Food
secu i y, Fa m e iciency and p oduc i i y, Sus ainable ag icul u e and Ru al de elopmen .
D . Ke in Oko h Ouko is a Pos Doc o al Resea ch Fellow a A ican Cen e o Technology S udies (ACTS). He holds
a PhD in Food Secu i y and Sus ainable Ag icul u e om Ja amogi Oginga Odinga Uni e si y o Science and
Technology, Kenya and an MSc in Ag icul u al and Applied Economics om Ege on Uni e si y, Kenya/Uni e si y o
P e o ia, Sou h A ica.
ORCID
Dick Chune Midamba h p://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4467-419X
Ke in Oko h Ouko h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-9894-5042
14 D. C. MIDAMBA AND K. O. OUKO
Da a a ailabili y s a emen
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable om he co esponding au ho [Dick Chune Midamba,
[email p o ec ed]] upon easonable eques .
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