Ananian, Se ane; Della e e a, Giulia
Wo king Pape
A s udy on he employmen and wage ou comes o people
wi h disabili ies
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 124
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ananian, Se ane; Della e e a, Giulia (2024) : A s udy on he employmen and
wage ou comes o people wi h disabili ies, ILO Wo king Pape , No. 124, ISBN 978-92-2-041076-9,
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/YRCN8597
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XA s udy on he employmen and
wage ou comes o people wi h
disabili ies
Au ho s / Se ane Ananian, Giulia Della e e a
Augus / 2024
ILO Wo king Pape 124
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01 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Abs ac
This s udy in es iga es he employmen and wage dispa i ies be ween people wi h and wi hou
disabili ies. I shows ha indi iduals wi h disabili ies a e less likely o pa icipa e in he labou ma -
ke , and ha when hey do, hey ace highe unemploymen a es, a e mo e likely o be sel -em-
ployed and end o ea n lowe wages. These dispa i ies do no appea o be explained solely by
indi idual cha ac e is ics such as educa ional a ainmen , expe ience o occupa ional ca ego y.
They a e mos likely d i en by a ious o he ac o s as well, including limi ed p o ision o wo k-
place accommoda ions in many i ms, he po en ially g ea e job lexibili y o e ed by sel -em-
ploymen , and disc imina ion agains people wi h disabili ies. In i s inal sec ion, he s udy high-
ligh s legal amewo ks es ablished a he in e na ional and na ional le els o p omo e equal
oppo uni ies and ai emune a ion o people wi h disabili ies.
Abou he au ho s
Sé ane Ananian joined he Resea ch Depa men o he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO)
as an economis in Sep embe 2021. His a eas o expe ise a e inequali y, wages and wo king
condi ions, and he ansi ion o a g een economy.
Giulia Della e e a wo ks o he p omo ion o domes ic wo ke s’ igh s in Tanzania wi h CVM,
a e ha ing analysed wo k- ela ed inequali ies a ILO Resea ch Depa men . P e iously, she
wo ked a UNHCR, ICRC and Genocide Wa ch. She is specialised in human igh s and in e na-
ional humani a ian law.
02 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
XIn oduc ion 07
X1 Da a and me hodology 10
De ining people wi h disabili ies 10
A sample o na ional household su eys including in o ma ion on disabili ies 11
X2 Employmen ou comes o people wi h disabili ies 13
A me hodology o analysing di e ences in labou ma ke ou comes be ween people wi h
and wi hou disabili ies 13
On a e age, people wi h disabili ies exhibi lowe labou o ce pa icipa ion and highe un‑
employmen 14
People wi h disabili ies a e mo e likely o be sel -employed 15
X3 Wage ou comes o people wi h disabili ies 19
The sha e o low-paid wo ke s is highe among employees wi h disabili ies 19
The lowe educa ional a ainmen o employees wi h disabili ies may pa ly explain hei
lowe wages 20
In addi ion, wo ke s wi h disabili ies a e o e - ep esen ed among employees wo king in el‑
emen a y occupa ions and unde ‑ ep esen ed among manage s and p o essionals 22
Th ee qua e s o he disabili y pay gap is no explained by di e ences in e ms o educa‑
ion, age and occupa ion be ween employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies 24
Ac oss coun ies o which he a e age pay can be b oken down by sex, women wi h disabil‑
i ies appea o ea n less on a e age han hei male coun e pa s 27
The ole o minimum wages in educing he disabili y pay gap 27
X4 Building inclusi e legal amewo ks o secu e posi i e employmen and
wage ou comes o people wi h disabili ies 31
In e na ional labou s anda ds ha can shape he employmen and wage ou comes o peo‑
ple wi h disabili ies 31
In e na ional labou s anda ds on non-disc imina ion and equali y o oppo uni y and ea men 34
In e na ional labou s anda ds on wages 36
In e na ional labou s anda ds on oca ional guidance and ehabili a ion 36
Designing a comp ehensi e sys em o na ional laws and policies o ackle he employmen
and wage gaps aced by people wi h disabili ies 38
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 124
XConclusion 43
Annex 44
Re e ences 48
Acknowledgemen s 53
04 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Lis o Figu es
Figu e 1. Sha e o employees wi h disabili ies in each quin ile o he wage dis ibu ion, by
coun y income g oup, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 20
Figu e 2. Sha e o low-paid wo ke s among employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies, by
coun y income g oup, 2019 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 20
Figu e 3. Dis ibu ion o employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies acco ding o hei educa‑
ional le el, by coun y income g oup, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 21
Figu e 4. Dis ibu ion o employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies acco ding o hei age, by
coun y income g oup, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 22
Figu e 5. Dis ibu ion o occupa ions among employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies, by
coun y income g oup, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 23
Figu e 6. A e age pay gap be ween employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies, by coun y, de‑
composed, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 26
Figu e 7. Gende pay gap among employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies in selec ed coun‑
ies, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 27
Figu e 8. Sha e o employees paid he minimum wage o less, 2022 o la es a ailable yea
(pe cen age) 28
05 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Lis o Tables
Table 1. Gaps in he p obabili ies o selec ed labou ma ke ou comes be ween people wi h
and wi hou disabili ies (pe cen age poin s) 15
Na ional da a sou ces used o analyse he employmen and wage ou comes o people wi h
disabili ies 44
12 ILO Wo king Pape 124
a e also some om ea lie yea s, going back o 2013. This ela i ely b oad ime window allows
coun ies wi h less equen da a collec ion o be included in he analysis.
The inal wo king da a se o he s udy comp ises 65 coun ies, co e ing all egions and le els o
economic de elopmen . Ou o he coun ies in he sample, 14 a e om A ica, 2 om he A ab
S a es, 12 om Asia and he Paci ic, 30 om Eu ope and Cen al Asia, and 7 om he Ame icas.6
In e ms o coun y income g oups, he sample comp ises 28 high-income coun ies, 16 up-
pe -middle-income coun ies, 14 lowe -middle-income coun ies and 7 low-income coun ies.7
The coun ies selec ed, and hei co esponding su eys, a e lis ed in able A1 in he Appendix.
Howe e , he explo a ion o wo king ime and wages is es ic ed o coun ies wi h su eys ha
include a su icien numbe o esponden wo ke s (o wage employees) wi h disabili ies o al-
low analysis o hese dimensions.
Ac oss he coun ies sampled, he sha e o people wi h disabili ies in he wo king-age popula-
ion a ies widely, om less han 1 pe cen o o e 13 pe cen . Beyond di e ences in people’s
heal h, se e al easons can be ci ed o explain his a iabili y be ween coun ies, such as di e enc-
es in he pe cep ion o disabili ies, cul u e and awa eness, in addi ion o possible measu emen
di e ences ac oss su eys (OECD 2022). Va ia ions in he sha e o disabled people ac oss coun-
ies may also e lec di e en le els o exposu e o wa o o he o ms o in en ional inju y.8 This
means ha compa isons o he es ima es be ween coun ies should be made wi h g ea cau ion.
Mo eo e , cau ion is also called o when ex apola ing. Al hough he scope o his analysis is mean
o be ela i ely wide gi en he a ailable da a, he esul s emain speci ic o he sample and may
no necessa ily e lec he ela i e si ua ion o people wi h disabili ies in coun ies no included.
6The ela i ely high co e age o Eu opean coun ies was enabled by he use o EU-SILC su ey da a, made a ailable by Eu os a , which
co e s 28 coun ies in he sample.
7To g oup coun ies acco ding o hei le el o income pe capi a, he Wo ld Bank classi ica ion co esponding o he yea o he su -
ey da a collec ion is used.
8The Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion has highligh ed ha suicides accoun o he la ges p opo ion o he in en ional inju y bu den in
de eloped coun ies, whe eas i is iolence and wa in de eloping coun ies (WHO 2008).
13 ILO Wo king Pape 124
X2 Employmen ou comes o people wi h disabili ies
A me hodology o analysing di e ences in labou ma ke
ou comes be ween people wi h and wi hou disabili ies
People wi h and wi hou disabili ies can di e in cha ac e is ics ha may ha e an impac on hei
labou ma ke ou comes. Fo ins ance, lowe educa ional a ainmen may a ec hei likelihood
o inding a job. On he o he hand, he o e - ep esen a ion o olde people among people wi h
disabili ies could also esul in lowe labou ma ke pa icipa ion a es.9 Taking he socio-demo-
g aphic s uc u e o he popula ion o people wi h disabili ies in o accoun is he e o e c i ical
when analysing he dispa i ies hey may expe ience in labou ma ke ou comes.
In o de o pe o m such analysis, he econome ic echnique o logis ic eg ession is applied o
a da a se cons uc ed om he pooled coun y su eys selec ed o his s udy (see box 1 below
o u he de ails o he echnique). This me hod makes i possible o assess how he p obabil-
i ies o he labou ma ke ou comes unde s udy di e be ween people wi h and wi hou disa-
bili ies, while a he same ime disen angling his impac om ha o o he obse ed cha ac e -
is ics, such as educa ion and age.
I is impo an o bea in mind ha all he es ima es p esen ed he e do no ake in o accoun
possible unobse ed indi idual cha ac e is ics ha could in luence he labou ma ke pa icipa-
ion o people wi h disabili ies. In addi ion, he esul s do no con ol o he possible impac ha
employmen ou comes may ha e on a pe son’s disabili y s a us (“ e e sed causali y”). Indeed,
in some ins ances, disabili ies can be a esul o he employmen si ua ion, o example when
hey a ise om an acciden a wo k. The indings p esen ed he e should he e o e no be in e -
p e ed as e lec ing a causali y be ween ha ing a disabili y and he a ious labou ma ke ou -
comes s udied.
XBox 1. Es ima ing di e ences in he p obabili y o selec ed labou ma ke ou comes be ween people wi h
and wi hou disabili ies
To assess how ha ing a disabili y changes he p obabili y o labou o ce pa icipa ion, un-
employmen and wage employmen , a logis ic eg ession model is es ima ed sepa a ely
o men and women using a pooled da a se ha includes all he su eys sampled (see
able A1 in he Appendix). This econome ic app oach consis s in es ima ing he pa ame-
e s α, γ and β o he ollowing equa ion:
PY e
()=
1
1+
1
γDsb X−(α+ +β
)
whe e P(Y) is he p obabili y ha Y happens, Y e e ing espec i ely o labou o ce pa ic-
ipa ion, unemploymen and being an employee ( e sus being sel -employed). In addi ion,
α is he cons an (o “in e cep ”), Dsb is a dummy a iable indica ing whe he a espond-
en has disabili ies and X is a se o con ol a iables.
9An es ima ed 46 pe cen o people aged 60 yea s o olde li e wi h disabili ies (Uni ed Na ions 2015).
14 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Fo labou ma ke pa icipa ion and unemploymen , he con ol a iables a e he le el o
educa ional a ainmen (below seconda y school le el, seconda y school le el, abo e sec-
onda y school le el), he age anche (15–24 yea s, 25–55 yea s and 55+ yea s) and a coun y
dummy o each coun y o ake in o accoun unobse ed he e ogenei y ac oss coun ies.
When es ima ing he p obabili y o wage employmen , he con ol a iables also include
he esponden ’s occupa ion acco ding o he In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o
Occupa ions (ISCO-08), wi h occupa ions agg ega ed in o six ca ego ies: “Manage s, p o-
essionals and echnicians”, “Cle ical, se ices and sales wo ke s”, “Skilled ag icul u al and
ades wo ke s”, “Plan and machine ope a o s, and assemble s”, “Elemen a y occupa ions”
and “A med o ces”. This allows one o con ol o possible di e ences in employmen s a-
us ha could be due o he ype o occupa ion pu sued.
The abo e es ima ion is used o compu e he esul s epo ed in able 1, which a e called
“a e age ma ginal e ec s”. They co espond o he inc ease (o dec ease) in he p obabil-
i y o he e en Y ( ha is, labou o ce pa icipa ion, unemploymen o wage employmen )
induced by he e en “Dsb = 1” ( ha is, ha ing disabili ies).
On a e age, people wi h disabili ies exhibi lowe labou o ce
pa icipa ion and highe unemploymen
People wi h disabili ies a e less likely o pa icipa e in he labou ma ke han hose wi hou ,
e en when one con ols o age and educa ional a ainmen . On a e age ac oss coun ies, ha -
ing disabili ies dec eases he likelihood o labou ma ke pa icipa ion by 29 pe cen age poin s
o men, and by 20 pe cen age poin s o women ( able 1). The nega i e impac o disabili ies on
men and women’s likelihood o labou ma ke pa icipa ion is simila ac oss coun ies a di e -
en le els o de elopmen , hough i is lowe in absolu e e ms o women in uppe -middle-in-
come coun ies (14 pe cen age poin s e sus 20 pe cen age poin s on a e age o all coun ies).
Fu he mo e, when hey do pa icipa e in he labou ma ke , people wi h disabili ies a e mo e
likely o be unemployed han hose wi hou . Ac oss coun ies, he likelihood o unemploymen
inc eases by 8 pe cen age poin s o men when hey ha e disabili ies; a simila inc ease is ob-
se ed o women wi h disabili ies (7 pe cen age poin s). Howe e , he unemploymen gap be-
ween people wi h and wi hou disabili ies appea s o be na owe in de eloping coun ies. In
pa icula , his gap is no s a is ically signi ican o women in lowe -middle-income coun ies
and o men in low-income coun ies. I is e en nega i e o women in low-income coun ies
(-1.5 pe cen age poin s), indica ing ha women wi h disabili ies a e less likely o be unemployed
han o he women. This las esul may e lec he sca ce esou ces in de eloping economies
compa ed wi h high-income coun ies, which could p omp people wi h disabili ies o educe
hei unemploymen spell and ake up any a ailable job.
15 ILO Wo king Pape 124
XTable 1. Gaps in he p obabili ies o selec ed labou ma ke ou comes be ween people wi h and wi hou
disabili ies (pe cen age poin s)
All
coun ies
High‑income
coun ies
Uppe ‑middle‑
income coun‑
ies
Lowe -middle-
income coun‑
ies
Low-income
coun ies
Labou o ce pa icipa ion
Men -29.1*** -29*** -27.5*** -32.2*** -31.2***
Women -20.3*** -21.7*** -14.1*** -22.1*** -22***
To al -24.9*** -25.5*** -20.9*** -27*** -26.2***
Unemploymen
Men 8*** 14.7*** 1.4* 2.6*** 0.3
Women 6.6*** 10.7*** 2.8** 0.7 -1.5***
To al 7.5*** 12.9*** 2.1*** 1.7* -0.6
Wage employmen ( s. sel ‑employmen )
Men -4.3*** -1.1 -7.2*** -6.8*** -3.2**
Women -3.4*** -1.4** -6.4*** -4.7*** -1.4
To al -4*** -1.2** -7.1*** -5.9*** -2.4***
No e 1: S a is ically signi ican alues a e deno ed by ***, **, * a he 1%, 5% and 10% signi icance le els espec i ely.
No e 2: The esul s o labou o ce pa icipa ion e e o he whole popula ion. Those o unemploymen e e o he popula ion
in he labou o ce. Those o s a us in employmen (wage employmen s. sel -employmen ) e e o he employed popula ion.
No e 3: The labou o ce pa icipa ion and unemploymen models con ol o age and educa ion. The s a us in employmen
model (wage employmen s. sel -employmen ) ea u es occupa ion as an addi ional con ol a iable. All he models con ol o
coun y ixed e ec s.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o la es a ailable yea (excep 2020). See able
A1 in he Appendix o mo e de ails.
People wi h disabili ies a e mo e likely o be sel -employed
Finally, he hi d sec ion o able 1 shows ha , when in employmen , people wi h disabili ies a e
less likely o be wo king as employees han hose wi hou . Indeed, e en a e con olling o age,
educa ional a ainmen and occupa ion, ha ing disabili ies educes he p obabili y o being an
employee o bo h men and women. This pa e n appea s o hold a each le el o economic de-
elopmen , excep in high-income coun ies o men and in low-income coun ies o women,
as he co esponding es ima es a e no s a is ically signi ican .
The abo e indings a e consis en wi h hose al eady p esen ed in he limi ed li e a u e on he
odds o sel -employmen o people wi h disabili ies, whe e mos s udies ocus on de eloped
coun ies (Pagán 2009; Gousko a 2020). The main easons p oposed o he o e - ep esen a-
ion o disabled people among he sel -employed include he g ea e lexibili y and he be e
adjus men be ween disabili y s a us and wo king li e ha sel -employmen may allow (Pagán
2009). A ecen empi ical in es iga ion d awing on US da a con i med ha people wi h disabil-
i ies, on he whole, choose sel -employmen o non-mone a y easons, hough i did no ule
ou he possibili y o employe disc imina ion “pushing” pa o he popula ion wi h disabili ies
in o sel -employmen (Gousko a 2020).
16 ILO Wo king Pape 124
The g ea e likelihood o sel -employmen among people wi h disabili ies sugges s an inc eased
isk o exposu e o in o mali y, pa icula ly in de eloping coun ies. Indeed, global es ima es sug-
ges ha he as majo i y o sel -employed wo ke s own and ope a e an in o mal economic uni ,
wi h eigh in en such wo ke s in de eloping coun ies wo king in o mally (ILO 2023a). In con-
as , only ou in en employees wo ldwide wo k in o mally, and only one in en in high-income
coun ies. On he o he hand, in mos coun ies wi h a ailable da a, people wi h disabili ies a e
mo e likely o be in in o mal employmen han hose wi hou disabili ies (S oe ska 2022). Finally,
in addi ion o di e ences in he likelihood o being employed o sel -employed, people wi h dis-
abili ies also exhibi speci ic wo king- ime pa e ns. A desc ip i e assessmen o his is p o id-
ed in box 2. In pa icula , compa ed o people wi hou disabili ies, hey o en wo k ewe hou s
and hose in de eloping coun ies a e mo e likely o be employed unde empo a y con ac s.
XBox 2. Wo king ime o people wi h and wi hou disabili ies
In compa ison o o he wo ke s, hose wi h disabili ies o en wo k ewe hou s
People wi h oo ew o i egula wo king hou s may be exposed o speci ic isks, such as
insu icien income. Con e sely, excessi e wo king hou s a e associa ed wi h heal h isks,
such as ischaemic hea disease and s oke (Pega e al. 2021). An o e iew o he wo king
ime o people wi h and wi hou disabili ies is he e o e p o ided he e, based on a sub-
sample o coun ies wi h a ailable in o ma ion on he wo king ime o employees and
sel -employed wo ke s.
On a e age ac oss hese coun ies, people wi h disabili ies wo k mo e o en 20 hou s
o ewe han people wi hou . Speci ically, 13 pe cen o wo ke s wi h disabili ies wo k
ewe han 20 hou s, ha is, 5 pe cen age poin s mo e han o he wo ke s ( igu e B.2.1).
This gap is ela i ely cons an ac oss le els o economic de elopmen , as i anges om
4 pe cen age poin s in low- and lowe -middle-income coun ies o 6 pe cen age poin s in
uppe -middle-income coun ies (5 pe cen age poin s in high-income coun ies). This can
pa ly be explained by he ac ha some wo ke s wi h disabili ies need o dec ease hei
wo king hou s in iew o educed wo k capaci y.
A he o he end o he dis ibu ion o wo king hou s, a subs an ial sha e o wo ke s wi h
disabili ies may none heless expe ience long hou s, especially in de eloping coun ies.
Ac oss he low- and middle-income g oups o coun ies, be ween 12 and 22 pe cen o
wo ke s wi h disabili ies wo k mo e han 55 hou s. This may be a cause o conce n, as as-
sessmen s unde aken by he ILO and he Wo ld Heal h O ganiza ion ha e epo ed highe
isks o ischaemic hea disease and s oke among people wo king long hou s. Howe e ,
ela i ely la ge p opo ions o people wi hou disabili ies also wo k long hou s in de el-
oping coun ies (be ween 16 and 25 pe cen ac oss he ele an coun y income g oups).
17 ILO Wo king Pape 124
In de eloping coun ies, empo a y employmen is mo e widesp ead among employees wi h dis-
abili ies
Among employees om de eloping coun ies, people wi h disabili ies appea o be em-
ployed unde empo a y con ac ual a angemen s mo e o en han hose wi hou disabili-
ies. On a e age ac oss a subsample o de eloping coun ies wi h a ailable in o ma ion on
18 ILO Wo king Pape 124
he ype o con ac , 44 pe cen o employees wi h disabili ies we e in empo a y employ-
men , compa ed wi h 38 pe cen o hose wi hou ( igu e B.2.2). In con as , ac oss he
de eloped coun ies in he subsample, empo a y con ac s a e equally equen among
employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies (16 pe cen in bo h cases). Unless adequa e le-
gal amewo ks a e pu in place, highe le els o empo a y employmen o people wi h
disabili ies may make hei posi ion in he labou ma ke mo e insecu e.
19 ILO Wo king Pape 124
X3 Wage ou comes o people wi h disabili ies
In addi ion o ou comes ela ed o employmen , ano he key labou ma ke ou come is ea n-
ings, which play a c ucial ole in de e mining li elihoods. This sec ion he e o e examines he
hou ly wages ecei ed by employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies. I d aws on he indings om
a subsample o 30 coun ies wi h quali y in o ma ion on he wages ecei ed by bo h popula ion
g oups. Nea ly hal o he sample consis s o coun ies wi h de eloping economies (14 coun-
ies). While his sec ion ocuses on wage employmen because o da a- ela ed conside a ions,
a b ie analysis o he income ea ned by sel -employed wo ke s wi h disabili ies is ne e heless
unde aken o wo coun ies whose su eys include eliable in o ma ion in ha espec (see
box 4 u he down).
The sha e o low-paid wo ke s is highe among employees wi h
disabili ies
People wi h disabili ies end o be loca ed a he lowe end o he hou ly wage dis ibu ion.
On a e age ac oss a subsample o 30 coun ies wi h in o ma ion on he wages o employees,
30 pe cen o employees wi h disabili ies a e in he i s quin ile o he wage dis ibu ion, mean-
ing ha hey ea n a wage ha is below he wages ea ned by 80 pe cen o employees ( igu e 1).
In low- and lowe -middle-income coun ies, his sha e is e en highe , eaching 35 pe cen ( e -
sus 28 pe cen in high-income coun ies).
Al hough he p esen s udy does no di e en ia e by ypes o disabili y, i should be no ed ha
his ac o may a ec he posi ion o people wi h disabili ies on he wage ladde . P e ious anal-
ysis ca ied ou in he Uni ed Kingdom o G ea B i ain and No he n I eland, o ins ance, has
shown ha he median pay o people wi h men al impai men is lowe han ha o wo ke s wi h
o he impai men s, excep o women, among whom he median pay is simila in he case o
bo h physical and men al impai men (Longhi 2017). Al hough da a ends o be sca ce in de el-
oping coun ies, es ima es o Lebanon sugges ha people wi h se e e communica ion di icul-
ies had he lowes ea nings among employees wi h disabili ies (ILO 2023b).
As hei wages a e o en nea he bo om o hei coun y’s wage ladde , employees wi h disabili-
ies a e pa icula ly exposed o low pay, a ela i e measu e indica ing a wage below wo hi ds o
he coun y’s median hou ly wage.10 On a e age ac oss he coun ies in he subsample, 32 pe
cen o employees wi h disabili ies a e low-paid, compa ed wi h jus 22 pe cen o hose wi hou
( igu e 2). Fu he mo e, while he sha e o low-paid wo ke s is highe among employees wi h
disabili ies a each le el o economic de elopmen , he gap is-à- is he es o employees ap-
pea s o be mo e ma ked in de eloping coun ies. In pa icula , he low-pay a e is 64 pe cen
highe o wo ke s wi h disabili ies han o hose wi hou in he low- and lowe -middle-income
coun y g oup (46 e sus 28 pe cen ), whe eas i is 42 pe cen highe in he high-income coun-
y g oup (27 e sus 19 pe cen ).
10 Low pay was s a is ically de ined in ILO (2012).
20 ILO Wo king Pape 124
XFigu e 1. Sha e o employees wi h disabili ies in each quin ile o he wage dis ibu ion, by coun y income
g oup, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age)
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o la es a ailable yea (excep 2020). See able
A1 in he Appendix o mo e de ails.
XFigu e 2. Sha e o low-paid wo ke s among employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies, by coun y income
g oup, 2019 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age)
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o la es a ailable yea (excep 2020). See able
A1 in he Appendix o mo e de ails.
The lowe educa ional a ainmen o employees wi h disabili ies
may pa ly explain hei lowe wages
The high sha e o low-paid wo ke s among employees wi h disabili ies could be explained in
pa by he socio-demog aphic s uc u e o his popula ion g oup. Speci ically, ac o s shaping
human capi al and skills a e likely o ha e an impac on he wages ecei ed by such employees.
When s udying hei wages, i is he e o e necessa y o look a such cha ac e is ics as educa ion
and expe ience.
As a as educa ion is conce ned, employees wi h disabili ies end o ha e lowe educa ional a -
ainmen han hose wi hou . In pa icula , ac oss he 30 coun ies in he subsample conside ed
he e, 38 pe cen o employees wi h disabili ies had ye o a ain seconda y school le el, whe e-
as ha was so o only 28 pe cen o o he employees ( igu e 3). Such a disabili y educa ion gap
can be obse ed in each o he h ee ca ego ies o economic de elopmen conside ed o his
subsample (high-income coun ies; uppe -middle-income coun ies; and low- and lowe -mid-
dle-income coun ies). This can p obably be explained by he challenges ha people wi h disa-
bili ies may ace in accessing educa ion a he ea ly s ages o hei li es. On he o he hand, he
indus ies mos likely o expose wo ke s o occupa ional haza ds, wi h a possible impac on hei
heal h and disabili y s a us, a e o en hose ha employ a la ge p opo ion o low-skilled labou .11
11 Sec o s such as ag icul u e, o es y and ishing, cons uc ion and manu ac u ing a e widely ecognized as he mos haza dous.
Speci ically, one in h ee a al occupa ional inju ies wo ldwide occu among ag icul u al wo ke s (Pin ado Nunes e al. 2023). In many
coun ies, he ag icul u al wo k o ce has been ound o be ela i ely low-skilled (OECD 2023).
21 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Howe e , a ac o ha may o se , o some ex en , he wage e ec s o hei lowe educa ional
a ainmen is ha employees wi h disabili ies appea o include a ela i ely la ge sha e o expe-
ienced wo ke s. Using age as a p oxy o expe ience, i hus eme ges ha people aged 55 yea s
o o e accoun o an a e age o 28 pe cen o he popula ion o employees wi h disabili ies,
ha is, almos wice he sha e obse ed among hei coun e pa s wi hou disabili ies ( igu e 4).
This pa e n holds a all le els o economic de elopmen s udied, including low- and lowe -mid-
dle-income coun ies, whe e he o e all wo k o ce ends o be ela i ely young.
XFigu e 3. Dis ibu ion o employees wi h and wi hou disabili ies acco ding o hei educa ional le el, by
coun y income g oup, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age)
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2022 o la es a ailable yea (excep 2020). See able
A1 in he Appendix o mo e de ails.
28 ILO Wo king Pape 124
hem a e ac ually paid a he minimum wage a e. Thus, in a subsample o de eloped coun ies
wi h a minimum wage, 15 pe cen o wo ke s wi h disabili ies ea n he minimum wage o less,
compa ed wi h jus 9 pe cen o wo ke s wi hou disabili ies ( igu e 8). In de eloping coun ies,
hese sha es a e 44 and 33 pe cen espec i ely.
Howe e , he ela i ely la ge p opo ion o wo ke s wi h disabili ies who a e paid less han he
minimum wage le el may poin o challenges in ensu ing hei e ec i e co e age h ough his
policy. Indeed, in de eloped and de eloping coun ies, espec i ely, 11 and 36 pe cen o wo ke s
wi h disabili ies ea n less han he minimum wage le el, e sus 6 and 26 pe cen o hei coun-
e pa s wi hou disabili ies. Fac o s ha may explain he o e - ep esen a ion o wo ke s wi h dis-
abili ies among employees paid below he minimum wage include a weake en o cemen o he
policy as a as ha popula ion g oup is conce ned and possible legal exemp ions om minimum
wage egula ions. The la e si ua ion could esul om an i-disc imina ion measu es aimed a
p o ec ing he employmen o wo ke s wi h disabili ies in con ex s whe e he p o ision o lowe
a es o ce ain wo ke s wi h disabili ies is iewed as a way o compensa ing o he e ec s o
a po en ially educed p oduc i i y (ILO 2016). In o he coun ies, howe e , he se ing o lowe
minimum wage a es o wo ke s wi h disabili ies is conside ed o be a o m o disc imina ion.14
In e na ional labou s anda ds such as he Minimum Wage Fixing Con en ion, 1970 (No. 131),
and he Minimum Wage Fixing Recommenda ion, 1970 (No. 135), p o ide a amewo k o he
implemen a ion o minimum wage egula ions wi h a b oad co e age, including such aspec s
as hei en o cemen and he de e mina ion o he adequa e minimum wage a es (see sec-
ion 4, which deals wi h he legal amewo ks go e ning he employmen and wages o people
wi h disabili ies).
XFigu e 8. Sha e o employees paid he minimum wage o less, 2022 o la es a ailable yea (pe cen age)
No e: Acco ding o he de ini ions used he e, an employee who ea ns below he minimum wage ecei es less han 95 pe cen
o he minimum wage alue, while an employee paid a he minimum wage le el ea ns be ween 95 and 105 pe cen o he
minimum wage alue.
Sou ce: Same as in igu e 6 abo e excep o Denma k, E hiopia, I aly, Maldi es and Swi ze land, which a e no co e ed in he
p esen cha . E hiopia and Maldi es did no ha e a minimum wage a he ime o he su ey. Denma k, I aly and Swi ze land
ely p edominan ly o exclusi ely on minimum wages se by collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s (ILO 2020). In hese cases, a es
and co e age depend on he collec i e ba gaining sys em and i s s uc u e.
Beyond a s a u o y minimum wage, inclusi e wo king condi ions can also be es ablished h ough
collec i e ba gaining, including h ough nego ia ions on pay and o he e ms o employmen
o people wi h disabili ies. Collec i e ba gaining enables he pa ies o ailo he p o isions o
14 Fo ins ance, in he Uni ed Kingdom he same Na ional Li ing Wage applies o wo ke s wi h disabili ies. In F ance, i is ega ded as
a o m o disc imina ion o pay a wo ke less o he same o a simila job.
29 ILO Wo king Pape 124
ag eemen s o speci ic con ex s and o adap hem when he ci cums ances change, including a
he sec o al o en e p ise le el. In pa icula , an ILO su ey o collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s
a ound he wo ld ound ha some ag eemen s included p o isions on easonable accommoda-
ions o people wi h disabili ies, co e ing such a eas as hi ing, wo king- ime a angemen s, he
wo king en i onmen and he de e mina ion o wo k du ies ha may be be e sui ed o such
wo ke s (ILO 2022). Impo an ly, collec i e ba gaining can also be a key ool o ackling disc im-
ina ion. Fu he mo e, wo hi ds o he collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s e iewed in ha ILO
su ey con ained p o isions aimed a os e ing di e si y and inclusion, such as clauses p ohibi -
ing disc imina ion on he basis o ace, colou , sex, eligion, e hnici y, disabili y, HIV s a us, sex-
ual o ien a ion and gende iden i y, among o he g ounds.
XBox 4. Employmen incomes o sel -employed wo ke s wi h disabili ies in Pe u and S i Lanka
Fo Pe u and S i Lanka, he su ey da a makes i possible o compa e he hou ly ea nings
o sel -employed wo ke s wi h and wi hou disabili ies. Al hough he indings p esen ed
he e may no apply o all coun ies, hey se e o illus a e he disabili y gaps in income
om sel -employmen ha can be obse ed a ound he wo ld.
In bo h coun ies, sel -employed wo ke s wi h disabili ies end o ea n incomes ha a e
a he lowe end o he na ional hou ly employmen income dis ibu ion. Speci ically, 37
and 42 pe cen o such wo ke s wi h disabili ies in Pe u and S i Lanka espec i ely a e in
he i s quin ile o his dis ibu ion, meaning ha hei employmen income is below ha
o 80 pe cen o he sel -employed in hei coun y ( igu e B.4.1). A he o he end o he
scale, he sha e o sel -employed wo ke s wi h disabili ies in he uppe quin ile o he in-
come dis ibu ion is a he small in bo h coun ies (11 pe cen ).
No e: Fo each coun y, he quin iles o he dis ibu ion o hou ly income om employmen a e es ima ed o he whole
popula ion o sel -employed ( ha is, sel employed wi h and wi hou disabili ies).
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT). See able A1 in he Appendix o mo e de ails.
As discussed in ela ion o wages in he main ex , he lowe incomes o he sel -employed
wi h disabili ies can p obably be explained in pa by he ela i e composi ion o his popu-
la ion g oup in e ms o socio-demog aphic and occupa ional cha ac e is ics. To ake hese
in o accoun , a Blinde –Oaxaca decomposi ion me hodology simila o he one used o
wages (box 3) is applied he e o he a e age disabili y gap in income om sel -employmen .
I appea s ha a subs an ial pa o he obse ed income gap is no explained by he
cha ac e is ics o he sel -employed wi h disabili ies. Indeed, while sel -employed wo k-
e s wi h disabili ies ea n espec i ely 40 and 45 pe cen less han hei coun e pa s wi h-
ou disabili ies in Pe u and S i Lanka, only 38 and 24 pe cen o hese gaps a e explained
30 ILO Wo king Pape 124
by di e ences ela ed o human capi al de e minan s and occupa ions ( ha is, 15 and 11
pe cen age poin s espec i ely).
No e: Fo each coun y he unexplained and explained componen s o he a e age gap a e es ima ed using he Blinde -
Oaxaca me hod explained in box 3.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT). See able A1 in he Appendix o mo e de ails.
31 ILO Wo king Pape 124
X4 Building inclusi e legal amewo ks o secu e
posi i e employmen and wage ou comes o
people wi h disabili ies
The p e ious sec ion highligh ed a se ies o inequali ies in employmen and ea nings expe ienced
by people wi h disabili ies. In pa icula , his ca ego y o wo ke s is mo e likely o be excluded
om he labou ma ke and o be unemployed when pa icipa ing in i . Addi ionally, when em-
ployed, people wi h disabili ies a e o en a highe isk o ecei ing lowe pay. These gaps canno
be ully explained by he speci ic socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o employees wi h disabili-
ies, such as age and educa ion. O he ac o s ha e been pu o wa d o explain hese disc ep-
ancies – o ins ance, he dispa i ies be ween hei skills and he demands o jobs; inadequa ely
adap ed wo k en i onmen s and p ocesses c ea ing ba ie s o wo ke s wi h disabili ies; a po-
en ial educ ion in wages by employe s o compensa e o o e ing g ea e job adap abili y and
wo kplace adjus men s; disc imina ion agains people wi h disabili ies; and exemp ions om,
o weake en o cemen o , minimum wages o his popula ion g oup. Mo eo e , in a-ca ego-
y inequali ies can also be obse ed, as women wi h disabili ies appea o ea n less on a e age
han hei male coun e pa s, and di e en o ms o disabili ies can in luence he posi ion o in-
di iduals wi h disabili ies on he wage scale.
Guidance on how o ackle disc epancies in he employmen and wage ou comes o people wi h
disabili ies, along wi h some o hei oo causes, is p o ided by in e na ional labou s anda ds,
which gene ally apply o e e y wo ke , unless hey speci y o he wise. Fu he mo e, some o hem
exp essly e e o people wi h disabili ies. Wi hin his a ay o ins umen s, hose ha add ess
he less a ou able labou ma ke ou comes o people wi h disabili ies (and hei de e minan s
as men ioned abo e) can help o shape mo e inclusi e labou ma ke s.
These ma e s a e also egula ed a he na ional le el. A numbe o coun ies ha e enac ed leg-
isla ion o ensu e ha people wi h disabili ies a e able o pa icipa e in he labou ma ke and
ha hey a e ea ed equally. Such legisla ion anges om an i-disc imina ion laws o quo a sys-
ems. A pa icula ole is played by minimum wages, which ha e been ei he se a a uni ied a e
o di e en ia ed acco ding o he wo king capaci y o indi iduals.
The analysis p esen ed he e is in ended o illus a e legal amewo ks ha can con ibu e o
ackling he inequali ies in employmen and wages expe ienced by indi iduals wi h disabili ies.
Acco dingly, his sec ion i s e iews he in e na ional labou s anda ds ha lay down he oun-
da ion o an inclusi e and equal app oach o he pa icipa ion o people wi h disabili ies in he
labou ma ke . I hen conside s na ional laws and policies designed o o e solu ions in ha e-
ga d. The p esen s udy hus p o ides an o e iew o he op ions a ailable o policymake s and
legisla o s seeking o p omo e inclusi e wo king en i onmen s, whe e people wi h disabili ies
enjoy equali y o oppo uni ies and ea men alongside all o he wo ke s.
In e na ional labou s anda ds ha can shape he employmen
and wage ou comes o people wi h disabili ies
Se e al egional and in e na ional ins umen s a e in ended o os e he pa icipa ion o people
wi h disabili ies in he ci il, poli ical, economic, social and cul u al sphe es unde condi ions o
32 ILO Wo king Pape 124
equal oppo uni ies and ea men .15 The bes known ins umen o his kind is he Con en ion
on he Righ s o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies, adop ed by he Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly on
13 Decembe 2006. S a es pa ies o he Con en ion ecognize he igh o people wi h disabil-
i ies o wo k on an equal basis wi h o he s. This includes “ he igh o he oppo uni y o gain a
li ing by wo k eely chosen o accep ed in a labou ma ke and wo k en i onmen ha is open,
inclusi e and accessible”. They also commi hemsel es o aking app op ia e s eps o sa egua d
and p omo e he ealiza ion o he igh o wo k (A . 27).16
The ILO has been ad oca ing o inclusi e labou ma ke s almos all he way since i s es ablish-
men in 1919,17 and oday he e exis s a wide ange o in e na ional labou s anda ds dealing
wi h he employmen and wages o people wi h disabili ies. Box 5 lis s ILO Con en ions and
Recommenda ions calling o equali y o labou oppo uni ies and ou comes o wo ke s wi h
disabili ies. These encompass ins umen s go e ning non-disc imina ion and equal ea men ,
employmen policy and wages. Fu he down, box 6 enume a es ins umen s ele an o he
c ea ion o a gene al enabling en i onmen ha is conduci e o equal igh s and ea men o
wo ke s wi h disabili ies and o he p e en ion o disabili ies a ising om wo k acciden s. This
ca ego y comp ises in e na ional labou s anda ds on oca ional ehabili a ion, social p o ec ion
and wo k acciden s. While he ull lis o ins umen s can be ound in boxes 5 and 6, his sec ion
discusses only he mos ele an o add essing dispa i ies in employmen and wage ou comes
(and he unde lying ac o s), oge he wi h he associa ed supe iso y p ac ice o he Commi ee
o Expe s on he Applica ion o Con en ions and Recommenda ions (CEACR) in his a ea.18
XBox 5. In e na ional labou s anda ds add essing inequali ies in oppo uni ies and ea men o people
wi h disabili ies in he wo ld o wo k
Non‑disc imina ion and equal ea men
●Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111)
●Employmen P omo ion and P o ec ion agains Unemploymen Con en ion, 1988 (No.
168)
●Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 111)
15
Alongside he Con en ion on he Righ s o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies, which is discussed abo e, he mos impo an ins umen s a e he
Uni e sal Decla a ion o Human Righ s (adop ed by he Uni ed Na ions Gene al Assembly on 10 Decembe 1948); he In e na ional
Co enan on Economic, Social and Cul u al Righ s and he In e na ional Co enan on Ci il and Poli ical Righ s (bo h adop ed by he
Gene al Assembly on 16 Decembe 1966); he Decla a ion on he Righ s o Men ally Re a ded Pe sons (adop ed by he Gene al
Assembly on 20 Decembe 1971); he Decla a ion on he Righ s o Disabled Pe sons (adop ed by he Gene al Assembly on 9 Decembe
1975); he S anda d Rules on he Equaliza ion o Oppo uni ies o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies (adop ed by he Gene al Assembly on
20 Decembe 1993); he Eu opean Social Cha e (o iginally adop ed by he Council o Eu ope in 1961 and e ised in 1966); he
Eu opean Union’s Employmen Equali y Di ec i e (Council Di ec i e 2000/78/EC o 27 No embe 2000); he A ican Cha e on Human
and Peoples’ Righ s (adop ed unde he aegis o he p edecesso o he A ican Union on 1 June 1981); and he Addi ional P o ocol
o he Ame ican Con en ion on Human Righ s in he A ea o Economic, Social and Cul u al Righ s (adop ed unde he aegis o he
O ganiza ion o Ame ican S a es on 17 No embe 1988).
16 A icle 26 o he Con en ion is also ele an inso a as i equi es S a es pa ies o “o ganize, s eng hen and ex end comp ehensi e
habili a ion and ehabili a ion se ices and p og ammes, pa icula ly in he a eas o heal h, employmen , educa ion and social se -
ices”.
17 The i s in e na ional labou s anda d o ha e a di ec bea ing on wo ke s wi h disabili ies was he Wo kmen's Compensa ion
(Minimum Scale) Recommenda ion (No. 22), adop ed in 1925 and now ou da ed, which se ou p inciples o he paymen o com-
pensa ion o indus ial acciden s (pa as I–III) and p omo ed he oca ional e aining o inju ed wo ke s (pa a. IV).
18 The CEACR is one o he wo bodies o ming pa o he egula sys em o supe ision de eloped by he ILO o help ensu e ha
coun ies implemen he Con en ions hey a i y. I examines he epo s ha go e nmen s a e equi ed o submi egula ly on
he implemen a ion o a i ied Con en ions, along wi h he commen s o employe s’ and wo ke s’ o ganiza ions on hese epo s.
The Commi ee makes wo kinds o commen s on he epo s ecei ed – “obse a ions” and “di ec eques s” – and issues an annu-
al epo , which includes a Gene al Su ey on a speci ic subjec selec ed by he Go e ning Body o he In e na ional Labou O ice.
Fo mo e in o ma ion on he supe iso y sys em, see he ILO websi e, h ps://www.ilo.o g/abou -ilo/how-ilo-wo ks/ilo-supe iso y-
sys emmechanism.
33 ILO Wo king Pape 124
●
Employmen and Decen Wo k o Peace and Resilience Recommenda ion, 2017 (No. 205)
Employmen policy
●Employmen Se ice Con en ion, 1948 (No. 88)
●Employmen Policy Con en ion, 1964 (No. 122)
●Employmen Se ice Recommenda ion, 1948 (No. 83)
●Employmen Policy Recommenda ion, 1964 (No. 122)
●Employmen Policy (Supplemen a y P o isions) Recommenda ion, 1984 (No. 169)
Wages
●Minimum Wage-Fixing Machine y Con en ion, 1928 (No. 26)*
●Minimum Wage Fixing Con en ion, 1970 (No. 131)
●P o ec ion o Wages Con en ion, 1949 (No. 95)
●Minimum Wage Fixing Machine y (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1951 (No. 99)*
●Minimum Wage Fixing Recommenda ion, 1970 (No. 135)
●Minimum Wage-Fixing Machine y (Ag icul u e) Recommenda ion, 1951 (No. 89)*
No e: An as e isk (*) deno es an ins umen wi h in e im s a us.
Sou ce: ILO NORMLEX da abase.
XBox 6. In e na ional labou s anda ds ele an o c ea ing a gene al enabling en i onmen ha is condu‑
ci e o equal oppo uni ies and ea men and o he p e en ion o disabili ies a ising in he wo kplace
Voca ional ehabili a ion and o he measu es o acili a e employmen
●Medical Examina ion o Young Pe sons (Indus y) Con en ion, 1946 (No. 77)
●
Medical Examina ion o Young Pe sons (Non-Indus ial Occupa ions) Con en ion, 1946
(No. 78)
●Social Secu i y (Minimum S anda ds) Con en ion, 1952 (No. 102)
●Human Resou ces De elopmen Con en ion, 1975 (No. 142)
●
Voca ional Rehabili a ion and Employmen (Disabled Pe sons) Con en ion, 1983 (No. 159)
●Medical Examina ion o Young Pe sons Recommenda ion, 1946 (No. 79)
●Voca ional Rehabili a ion (Disabled) Recommenda ion, 1955 (No. 99)
●Human Resou ces De elopmen Recommenda ion, 2004 (No. 195)
●Voca ional Rehabili a ion and Employmen (Disabled Pe sons) Recommenda ion, 1983
(No. 168)
Social p o ec ion
●In alidi y, Old-Age and Su i o s' Bene i s Con en ion, 1967 (No. 128)
●Medical Ca e and Sickness Bene i s Con en ion, 1969 (No. 130)
●Social P o ec ion Floo s Recommenda ion, 2012 (No. 202)
34 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Wo k acciden s
●Wo kmen's Compensa ion (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1921 (No. 12)
●Equali y o T ea men (Acciden Compensa ion) Con en ion, 1925 (No. 19)*
●Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h Con en ion, 1981 (No. 155) and i s P o ocol o 2002
●
P omo ional F amewo k o Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h Con en ion, 2006 (No. 187)
●Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h (Dock Wo k) Con en ion, 1979 (No. 152)
●Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h Recommenda ion, 1981 (No. 164)
●P omo ional F amewo k o Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h Recommenda ion, 2006
(No. 197)
No e: An as e isk (*) deno es an ins umen wi h in e im s a us.
Sou ce: ILO NORMLEX da abase.
In e na ional labou s anda ds on non-disc imina ion and equali y o
oppo uni y and ea men
Disabled people a e subjec o disc imina ion ha , oge he wi h o he ac o s, leads o ine-
quali ies in employmen oppo uni ies and ea men . The mos ele an in e na ional labou
s anda d in his espec is he Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958
(No. 111).19 The Con en ion lis s se e al p ohibi ed g ounds o disc imina ion, among which dis-
abili y does no ea u e; howe e , i also p o ides o addi ional g ounds o disc imina ion o be
de e mined by Membe S a es a e consul a ion wi h ep esen a i e employe s’ and wo ke s’
o ganiza ions, and wi h o he app op ia e bodies (A . 1(1)). This means ha disc imina ion on
he basis o disabili y can indeed be conside ed unde Con en ion No. 111. In pa allel, as has
been discussed, a i ma i e ac ion measu es and special adap a ions o inc ease accessibili y
may be necessa y o ensu e equal wo king ou comes o people wi h disabili ies. Acco dingly,
A icle 5 o he Con en ion s ipula es ha special measu es o p o ec ion o assis ance p o id-
ed o in o he in e na ional labou s anda ds (pa a. 1), along wi h o he special measu es de-
signed o mee he pa icula equi emen s o people who, o easons such as disablemen , a e
gene ally ecognized o equi e special p o ec ion o assis ance (pa a. 2), a e no o be deemed
o cons i u e disc imina ion. This p esc ip ion is ein o ced by he accompanying Disc imina ion
(Employmen and Occupa ion) Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 111), which emphasizes ha he
p e en ion o disc imina ion in employmen and occupa ion should no ad e sely a ec special
measu es designed o mee he pa icula equi emen s o people equi ing special p o ec ion
o assis ance o easons such as disablemen (pa a. 6).20
19 The igh s o indi iduals wi h disabili ies a e clea ly a i med in he con ex o measu es on employmen and decen wo k aken in e-
sponse o c ises a ising om con lic s and disas e s. The Employmen and Decen Wo k o Peace and Resilience Recommenda ion,
2017 (No. 205), includes among i s guiding p inciples he need “ o comba disc imina ion, p ejudice and ha ed” on he basis o , in e
alia, disabili y, and “ o pay special a en ion o popula ion g oups and indi iduals who ha e been made pa icula ly ulne able” by a
c isis, such as people wi h disabili ies (pa as 7( ) and (h)). The Recommenda ion hen calls upon Membe S a es o adop a se ies o
measu es o achie e his aim (pa as 8(e)),12 and 15(h)).
20 Simila p o isions a e o be ound in he Employmen P omo ion and P o ec ion agains Unemploymen Con en ion, 1988 (No. 168)
(A . 6(1) and (2)). The need o special measu es o adequa ely mee he needs o wo ke s wi h disabili ies is also unde sco ed by he
Employmen Se ice Con en ion, 1948 (No. 88) (A . 7) and he accompanying Employmen Se ice Recommenda ion, 1948 (No. 83)
(pa as 4(b)(ii) and 6(b)), which p o ide o he o ganiza ion o employmen se ices, and by he Employmen Policy Recommenda ion,
1964 (No. 122) (pa a. 16), and he Employmen Policy (Supplemen a y P o isions) Recommenda ion, 1984 (No. 169), as ega ds he
design o policies o p omo e ull, p oduc i e and eely chosen employmen (pa a. 15).
35 ILO Wo king Pape 124
The CEACR has no ed how a se ies o coun ies ha e a ailed hemsel es o he possibili y unde
A . 1(1) o Con en ion No. 111 o adop na ional laws p ohibi ing disc imina ion in employmen
based on he g ounds o disabili y (CEACR 2023a, 2023b, 2023c). In a di ec eques conce ning
he Con en ion, he Commi ee poin ed ou ha people wi h disabili ies had a much lowe la-
bou o ce pa icipa ion a e han o he wo ke s and we e concen a ed in low-paid ac i i ies. I
he e o e asked he Go e nmen unde e iew o p o ide in o ma ion on he measu es aken
o p omo e employmen oppo uni ies o people wi h disabili ies, including employmen quo-
as, and on cases o disc imina ion based on disabili y deal wi h by he compe en au ho i ies
(CEACR 2023d). Fu he mo e, he Commi ee has also highligh ed on se e al occasions ha some
g oups o people wi h disabili ies a e wo se in he labou ma ke , in pa icula women (box 7).
Quo as o people wi h disabili ies and he impac ha hey ha e on hei in eg a ion in o he
labou ma ke a e o en an objec o inqui y o he Commi ee when e iewing he implemen-
a ion o Con en ion No. 111 wi h espec o wo ke s wi h disabili ies (CEACR 2023e, 2023 ). The
Commi ee has also s essed, on he one hand, he impo ance o publicizing he a ailable mech-
anisms o p omo e he employmen o people wi h disabili ies, and on he o he , he need o
measu es ha go beyond ensu ing hei en y in o he labou ma ke by p omo ing hei e en-
ion and ca ee p og ession (CEACR 2023g).
XBox 7. The in e ela ionship be ween disabili y and gende
Disabili y and gende can some imes be in e sec ional g ounds o disc imina ion. The
Uni ed Na ions Con en ion on he Righ s o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies acco dingly equi es
S a es pa ies o ecognize ha women and gi ls wi h disabili ies a e subjec o mul iple
disc imina ion, and o ake measu es o ensu e he ull and equal enjoymen by hem o
all human igh s and undamen al eedoms (A . 6).
The Commi ee o Expe s on he Applica ion o Con en ions and Recommenda ions (CEACR)
has simila ly acknowledged, and called o ac ion on, he highe a e o disc imina ion
and iolence a ec ing gi ls and women wi h disabili ies. I has done so wi h e e ence o
a a ie y o in e na ional labou s anda ds. Fo example, in ela ion o he Disc imina ion
(Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111), he Commi ee has eques ed
in o ma ion on “p ac ical s eps aken o p omo e equali y o oppo uni y and ea men o
bo h men and women wi h disabili ies in all aspec s o employmen and occupa ion, and
[ o] ensu e p o ec ion agains iolence and ha assmen including gende -based iolence”
(CEACR 2023e). Mo eo e , when e iewing he applica ion o he Voca ional Rehabili a ion
and Employmen (Disabled Pe sons) Con en ion, 1983 (No. 159), he CEACR no ed on one
occasion ha he Uni ed Na ions Commi ee on he Righ s o Pe sons wi h Disabili ies had
exp essed conce n ega ding he unde - ep esen a ion o women wi h disabili ies in he
wo k o ce o he coun y unde e iew, and inqui ed abou he speci ic measu es adop -
ed o imp o e employmen oppo uni ies o people wi h disabili ies in he open labou
ma ke , in pa icula o women wi h disabili ies (CEACR 2023h). The CEACR has also e-
e ed o he obse a ions o ha ea y body on “ he mul iple and in e sec ing disc im-
ina ion aced by women and gi ls wi h disabili ies, pa icula ly hose wi h in ellec ual o
psychosocial disabili ies and hose li ing in u al a eas”, in ela ion o he Employmen
Policy Con en ion, 1964 (No. 122) (CEACR 2022a). Again wi h e e ence o Con en ion No.
122, he Commi ee has no ed he limi ed access o women wi h disabili ies o he o mal
labou ma ke (CEACR 2023i).
36 ILO Wo king Pape 124
In e na ional labou s anda ds on wages
As shown in he p e ious sec ion, when hey pa icipa e in he labou ma ke , wo ke s wi h dis-
abili ies a e a he lowe end o he wage dis ibu ion and hey o en ea n below he minimum
wage. Some in e na ional labou s anda ds can be ele an in his espec , inso a as hey egu-
la e wage-se ing. The Minimum Wage Fixing Con en ion, 1970 (No. 131), calls o he es ablish-
men o “a sys em o minimum wages which co e s all g oups o wage ea ne s whose e ms o
employmen a e such ha co e age would be app op ia e” (A . 1(1)). The na ional compe en
au ho i y should de e mine he g oups o wage ea ne s o be co e ed (A . 1(2)). Addi ionally, he
employe s and wo ke s conce ned may pa icipa e in, o be consul ed on, bo h he de e mina-
ion o he g oups o wage ea ne s o be co e ed (A . 1(2)) and he ope a ion o he minimum
wage- ixing machine y on a basis o equali y (A . 4(2) and (3)). In de e mining he le el o mini-
mum wages, he needs o wo ke s and hei amilies as well as economic ac o s should be ak-
en in o conside a ion (A . 3). Fu he key guidance is p o ided in he accompanying Minimum
Wage Fixing Recommenda ion, 1970 (No. 135), which speci ies ha wo ke s who a e no co e ed
should be kep o a minimum (pa a. 4). Recommenda ion No. 135 also indica es ha i is pos-
sible o ei he ix a single minimum wage o gene al applica ion o a se ies o minimum wages
applying o speci ic g oups o wo ke s (pa a. 5(1)).21
D awing on hese p inciples, he CEACR has examined Membe S a es’ minimum wage egula-
ions and no ed any excep ions o wo ke s wi h disabili ies. When discussing he possibili y o
en e p ises no o apply he es ablished na ional minimum wages and o ake in o accoun , in
he ixing o wage scales, special si ua ions connec ed wi h he age o physical o men al capac-
i ies o ce ain wo ke s en isaged by Con en ion No. 131, he Commi ee has ecalled ha “ he
compulso y na u e o minimum wages is a undamen al p inciple” and ha “ he ixing o mini-
mum wages mus obse e he p inciple o equal emune a ion o wo k o equal alue” (CEACR
2013, 2005). In a di ec eques ega ding Con en ion No. 131, he Commi ee obse ed ha al-
hough he Con en ion does no p ohibi he ixing o lowe minimum wage a es o wo ke s
on he basis o hei disabili y, “p o ec i e clauses should be adop ed o gua an ee hem equal
emune a ion o ha o o he wo ke s, p o ided ha hey pe o m wo k o a simila na u e and
mee he same equi emen s as o quan i y and quali y o wo k” (CEACR 2012). In ano he di ec
eques ela ed o he same ins umen , he Commi ee asked o in o ma ion on “ he easons,
assessmen and e en he social consensus unde lying a policy allowing di e en wage a es o
be ixed o … wo ke s wi h disabili ies”, and ecalled ha he de e mina ion o wages mus be
based on “objec i e c i e ia such as he quan i y and quali y o he wo k pe o med” (CEACR 2008).
Addi ionally, i has highligh ed how he easons p omp ing he adop ion o lowe minimum wage
a es o g oups o wo ke s on accoun o hei disabili ies should be “ egula ly e-examined in
he ligh o he p inciple o equal emune a ion o wo k o equal alue” (CEACR 2004).
In e na ional labou s anda ds on oca ional guidance and ehabili a ion
I was no ed ea lie ha a misma ch be ween he skills and capaci ies o indi iduals wi h disa-
bili ies and he equi emen s o jobs can be one o he ac o s leading o he exclusion o his
ca ego y o wo ke s om he labou ma ke o , when hey do pa icipa e in he labou ma ke ,
21 When discussing he ea nings gap aced by people wi h disabili ies, he Social P o ec ion Floo s Recommenda ion, 2012 (No. 202),
is ele an . Acco ding o Recommenda ion No. 202, he social p o ec ion loo s should comp ise basic income secu i y, a leas a
a na ionally de ined minimum le el, o people o ac i e age who a e unable o ea n su icien income, in pa icula when hey ind
hemsel es in ce ain challenging si ua ions, including disabili y (pa a. 5). The Recommenda ion goes on o enume a e a ange o
bene i s ha help o p o ide he basic social secu i y gua an ees, including disabili y bene i s (pa a. 9(2)). The In alidi y, Old-Age and
Su i o s' Bene i s Con en ion, 1967 (No. 128), and he Medical Ca e and Sickness Bene i s Con en ion, 1969 (No. 130), also p o ide
o bene i s in a ou o people wi h disabili ies.
37 ILO Wo king Pape 124
o high a es o unemploymen , access o job oppo uni ies being limi ed o elemen a y occu-
pa ions, and low ea nings. Voca ional ehabili a ion – which in ol es he p o ision o oca ional
guidance, oca ional aining and selec i e placemen , among o he se ices, o help a disabled
pe son o secu e and e ain sui able employmen – is pa icula ly ele an in his ega d.22 I is
he e o e necessa y o conside he main in e na ional labou s anda ds ha p omo e oca ion-
al ehabili a ion and guidance o people wi h disabili ies.
The Voca ional Rehabili a ion and Employmen (Disabled Pe sons) Con en ion (No. 159) and
Recommenda ion (No. 168), 1983, a e conside ed o cons i u e he ame o e e ence o he
employmen igh s o indi iduals wi h disabili ies. Con en ion No. 159 equi es he S a es pa ies
o “ o mula e, implemen and pe iodically e iew a na ional policy on oca ional ehabili a ion
and employmen o disabled pe sons” (A . 2). Such a policy mus uphold undamen al p inciples,
no ably hose o equal oppo uni y and ea men , and inco po a e a i ma i e measu es ha do
no disc imina e agains o he wo ke s (A . 4). The Con en ion calls o he in eg a ion o people
wi h disabili ies in o mains eam wo k- ela ed p og ammes, wi h a special ocus on u al a eas
and emo e communi ies (A s 7–8). Addi ionally, i emphasizes he need o he aining o qual-
i ied s a o p o ide oca ional se ices o people wi h disabili ies (A . 9) and he impo ance
o consul a ion wi h employe s' and wo ke s' o ganiza ions and ep esen a i e o ganiza ions o
people wi h disabili ies (A . 5). The accompanying Recommenda ion No. 168 se s ou de ailed
measu es o os e equi able employmen oppo uni ies, including measu es o encou age em-
ploye s o make easonable adap a ions o wo kplaces, job design, ools, machine y and wo k
o ganiza ion (pa a. 11). O he in e na ional labou s anda ds s ess he impo ance o oca ion-
al ehabili a ion o wo ke s wi h disabili ies. Fo ins ance, he Human Resou ces De elopmen
Con en ion, 1975 (No. 142), equi es Membe S a es o “adop and de elop comp ehensi e and
co-o dina ed policies and p og ammes o oca ional guidance and oca ional aining” (A . 1),
including “app op ia e p og ammes o all handicapped and disabled pe sons” (A . 3).
The CEACR has issued a numbe o di ec eques s and obse a ions on di e en aspec s ela -
ed o oca ional aining and ehabili a ion. Fo ins ance, wi h ega d o he implemen a ion o
Con en ion No. 159, he Commi ee has s essed he impo ance o access o educa ion and o-
ca ional guidance and aining o people wi h disabili ies in u al a eas and emo e communi ies
(CEACR 2023j, 2023k). In ela ion o he same ins umen , he Commi ee has ei e a ed he need
o ensu e ha sui ably quali ied s a a e a ailable o o e oca ional guidance and aining and
ehabili a ion se ices (CEACR 2023k, 2023l). Fu he mo e, e e ing o A icle 5 o Con en ion
No. 159, on consul a ions wi h ep esen a i e o ganiza ions o employe s and wo ke s and wi h
o ganiza ions ep esen ing people wi h disabili ies, he Commi ee has eques ed de ailed in o -
ma ion on how such o ganiza ions we e consul ed on he implemen a ion and pe iodic e iew
o he na ional policy on oca ional ehabili a ion o people wi h disabili ies and on he ou come
o hese consul a ions (CEACR 2023m, 2022b, 2022c).
The ILO Con en ions and Recommenda ions discussed in his sec ion can guide na ional au ho -
i ies in add essing he employmen and wage dispa i ies expe ienced by people wi h disabili ies.
To achie e ha pu pose, hey need o be ansla ed in o ele an no ms, policies and collec i e
ag eemen p o isions a he na ional le el.
22 The de ini ion o “ oca ional ehabili a ion” gi en abo e is based on ha se o h in Pa ag aph 1(a) o he Voca ional Rehabili a ion
(Disabled) Recommenda ion, 1955 (No. 99), which used o be conside ed he ouchs one o he employmen igh s o indi iduals wi h
disabili ies, un il he adop ion, almos 30 yea s la e , o he Voca ional Rehabili a ion and Employmen (Disabled Pe sons) Con en ion
(No. 159) and Recommenda ion (No. 168), 1983.
44 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Annex
XNa ional da a sou ces used o analyse he employmen and wage ou comes o people wi h disabili ies
Coun y/Te i o y Name o su ey Yea Income g oup Su ey used
o analy‑
sis o wo k‑
ing ime ( ig‑
u e B.2.1)
Su ey used o
analysis o em‑
po a y employ‑
men ( igu e
B.2.2)
A menia Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
Uppe middle in-
come
No Yes
Aus ia Eu opean Union S a is ics on
Income and Li ing Condi ions
(EU-SILC)
2021
High income No No
Belgium EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Benin Ha monized Su ey o
Household Li ing Condi ions
(Enquê e ha monisée su les
condi ions de ie des ménag-
es)
2018
Low income Yes No
Boli ia (Plu ina ional
S a e o )
Household Su ey (Encues a
de Hoga es)
2019
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes No
Bo swana Con inuous Mul i-Topic
Household Su ey
2019
Uppe middle in-
come
No No
Bulga ia EU-SILC
2021
Uppe middle in-
come
No No
Cambodia Labou Fo ce Su ey
2019
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes No
Chile Na ional Socio-Economic
Cha ac e iza ion Su ey
(Encues a de Ca ac e ización
Socioeconómica Nacional)
2017
High income Yes Yes
Colombia Na ional Quali y o Li e Su ey
(Encues a Nacional de Calidad
de Vida)
2019
Uppe middle in-
come
Yes Yes
Como os Su ey o he In o mal
Economy (Enquê e su l’écono-
mie in o melle)
2021
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes No
Cô e d'I oi e In eg a ed Regional Su ey on
Employmen and he In o mal
Sec o (Enquê e égionale in-
ég ée su l’emploi e le sec-
eu in o mel)
2017
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes No
C oa ia EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes No
45 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Coun y/Te i o y Name o su ey Yea Income g oup Su ey used
o analy‑
sis o wo k‑
ing ime ( ig‑
u e B.2.1)
Su ey used o
analysis o em‑
po a y employ‑
men ( igu e
B.2.2)
Cyp us EU-SILC
2021
High income No No
Czechia EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Denma k EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes No
Ecuado Su ey o Li ing Condi ions
(Encues a Condiciones de Vida)
2014
Uppe middle in-
come
Yes No
Es onia EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Eswa ini Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
Lowe middle in-
come
No No
E hiopia Na ional Labou Fo ce Su ey
2013
Low income Yes Yes
Finland EU-SILC
2021
High income No No
F ance EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Ge many EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Ghana Labou Fo ce Su ey
2015
Lowe middle in-
come
No No
G eece EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Gua emala Na ional Su ey on
Employmen and Income
(Encues a Nacional de Empleo
e Ing esos)
2022
Uppe middle in-
come
Yes No
Hunga y EU-SILC
2021
High income No No
I eland EU-SILC
2021
High income No No
I aly EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Lao People’s
Democ a ic Republic
Labou Fo ce Su ey
2022
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes No
La ia EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes No
Lebanon Labou Fo ce Su ey
2019
Uppe middle in-
come
Yes No
Leso ho Labou Fo ce Su ey
2019
Lowe middle in-
come
No No
Li huania Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
High income No No
Luxembou g EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Maldi es Household Income and
Expendi u e Su ey
2019
Uppe middle in-
come
No Yes
Ma shall Islands Household Income and
Expendi u e Su ey
2019
Uppe middle in-
come
No No
Mongolia Household Socio-Economic
Su ey
2018
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes No
46 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Coun y/Te i o y Name o su ey Yea Income g oup Su ey used
o analy‑
sis o wo k‑
ing ime ( ig‑
u e B.2.1)
Su ey used o
analysis o em‑
po a y employ‑
men ( igu e
B.2.2)
Myanma Labou Fo ce Su ey
2015
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes No
Ne he lands EU-SILC
2021
High income No No
Occupied Pales inian
Te i o y
Labou Fo ce Su ey
2019
Uppe middle in-
come
Yes Yes
Pakis an Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes Yes
Pe u Na ional Household Su ey
(Encues a Nacional de
Hoga es)
2022
Uppe middle in-
come
Yes No
Poland EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Po ugal EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
Republic o Moldo a Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
Uppe middle in-
come
No Yes
Romania EU-SILC
2021
High income No No
Rwanda Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
Low income No No
Samoa Labou Fo ce and School- o-
Wo k T ansi ion Su ey
2017
Uppe middle in-
come
No No
Senegal Na ional Employmen Su ey
(Enquê e na ionale su l’em-
ploi)
2019
Lowe middle in-
come
No No
Se bia EU-SILC
2021
Uppe middle in-
come
No No
Sie a Leone Sie a Leone In eg a ed
Household Su ey
2018
Low income No No
Slo enia EU-SILC
2021
High income No No
Spain EU-SILC
2021
High income Yes Yes
S i Lanka Labou Fo ce Su ey
2019
Lowe middle in-
come
Yes Yes
Sweden EU-SILC
2021
High income No No
Swi ze land EU-SILC
2021
High income No Yes
Tanzania (Uni ed
Republic o )
Na ional Panel Su ey
2014
Low income Yes No
Thailand Household Socio-Economic
Su ey
2019
Uppe middle in-
come
No No
Timo -Les e Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
Lowe middle in-
come
No No
Tonga Labou Fo ce Su ey
2018
Uppe middle in-
come
No No
47 ILO Wo king Pape 124
Coun y/Te i o y Name o su ey Yea Income g oup Su ey used
o analy‑
sis o wo k‑
ing ime ( ig‑
u e B.2.1)
Su ey used o
analysis o em‑
po a y employ‑
men ( igu e
B.2.2)
Uganda Na ional Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
Low income No No
Uni ed Kingdom Labou Fo ce Su ey
2022
High income Yes Yes
Uni ed S a es Cu en Popula ion Su ey
2022
High income Yes No
Zambia Labou Fo ce Su ey
2021
Low income No No
48 ILO Wo king Pape 124
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Acknowledgemen s
We a e g a e ul o se e al colleagues a he ILO, in pa icula Guillaume Delau e, S e an T ömel,
Ca he ine Sage , and Tahmina Ka imo a, whose insigh ul commen s en iched his pape .
