T enz, Nina; Kei h, Nina
A icle — Published Ve sion
P omo ing new habi s a wo k h ough implemen a ion
in en ions
Jou nal o Occupa ional and O ganiza ional Psychology
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: T enz, Nina; Kei h, Nina (2024) : P omo ing new habi s a wo k h ough
implemen a ion in en ions, Jou nal o Occupa ional and O ganiza ional Psychology, ISSN
2044-8325, Wiley Pe iodicals, Inc., Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 97, Iss. 4, pp. 1813-1834,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/joop.12540
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1813
wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/joop
BACKGROUND
Mo e han 100 yea s ago, William James s a ed ha “habi co e s a e y la ge pa o li e” (James, 1890,
p. 104). Today, habi s a e s ill conside ed undamen al in guiding and con olling daily li e. Habi s a-
cili a e au oma ic beha iou s, which a e execu ed wi hou cogni i e e o (Ga dne , 2015; Ga dne &
Lally, 2023; Wood & Neal, 2007). As mode n wo k en i onmen s place a a ie y o complex demands
Recei ed: 17 July 2023
|
Accep ed: 24 July 2024
DOI: 10.1111/joop.12540
RESEARCH ARTICLE
P omo ing new habi s a wo k h ough
implemen a ion in en ions
Nina T enz | Nina Kei h
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial License, which pe mi s use, dis ibu ion
and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed and is no used o comme cial pu poses.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Occupa ional and O ganiza ional Psycholog y published by John Wiley & Sons L d on behal o The B i ish
Psychological Socie y.
Depa men o Human Sciences, Technical
Uni e si y o Da ms ad , Da ms ad , Ge many
Co espondence
Nina T enz, Depa men o Human
Sciences, Technical Uni e si y o Da ms ad ,
Alexande s aße 10, 64283 Da ms ad , Ge many.
Email: nina. enz@ u-da ms ad .de
Abs ac
Habi s acili a e au oma ic beha iou s and a e esou ce e -
icien . Habi s a wo k may be bene icial because hey con-
se e cogni i e- a en ional esou ces, hus os e ing wo k
engagemen and goal p og ess. In a dia y in e en ion s udy
(2 daily assessmen s, 10 wo k days), we asked 72 employees
o es ablish a new habi a wo k. Hal o hem addi ionally
comple ed an in e en ion on he co ec use o implemen-
a ion in en ions. All pa icipan s we e gi en access o a
ollow- up su ey. In mul i- le el analyses, au oma ici y o
he new habi ual beha iou p edic ed wo k engagemen
and goal p og ess a he day- le el. Implemen a ion in en-
ions p edic ed equency o he habi ual beha iou and in
u n inc eased au oma ici y o his beha iou . The e ec s
o implemen a ion in en ions we e s ill e iden a ollow- up.
Con a y o expec a ions, he in e en ion did no inc ease
pa icipan s' daily use o implemen a ion in en ions. The e-
sul s indica e ha implemen a ion in en ions migh be used
in e e yday wo k o es ablish habi s a wo k, hus inc easing
employees' e iciency and engagemen .
KEYWORDS
au oma ic beha iou , goal p og ess, i - hen planning, wo k engagemen ,
wo k ou ines
1814
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TRENZ and KEITH
on employees, i seems highly desi able o sa e esou ces h ough au oma ic beha iou s by es ablishing
habi s a wo k. In con as o habi s in o he a eas o psychological in e es , such as heal h o en i on-
men al beha iou (Bambe g, 2002; Ga dne , 2015; Ga dne e al., 2011, 2012; Holland e al., 2006),
habi s a wo k ha e ecei ed li le a en ion in o ganiza ional psychology ( o excep ions, see Chae &
Choi, 2019; Ohly e al., 2017; Sonnen ag e al., 2022).
We p opose ha habi s a wo k inc ease goal p og ess and wo k engagemen because hey sa e
cogni i e- a en ional esou ces (Danne e al., 2007, 2008; Ga dne e al., 2012), such as di ec i e a en-
ion and wo king memo y capaci y (Kan e & Acke man, 1989; Kan e e al., 2017). This is because hab-
i s gene a e beha iou s (i.e., habi ual beha iou s) ha a e igge ed by he con ex and hus pe o med
au oma ically (Ga dne & Lally, 2023).
We u he p opose ha implemen a ion in en ions a e a s a egy o implemen new habi s as and
delibe a ely (Gollwi ze , 1999, 2014). Implemen a ion in en ions ep esen a planning s a egy in which
a speci ic si ua ion is linked o an ac ion, speci ying exac ly when, whe e and how he ac ion will be
pe o med, o example, “When I ha e inished wo k, hen I will clean up my desk” (Gollwi ze , 1999,
2012). Implemen a ion in en ions ha e been widely used as a powe ul ool o habi o ma ion and habi
change, pa icula ly in he con ex o heal h psychology (Ad iaanse & Ve hoe en, 2018; Bambe g, 2002;
Ve planken & Faes, 1999; Webb e al., 2010). Implemen a ion in en ions d i e habi o ma ion because
hey acili a e ac ion ini ia ion in he speci ied si ua ions, hus inc easing he equency o an in ended
beha iou in his si ua ion (Gollwi ze , 1999, 2014; Kelle e al., 2020). As habi s de elop h ough con-
s an epe i ion o beha iou s in consis en con ex s (Lally e al., 2010, 2011), his inc eased equency
o a speci ic beha iou in a speci ic si ua ion may p omo e habi o ma ion.
Ou s udy con ibu es o he li e a u e in se e al ways. We ex end ecen indings ha unwan ed hab-
i s a wo k can be educed wi h implemen a ion in en ions (Sonnen ag e al., 2022). We use he s a egy
o implemen a ion in en ions o build new habi s a wo k and ocus on he consequences o hese new
habi s o employee's wo k engagemen and goal p og ess. Tha is, ou s udy ocuses on mo e dis al
dependen a iables, whe eas p e ious esea ch on habi s and implemen a ion in en ions a wo k o-
cused on habi o ma ion as ou come and did no include ickle- down e ec s o habi s. By conside ing
ickle- down e ec s o habi s, we u he seek o show ha habi s can imp o e sel - egula ion a wo k.
Fo his eason, we ocus on habi e ec s on wo k engagemen and goal p og ess, ha is, on ou comes
o success ul sel - egula ion a wo k (Lo d e al., 2010; Pa ke e al., 2018).
In addi ion, we seek o u he explo e he causal ela ionship be ween implemen a ion in en ions
and habi o ma ion. To his end, we applied an in e en ion (i.e., men al con as ing wi h implemen-
a ion in en ions) designed o inc ease he use o implemen a ion in en ions (Ad iaanse e al., 2010;
Cla k e al., 2021; Oe ingen e al., 2015). We de i e ou hypo heses om heo ies o habi o ma ion
(Ga dne e al., 2016; Lally e al., 2010; Wood & Neal, 2007) and esea ch on implemen a ion in en ions
(Gollwi ze , 1999, 2012). Ou esea ch hypo heses a e depic ed in Figu e 1.
Habi s a wo k
Habi s a e lea ned beha iou al disposi ions ha a e au oma ically igge ed by ea u es o he con-
ex in which ha speci ic beha iou al pa e n has been pe o med equen ly and consis en ly (Lally
P ac i ione poin s
• Es ablishing habi s a wo k ela es o highe employee engagemen and e ec i eness.
• Implemen a ion in en ions a e a planning s a egy ha suppo s employees in es ablishing
and main aining habi s a wo k.
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1815
PROMOTING HABITS AT WORK
& Ga dne , 2013; Wood & Neal, 2007). Habi s a e dependen on a con ex ual cue (A linghaus &
Johns on, 2018; Ohly e al., 2006, 2017). Hence, widely di e en beha iou s can become habi ual i hey
a e egula ly pe o med in he same con ex and he eby linked o con ex ual cues (Lally e al., 2010).
The e m habi e e s o a cogni i e cons uc , ha is, he associa ion be ween con ex and beha iou ,
while he e m habi ual beha iou e e s o beha iou gene a ed by a habi (Ga dne & Lally, 2023).
Habi s and habi ual beha iou can also occu a wo k (Ohly e al., 2006, 2017; Sonnen ag e al., 2022).
Based on he gene al de ini ion o habi s, we de ine habi s a wo k as beha iou al disposi ions ha
people lea n a wo k and ha a e au oma ically igge ed by speci ic ea u es o he wo k con ex . Wo k
habi s can be dis inguished in ask- ela ed habi s, habi s ela ed o he in e pe sonal con ex o wo k, and
nonwo k- speci ic habi s (Sonnen ag e al., 2022). Task- ela ed habi s e e o he co e job ask and ep e-
sen beha iou al disposi ions ele an o ask pe o mance (Bo man & Mo owidlo, 1993), o example,
ixed w i ing imes. Con ex ually embedded habi s e e o he in e pe sonal con ex o wo k and pa icula ly
in ol e con ex ual pe o mance (Bo man & Mo owidlo, 1993), o example, sha ed co ee b eaks which
encou age g oup cohesion and p oduc i i y (Maspul, 2024; S oebaek, 2013). Non wo k- speci ic habi s a e
disposi ions o beha iou s ha people engage in a wo k bu ha do no necessa ily ela e o he job,
o example, sel - ewa d ia heal hy o unheal hy snacks (Sonnen ag e al., 2022). As each o hese habi
ypes can be ele an o pe o mance and well- being a wo k, all o hem all wi hin he scope o his
s udy. In his s udy, we assessed he equency and au oma iza ion o an obse able beha iou ha peo-
ple show a wo k. Hence, ou hypo heses e e o habi ual beha iou a wo k.
Posi i e consequences o habi s a wo k
Au oma ici y is a cen al cha ac e is ic o habi s (Ga dne e al., 2012; Lally & Ga dne , 2013; Wood
& Neal, 2007). Mo e speci ically, habi ual ac ion con ol changes om a conscious mo i a ional
p ocess o a con ex - d i en mechanism (Ga dne , 2015; Lally e al., 2010). Habi s a e igge ed
au oma ically in he p esence o a co esponding con ex ual cue, ha is, an ex e nal s imulus, a
hough , o an emo ion (Lally & Ga dne , 2013; Wood & Neal, 2007). Habi ual beha iou s can
consequen ly be as and e icien and hey a e execu ed wi hou conscious hough and e o (Sege
& Spie ing, 2011; Wood & Rünge , 2016). Due o hei au oma ici y, habi ual beha iou s can be
bene icial because hey sa e cogni i e- a en ional esou ces such as di ec i e a en ion and wo king
memo y capaci y (Chae & Choi, 2019; Mo gan & Hancock, 2011; Ohly e al., 2006; Voss e al., 2008).
Cogni i e- a en ional esou ces a e limi ed in a ailabili y, meaning ha he mo e esou ces in es ed
in a ask, he be e pe o mance on ha ask will be, while pe o mance on o he asks will decline
FIGURE 1 P oposed model. No e: The dashed a ow ep esen s an indi ec e ec .
Implemen a ion
In en ions F equency Au oma ici y
Wo k
Engagemen
Goal P og ess
H2a
H1a
H2b
H1b
H3
B ie
In e en ion
H4
1816
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TRENZ and KEITH
(Kan e & Acke man, 1989; Kan e e al., 2017). Hence, sa ing cogni i e- a en ional esou ces
h ough au oma ic beha iou s means ha mo e o hese esou ces can be in es ed in o he cogni-
i ely demanding asks (Chae & Choi, 2019; Ohly e al., 2006).
In he wo k con ex , e idence ha au oma ic beha iou s sa e cogni i e- a en ional esou ces is em-
pi ically suppo ed by ela ed esea ch on wo k ou ines. Speci ically, his esea ch showed ha wo k
ou ines a e associa ed wi h ee cogni i e esou ces (Chae & Choi, 2019) o highe le els o ene gy
(Ohly e al., 2017) and posi i ely ela ed o c ea i i y in highly complex jobs (Chae & Choi, 2019; Ohly
e al., 2006). Simila ly, mo ning ou ine dis up ions ha e been shown o enhance cogni i e deple ion
and in u n dec ease wo k engagemen and goal p og ess (McClean e al., 2021). Rou ines a e obse -
able epe i i e beha iou s a wo k ha a e egula ly ca ied ou in he same way and in he same o de
(McClean e al., 2021; Pisci ello e al., 2019). Rou ines a e simila o habi s because bo h e e o au-
oma ic beha iou ha is induced by con ex ual cues (Ohly e al., 2017). Howe e , ou ines a e mo e
complex beha iou al sequences ha in ol e sequencing and combining p ocesses, p ocedu es, s eps,
o occupa ions which a e ypically pe o med by g oups a he han indi iduals. Tha is, ou ines ha e
habi ual elemen s, bu no all habi s a e ou ines (Cla k, 2000). Like ou ines, habi s a wo k migh sa e
cogni i e- a en ional esou ces, consequen ly os e ing wo k engagemen and goal p og ess.
Wo k engagemen
Wo k engagemen , which is de ined as a posi i e, ul illing, wo k- ela ed s a e o mind (Schau eli
e al., 2002), gene ally depends on esou ces (Bakke & Deme ou i, 2007, 2008; C aw o d e al., 2010;
Deme ou i & Bakke , 2023). Tha is, employees may be mo e o less engaged on a speci ic day depend-
ing on esou ce a ailabili y (Tims e al., 2011; Xan hopoulou e al., 2009). In he p esen s udy, we
e e o esou ces as cogni i e- a en ional esou ces alloca ed o asks du ing goal- s i ing (Kan e &
Acke man, 1989; Kan e e al., 2017). Wo k engagemen is cha ac e ized by igou , dedica ion, and
abso p ion (Schau eli e al., 2002). Vigou e e s o high le els o ene gy while wo king. Dedica ion means
being s ongly in ol ed in one's wo k, and abso p ion e e s o a s a e o being ully concen a ed and
happily eng ossed in wo k (Bakke & Deme ou i, 2008).
An engaged s a e equi es he p esence o ene gy o be in es ed in he wo k asks, and being ully
abso bed in wo k equi es shielding agains po en ial dis ac o s ha employees ace on a daily basis
(Kahn, 1990; McClean e al., 2021). Habi ual beha iou s a wo k sa e cogni i e- a en ional esou ces
and ime due o hei au oma ici y (Chae & Choi, 2019; Mo gan & Hancock, 2011; Ohly e al., 2006; Voss
e al., 2008). This esul s in a highe le el o ene gy o be in es ed in wo k asks (McClean e al., 2021;
Ohly e al., 2017), hus os e ing wo k engagemen .
Hypo hesis 1a. Au oma ici y o he new habi ual beha iou du ing he wo kday is posi-
i ely ela ed o daily wo k engagemen .
Goal p og ess
P og ess owa ds a wo k goal a ies wi hin pe sons, depending on how well cogni i e- a en ional e-
sou ces such as di ec i e a en ion a e alloca ed o he wo k ask wi hin a gi en episode (Beal e al., 2005;
Koopman e al., 2016). The mo e ime is spen on ask accomplishmen and he mo e a en ion is
ocused on he ask, he easie goal p og ess will be (Beal e al., 2005; Kahneman, 1973). Cogni i e-
a en ional esou ces sa ed by au oma iza ion inc ease he cogni i e slack and sa e ime, bo h o which
can hen be in es ed in o he asks (Chae & Choi, 2019; Mo gan & Hancock, 2011; Ohly e al., 2017;
Voss e al., 2008). In addi ion, habi ual beha iou a wo k migh in i sel b ing posi i e e ec s o wo k
pe o mance in e ms o goal p og ess. Fo example, use ul ask- ela ed habi s such as ixed w i ing
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1817
PROMOTING HABITS AT WORK
imes o u ning o he mail p og am a ce ain imes migh acili a e habi ual beha iou s ha educe
mul i asking o ask- swi ching, which has a posi i e impac on wo k pe o mance in he sho - e m and
long- e m (Junco & Co en, 2012; Monsell, 2003; Pa idon & Kau mann, 2010).
Hypo hesis 1b. Au oma ici y o he new habi ual beha iou du ing he wo kday is posi-
i ely ela ed o daily goal p og ess.
Implemen a ion in en ions and habi o ma ion
Implemen a ion in en ions (see Gollwi ze , 1993, 1999, 2014) a e plans ha speci y when, whe e, and
how one will ini ia e goal- di ec ed beha iou s. Va ious s udies show ha implemen a ion in en ions
p omo e he o ma ion o new habi s as well as he abandonmen o unwan ed ones (Gollwi ze &
Shee an, 2006) wi h ega d o heal h goals (Ad iaanse & Ve hoe en, 2018; Ve planken & Faes, 1999;
Webb e al., 2010) and o en i onmen al goals (Bambe g, 2002; Holland e al., 2006). In he wo k con-
ex , one s udy has shown ha implemen a ion in en ions can change non wo k- speci ic habi s such
as ecycling beha iou (Holland e al., 2006). Ano he ecen s udy demons a ed ha implemen a ion
in en ions can educe de imen al ask- ela ed habi s (i.e., habi s in e e ing wi h wo k goals), such as
ask swi ching, ha a e enac ed a he wo kplace (Sonnen ag e al., 2022).
These posi i e e ec s o implemen a ion in en ions a e hough o occu because implemen a ion
in en ions acili a e ac ion ini ia ion o an in ended beha iou (Gollwi ze & Shee an, 2006; Kelle
e al., 2020), hus p omo ing cons an epe i ion o his beha iou in a speci ic con ex . Implemen a ion
in en ions suppo he ini ia ion o an in ended habi ual beha iou in a speci ic con ex because hey
acili a e he shi in ac ion con ol om op- down o bo om- up p ocesses (Bieleke e al., 2021). This is
because implemen a ion in en ions acili a e encoding and ecall o si ua ional cues (Janczyk e al., 2015)
and hus inc ease awa eness o hese si ua ional, o con ex ual, cues (Ach zige e al., 2012). In addi ion,
implemen a ion in en ions s eng hen he men al connec ion be ween a si ua ion and a speci ic be-
ha iou , so ha his beha iou is au oma ically ac i a ed whene e encoun e ing he p e iously de ined
si ua ion (Kelle e al., 2020; Webb & Shee an, 2007). Consequen ly, implemen a ion in en ions in-
c ease he likelihood ha a speci ic beha iou will be pe o med in a speci ic si ua ion. In o he wo ds,
implemen a ion in en ions can inc ease he equency wi h which a ce ain beha iou (a new habi ) is
pe o med in a ce ain si ua ion (a consis en con ex ). The egula epe i ion o a speci ic beha iou
in a speci ic con ex is supposed o inc ease he au oma iza ion o his beha iou in his con ex , hus
c ea ing a habi (Lally e al., 2010, 2011).
Hypo hesis 2. Fo ming implemen a ion in en ions in he beginning o he wo kday is
posi i ely ela ed o (a) equency and (b) au oma ici y o he new habi ual beha iou .
Hypo hesis 3. The ela ionship be ween o ming implemen a ion in en ions and au o-
ma ici y o he new habi ual beha iou is media ed by equency o his beha iou .
As desc ibed in he p e ious sec ions, i seems desi able o es ablish habi s a wo k. Because imple-
men a ion in en ions p omo e habi o ma ion and hus migh inc ease e ec i i y and engagemen a
wo k, inc easing he use o implemen a ion in en ions can be o high p ac ical ele ance. F om a me h-
odological pe spec i e, manipula ing he independen a iable inc eases he in e nal alidi y o a s udy.
In e en ions ha inc ease he use o implemen a ion in en ions open up he possibili y o manipula e
his a iable expe imen ally, which aises con idence in he causal di ec ion o ac ion (e.g., implemen-
a ion in en ions inc ease he use o habi s and no ice e sa). Fo hese wo easons, we aimed a in-
c easing he use o implemen a ion in en ions in ou s udy wi hin an in e en ion g oup and compa e
he e ec s agains a con ol g oup. In he ollowing, we desc ibe how implemen a ion in en ions migh
1818
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TRENZ and KEITH
be enhanced wi h an economic in e en ion and explain how men al con as ing can con ibu e o en-
hancing he use o implemen a ion in en ions.
Gene ally, he s a egy o implemen a ion in en ions is conside ed easy o each due o i s simplici y
(Kelle e al., 2020). Consis en wi h his assump ion, mul iple s udies demons a ed he e ec i eness
o in e en ions wi h implemen a ion in en ions ( o me a- analyses, see Gollwi ze & Shee an, 2006;
Kelle e al., 2020; Shee an e al., 2024). The e ec i eness o hese in e en ions, and in pa icula he
mo i a ion o use implemen a ion in en ions, can be u he enhanced by combining hem wi h men al
con as ing (Ad iaanse e al., 2010; Cla k e al., 2021; Duckwo h e al., 2018; Oe ingen e al., 2015).
In hese combined in e en ions, he achie emen o a goal is i s imagined as posi i ely as possible.
The esul ing desi ed s a e is hen con as ed wi h eali y (i.e., men al con as ing), e ealing possible
obs acles ha can hen be ci cum en ed wi h an i - hen plan (Gollwi ze & Oe ingen, 2019). Fo ou
pu poses, he main ad an age o combining hese wo s a egies is ha men al con as ing is supposed
o inc ease he willingness o o m implemen a ion in en ions. Tha is, combining implemen a ion in-
en ions wi h men al con as ing helps o ensu e ha implemen a ion in en ions will ac ually be applied
a e he in e en ion (Duckwo h e al., 2011, 2018).
Hypo hesis 4. A b ie in e en ion (i.e., men al con as ing wi h implemen a ion in en-
ions) inc eases o ming implemen a ion in en ions o es ablish a new habi a wo k.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
T anspa ency and openness
We desc ibe ou sampling plan, all da a exclusions, manipula ions, and he measu es in he s udy.
Da a, analysis code and supplemen al ma e ials a e a ailable a h ps:// esea chbox. o g/ 1740. Da a
we e analysed using R (Ve sion 4.2.2), he package lme4 (Ve sion 1.1- 31; Ba es e al., 2015), he pack-
age media ion (Ve sion: 4.5.0; Tingley e al., 2014) and la aan (Ve sion 0.6- 13; Rosseel, 2012).
P e egis a ion o his s udy's design and i s analyses a e a ailable a h ps:// asp e dic ed. o g/ i5m .
pd .1
P ocedu es we e in line wi h e hical s anda ds o he Ge man Psychological Socie y (DGPs),
which cons i u e he Ge man adap a ion o he APA's espec i e e hical guidelines. Fo mal ap-
p o al by an e hics commi ee was no equi ed, as acco ding o he Ge man Resea ch Founda ion
(Deu sche Fo schungsgemeinscha , DFG), o mal app o al o psychological esea ch is manda-
o y only in ce ain cases (e.g., i pa icipan s a e exposed o pain, o decep ion, o o isks ha go
beyond hose o e e yday li e). In o med consen was ob ained om all pa icipan s a he i s ime
o measu emen .
De ia ions om p e egis a ion
We ini ially aimed o a sample size o 100 pa icipan s o ind a good middle g ound be ween Le el- 1 and
Le el- 2 powe . Because o p ac ical cons ain s (e.g., sha p decline in he numbe o s udy egis a ions de-
spi e in ensi e ec ui ing e o s), we we e no able o acqui e mo e han 72 pa icipan s. In gene al, he
powe o Le el- 1 e ec s in dia y s udies is usually a he oo high han oo low (Gab iel e al., 2019). Fo
example, 30 Le el- 2 uni s (i.e., people) and i e Le el- 1 uni s (i.e., days) a e su icien o achie e a powe o
.80 o a medium Le el- 1 e ec a a medium ICC. In con as , 100 Le el- 2 and 12 Le el- 1 uni s a e necessa y
o achie e a powe o .80 o a medium e ec a Le el 2 (A end & Schä e , 2019, Table 8). Acco dingly, he
1We e e o he e ec s o he in e en ion (Hypo hesis 4) in he p e egis a ion only indi ec ly in he analyses sec ion, bu no in he
hypo heses sec ion.
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PROMOTING HABITS AT WORK
de ia ion om he planned sample size did no limi he powe o he epo ed Le el- 1 e ec s. Howe e ,
he powe o Le el- 2 e ec s, ha is, he e ec o he in e en ion, may ha e been limi ed.2
We decided no o include he las p e egis e ed hypo hesis, which deals wi h he ole o eedback (in
e ms o goal p og ess) o o ming implemen a ion in en ions, in he manusc ip because i ende s he
esea ch ques ion o he manusc ip oo b oad and complex. Tha is, his hypo hesis e e ses dependen
and independen a iables which, in e ospec , did no seem easonable o us wi hin he same s udy.
The esul s o his hypo hesis es a e documen ed in he sec ion “Addi ional Analyses”. In addi ion, we
decided in he e iew p ocess o e ise he posi ion o au oma ici y and equency wi hin ou heo e ical
model, as his di ec ion o e ec is mo e in line wi h he habi li e a u e. This esul ed in sligh changes
o Hypo heses 1 and 3.
Sample and p ocedu e
The s udy consis ed o h ee pa s: (1) he ini ial su ey ha included he in e en ion, (2) he wo-
pa daily su ey (mo ning and e ening o e 10 days), and (3) he ollow- up ( wo weeks la e ). In
he ini ial su ey, 203 subjec s (94 in he in e en ion g oup) pa icipa ed. Du ing he daily- su ey
pe iod, hese pa icipan s comple ed 700 mo ning ques ionnai es and 669 e ening ques ionnai es.
Eigh y o hese pa icipan s comple ed he ollow- up su ey. We ma ched he su eys, using he se-
ial numbe assigned o each pe son by he su ey so wa e. Only indi iduals who had comple ed
bo h he ini ial measu emen and he daily su ey while missing no mo e han h ee days o he daily
su ey we e included in he inal sample. In addi ion, we included se e al nonsense i ems as a en-
ion checks (Meade & C aig, 2012). One pe son answe ed one o hese i ems inco ec ly du ing he
ini ial measu emen and was excluded. Fu he , we excluded ou daily su eys because, he e, he
pe sons answe ed he a en ion check i em inco ec ly wi hin he espec i e a e noon su ey. The
inal sample included 611 comple e pai s o ques ionnai es (mo ning and e ening) om 72 pa ici-
pan s (34 in he in e en ion g oup, 38 in he con ol g oup). Follow- up da a we e a ailable om 63
o hese pa icipan s.
Pa icipan s (61% emale, 39% male) we e employees om a ious indus ies, who we app oached
h ough social ne wo ks (Xing, LinkedIn, Facebook) and he pe sonal ne wo ks o he in es iga o s.
We decided o examine one pa icula occupa ional ield o minimize possible con ex ual in luences.
Tha is, we ocused on ypical o ice wo ke s because we assumed ha he daily schedule in his wo k
a ea is p edic able and sel - de e mined enough o es ablish ixed indi idual habi s. To ensu e such a
wo k en i onmen , he pa icipan s had o ul il h ee equi emen s: wo k a leas i e days pe week,
pe o m he wo k ac i i y p ima ily on a compu e , and ha e access o he In e ne a leas 50% o he
wo k ime. Addi ionally, we used only comple e da a se s o he hypo hesis es s (no missing
a iables).3
The majo i y o pa icipan s had a bachelo 's o mas e 's deg ee (68%) and wo ked in an employed e-
la ionship (89%). The indus ies ep esen ed we e qui e he e ogeneous, wi h he p o ision o economic,
inancial, scien i ic, echnical o o he se ices being he mos ep esen ed (49%). Ele en pe cen
wo ked in public adminis a ion, de ence o social secu i y, and 8% in manu ac u ing o p ocessing.
2We examined he powe o he Le el- 2 e ec o he in e en ion pos hoc on he basis o he empi ical ICC. Mo e speci ically, we conduc ed
a sensi i i y analyses o analysis o he minimum de ec able e ec size (MDES analysis), adap ing he code p o ided by A end & Schä e (2019,
Example 1). An MDES analysis is used o calcula e he smalles de ec able e ec size as a unc ion o powe , sample size, and α, as well as in
he case o wo- le el models, he ICC o he dependen a iable (A end & Schä e , 2019). The empi ical ICC o implemen a ion in en ions (i.e.,
which was ou p ima y dependen a iable o he expec ed in e en ion e ec s) was .49, which co esponds o a la ge ICC. Following
con en ions, we se α a .05 and powe a .80. The esul ing MDES o he in e en ion e ec was a medium e ec , γs d = .34. In o he wo ds,
he MDES analysis indica ed ha wi h he gi en sample size o 72 and an ICC o .49, he in e en ion e ec had o be .34 o la ge o be
de ec ed in ou s udy.
3The mul i- le el media ion analyses wi h he package media ion (Ve sion: 4.5.0; Tingley e al., 2014) equi ed comple e da a se s. We
addi ionally es ed all o he hypo heses wi h incomple e da a se s (i.e., allowing o missing a iables wi hin a day). The esul s did no al e ou
conclusions.
1820
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TRENZ and KEITH
Mos pa icipan s had been wo king in his indus y o a long ime (49% o mo e han 10 yea s) and
we e long- ime enu ed wi h his employe (40% o mo e han 10 yea s).
We conduc ed he s udy online, ha is, pa icipan s accessed he di e en pa s o he s udy ia
links sen o hem. In he i s pa , we asked pa icipan s o iden i y an app op ia e wo k- ela ed
habi ha hey would es ablish o e he nex wo weeks. Fo his pu pose, hey could i s choose
om ou di e en goal ca ego ies and we e hen suppo ed in hei habi selec ion wi h examples
o app op ia e habi s. A e pa icipan s had selec ed hei habi , we andomized hem in o wo
g oups, o which one ecei ed a b ie in e en ion (i.e., exe cise on men al con as ing wi h imple-
men a ion in en ions; we will desc ibe his exe cise in mo e de ail below). The con ol g oup ins ead
e lec ed on hei wo k en i onmen . In he second pa , all pa icipan s comple ed 5- min ques-
ionnai es in he mo ning and e ening o e a wo- week pe iod (i.e., en wo kdays), always s a ing
on Monday. Pa icipan s ecei ed he mo ning su eys a 7 a.m. and he e ening su eys a 5 p.m.
The hi d pa was a one- ime ollow- up su ey on he key dependen a iables wo weeks a e
he end o he daily su ey. We chose his ime pe iod o wo weeks o he ollow- up o be able
o explo e longe - e m e ec s wi h as li le da a loss as possible. Because he du a ion o comple e
au oma iza ion o a beha iou is highly indi idual (Lally e al., 2010), we we e unable o de i e an
op imal ime pe iod om exis ing li e a u e. Fu he , we expec ed inc easing d op- ou a es wi h
longe ime in e als.
Measu es
We used es ablished measu es and made some adap a ions. Fi s , we adjus ed he ime ame o daily
scales so ha hey e e ed speci ically o he day (Ohly e al., 2010). Second, we used i ems in Ge man
language. To keep he esponse o ma cons an o all scales, pa icipan s a ed all i ems on a 5- poin
scale om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 5 ( o ally ag ee).
I a ailable, we used co esponding Ge man e sions o he ques ionnai es. I no , wo membe s o
ou esea ch g oup luen in Ge man and English ansla ed he i ems in o Ge man. In his p ocess,
wo pe sons ( i s au ho o his pape and a g adua e s uden ) i s ansla ed he i ems independen ly,
discussed disc epancies, and ag eed on a i s e sion (i.e., pa allel ansla ion; Smi h, 2004). A hi d
pe son (second au ho o his pape ) p oo ead his e sion o he ansla ion and made inal sugges-
ions o changes. The i s wo pe sons discussed hese sugges ions again and in eg a ed hem in a
inal e sion.
In he ini ial su ey, we assessed di e en cha ac e is ics o occupa ion and pe son ha we expec ed
o in luence habi o ma ion as po en ial con ol a iables. The inclusion o hese con ol a iables,
as we will explain la e , did no al e he esul s o conclusions. In he mo ning su ey, we assessed
implemen a ion in en ions as well as posi i e and nega i e a ec as po en ial con ol a iables. We u -
he asked pa icipan s o name hei selec ed habi in his su ey. In he e ening su ey, we assessed
equency and au oma ici y o he habi ual beha iou , goal p og ess, and wo k engagemen . In he
ollow- up su ey, we assessed equency and au oma ici y o he habi ual beha iou , goal p og ess, and
wo k engagemen again, bu wi h he ocus on he pas wo weeks.
Implemen a ion in en ions
We measu ed whe he pa icipan s had o mula ed implemen a ion in en ions on a gi en day wi h a
scale consis ing o i e i ems, as used by Sonnen ag e al. (2022). This scale essen ially cap u es whe he
a plan has been made o “when”, “whe e” and “how” he new habi ual beha iou will be applied and
whe he a speci ic place and ime has been speci ied. A sample i em is: “I ha e planned o oday how I
can show my new habi .” In e nal consis encies we e high, anging be ween .91 and .97.
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1827
PROMOTING HABITS AT WORK
Con ol a iables
We eplica ed he hypo hesis es s wi h he addi ion o he con ol a iables. We ound no e idence o
an in luence o hese a iables on he hypo hesized ela ionships (see Tables S1 and S2).
Habi ype
To ule ou he possibili y ha he esul s we e in luenced by he ype o goal ca ego y and he associ-
a ed na u e o habi ual beha iou , we c ea ed h ee dummy a iables o ep esen he ou goal ca ego-
ies and analysed main e ec s and c oss- le el in e ac ions. We ound no e idence o an in luence o
goal ca ego y (o habi ype) on he pos ula ed ela ionships. Howe e , daily goal p og ess was highe o
pa icipan s who had selec ed he goal ca ego y “wo k mo e e ec i ely” han o he o he pa icipan s,
uns anda dized es ima e = .48, SE = .20, p = .015 (see Table S3).
Rela ionship be ween au oma ici y and equency
Theo ies o habi o ma ion sugges ha au oma ici y o he new habi ual beha iou migh inc ease
o e he cou se o he s udy. This is because he pa icipan s acqui ed his beha iou anew and he
au oma iza ion o a beha iou is supposed o inc ease wi h cons an epe i ion (Ga dne , 2015; Lally
e al., 2010, 2011). Acco dingly, we conduc ed a single- ac o epea ed measu es analysis o a iance
wi h linea con as s o analyse he ime end o au oma ici y. This analysis e ealed a linea inc ease
in au oma ici y o e he cou se o he daily su ey, uns anda dized es ima e = 16.88, SE = 3.26, F(1,
40) = 28.36, p < .001.
Se ial media ion
Ou heo e ical model could imply se ial media ion in which implemen a ion in en ions inc ease he
wo k ou comes ia he equency o he new habi ual beha iou ia au oma ici y o he new habi ual
beha iou . We conduc ed wo se ial media ion analyses ha showed signi ican indi ec e ec s o im-
plemen a ion in en ions ia equency ia au oma ici y on wo k engagemen , b = .01, SE = .01, p = .014,
95% CI [.003, .023] and goal p og ess, b = .02, SE = .01, p = .004, 95% CI [.006, .030].
DISCUSSION
This esea ch explo ed whe he habi s a wo k can inc ease goal p og ess and wo k engagemen as
well as whe he and how he es ablishmen o hese habi s can be inc eased h ough implemen a ion
in en ions. Resul s showed ha engaging in habi ual beha iou s a wo k posi i ely ela es o daily wo k
engagemen and daily goal p og ess. Fu he mo e, esul s indica ed ha implemen a ion in en ions p o-
mo e equency and au oma ici y o such habi ual beha iou s.
Theo e ical implica ions
Fi s , he esul s con ibu e o habi li e a u e by demons a ing posi i e e ec s o habi ual beha iou s in a
a he new con ex . Ex ensi e esea ch on habi s in o he (pa icula ly in heal h) con ex s shows ha a la ge
pa o sel - egula o y p ocesses (i.e., ac ion ini ia ion and execu ion) is con olled by habi ual p ocesses
(Lally & Ga dne , 2013). Fo example, a me a- analysis showed ha ea ing habi s ha e a s onge in luence
1828
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TRENZ and KEITH
on ea ing beha iou han conscious in en ion (Ga dne e al., 2011). Ou inding ha habi ual beha iou s
a wo k p omo e wo k engagemen and goal p og ess demons a es ha he shi om a conscious mo i a-
ional p ocess o a con ex - d i en mechanism associa ed wi h his ype o beha iou (Ga dne , 2015; Lally
e al., 2010) also acili a es sel - egula ion a wo k. This is because bo h wo k engagemen and goal p og ess
a e he esul o success ul sel - egula ion (Lo d e al., 2010; Pa ke e al., 2018). As bo h wo k engagemen
and goal p og ess a e associa ed wi h a ious posi i e ou comes such as job sa is ac ion, o ganiza ional
commi men o dec eased bu nou (Bipp e al., 2020; Judge e al., 2005; Koes ne e al., 2002; Mazze i
e al., 2023; Wong e al., 2017), ou esul s imply ha habi ual beha iou s a wo k migh ha e a wide posi i e
impac . Rega ding he applicabili y o habi s in he wo k con ex , ou s udy ex ends esea ch ha e ealed
posi i e ela ionships o he ela ed cons uc o wo k ou ines wi h c ea i i y (Chae & Choi, 2019; Ohly
e al., 2006). This is because ou esul s indica e ha habi ual beha iou s a e bene icial no only o speci ic,
c ea i e asks, bu possibly applicable in a b oade ange o wo k a eas and asks.
Second, his s udy demons a es ha implemen a ion in en ions p omo e habi o ma ion a wo k.
Speci ically, we ex end p e ious esea ch, demons a ing ha habi s a wo k can be modi ied by implemen-
a ion in en ions (Holland e al., 2006; Sonnen ag e al., 2022) because we conside he ela ionship be ween
au oma ici y and equency a he day- le el. Ou s udy illus a es ha he daily use o implemen a ion in en-
ions inc eases he equency o a new beha iou in a speci ic si ua ion and in u n he au oma ici y o his
beha iou . Addi ional analyses u he showed ha au oma ici y o he new habi ual beha iou inc eased
o e he cou se o he s udy. Taken oge he , hese esul s indica e ha implemen a ion in en ions p omo e
cons an epe i ion o a beha iou in he same con ex and he eby accele a e he p ocess o habi o ma ion.
Ou esul s also allow o en a i e conclusions abou he longe - e m impac o implemen a ion
in en ions. Consis en wi h o he esul s (Sonnen ag e al., 2022), he posi i e e ec s o implemen a ion
in en ions we e also e iden a ollow- up. Indi iduals who had o med implemen a ion in en ions o a
highe ex en wi hin he daily su ey phase epo ed highe wo k engagemen , highe goal p og ess, and
highe equency and au oma ici y o he habi ual beha iou wo weeks la e . S udies disag ee on he
du abili y o he e ec s o implemen a ion in en ions. On he one hand, wi hin- designs wi h discon in-
uous p esen a ion o implemen a ion in en ions sugges ha he e ec s o implemen a ion in en ions
decline apidly (B ei wiese e al., 2021; Lue s e al., 2019). In hese s udies, implemen a ion in en ions
only a ec ed beha iou on days when pa icipan s ecei ed he p omp o o m implemen a ion in-
en ions. On he o he hand, be ween- designs show ha e ec s o in e en ions wi h implemen a ion
in en ions on ou comes a e de ec able e en wo yea s la e (B ands ä e e al., 2003; Ma in e al., 2011).
E en hough he ollow- up su ey pe iod was compa a i ely sho a wo weeks, ou esul s sugges
ha he e ec s o implemen a ion in en ions do no disappea immedia ely, bu a e du able o a longe
pe iod o ime.
P ac ical implica ions
Ou indings u he p o ide p ac ical insigh s o o ganiza ions and indi iduals. Resul s show ha he
es ablishmen o habi s a wo k can be used o inc ease goal p og ess and engagemen a wo k. Hence,
employees migh be encou aged o p omo e habi s a wo k ha a e consis en wi h wo k goals (and ha
a he same ime do no in e e e wi h impo an pe sonal goals). This could be achie ed by educa ing
employees in aining cou ses o e- lea ning abou he posi i e impac habi s can ha e on hei p oduc-
i i y and well- being.
In addi ion, he esul s imply ha implemen a ion in en ions con ibu e o habi o ma ion in he
wo k con ex . Hence, implemen a ion in en ions migh be used in p ac ice o imp o e indi idual habi s
a wo k. In heo y, implemen a ion in en ions a e e y easy o each (Kelle e al., 2020). Nume ous
exe cises exis ha employees can use o lea n his planning s a egy. These exe cises can be p o ided in
di e en o ma s such as online e sus ace- o- ace (Kelle e al., 2020; Oe ingen e al., 2015). In his
ega d, he online exe cise we conduc ed showed no e ec s. As posi i e e ec s o simila exe cises in
ace- o- ace aining ha e been demons a ed (Ad iaanse e al., 2010; Oe ingen e al., 2015), we would
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PROMOTING HABITS AT WORK
ecommend eaching he s a egy in ace- o- ace o ma s, o example, in co esponding wo kshops o
aining.
Limi a ions
By using an exe cise on men al con as ing wi h implemen a ion in en ions, we sough o manipula e he
ex en o which indi iduals o mula e implemen a ion in en ions o es ablish a new habi . Howe e , we
did no ind an in e en ion e ec which is inconsis en wi h o he s udies in which e ec s we e achie ed
wi h e y simila in e en ions (Ad iaanse e al., 2010; Cla k e al., 2021; Oe ingen e al., 2015). We can-
no p o ide a de ini i e explana ion om he a ailable da a. Howe e , as men ioned ea lie , o he s ud-
ies di e om ou s in ha hey chose a ace- o- ace o ma ins ead o an online o ma . I is possible
ha mo i a ion was lowe in an online o ma o ha he ins uc ions we e no su icien ly unde s ood.
Ano he explana ion could be ha we asked all pa icipan s, including hose in he con ol g oup,
daily whe he hey had o mula ed implemen a ion in en ions. Asking abou implemen a ion in en ions
migh ha e p omp ed pa icipan s in he con ol g oup o o m implemen a ion in en ions, esul ing in
he non- signi ican g oup di e ences. This design choice may ha e con ibu ed o he lack o e ec i e-
ness o ou in e en ion. One possibili y o con ol o ques ion- beha iou e ec s (Wood e al., 2016) is
he inclusion o se e al con ol days on which pa icipan s do no ecei e ques ionnai es on implemen-
a ion in en ions and including day o da a collec ion as a con ol a iable in he mul i- le el analyses, as
has been done in o he s udies (Sonnen ag e al., 2022).
Apa om hese me hodological limi a ions, i is possible ha he in e en ion did no inc ease
he o ma ion o implemen a ion in en ions because people used his s a egy o a ying deg ees i -
espec i e o he in e en ion. In ac , ecen s udies show ha he e a e in e - indi idual di e ences
in he endency o o mula e implemen a ion in en ions ha a e ela i ely s able o e ime (Bieleke &
Kelle , 2021).
As he in e en ion did no ha e he expec ed e ec s, ou esul s a e now based on a co ela ional
design cap u ing implemen a ion in en ions in he beginning o he wo kday and equency and au o-
ma ici y o he habi ual beha iou , wo k engagemen , as well as goal p og ess a he end o he wo kday.
Consequen ly, we we e unable o es a causal e ec o implemen a ion in en ions on equency o he
habi ual beha iou . We u he elied on sel - epo measu es and did no sepa a e he measu emen
poin s o media o and c i e ion. This means ha we examined some o he independen a iables
(au oma ici y, equency) and dependen a iables (wo k engagemen , goal p og ess) a he same ime
and wi h he same me hod. Hence, i canno be uled ou ha a common me hod bias led o he o e es-
ima ion o hese e ec s (Podsako e al., 2003, 2012).
Fu u e esea ch di ec ions
We did no es he mechanism di ec ly ha he ela ionship be ween habi ual beha iou s and wo k
ou comes migh be explained by highe a ailabili y o cogni i e- a en ional esou ces. As p e ious
s udies elied on sel - epo (Chae & Choi, 2019; McClean e al., 2021; Ohly e al., 2017), an in es-
iga ion o his mechanism wi h di e en me hods would be bene icial. Fu u e s udies could, o
example, inco po a e cogni i ely demanding asks o objec i ely measu e he a ailabili y o cogni i e-
a en ional esou ces.
As ou s udy p o ides u he e idence ha implemen a ion in en ions p omo e he es ablishmen
o habi s a wo k, i is o g ea in e es o ind al e na i e means o encou age he use o implemen a ion
in en ions. Fo example, i would be aluable o compa e di e en in e en ion o ma s (online s. ace-
o- ace aining) in u he s udies o o expand in e en ions o include o he elemen s such as daily
p omp s.
1830
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TRENZ and KEITH
CONCLUSION
In a dia y in e en ion s udy, we showed ha au oma ici y o a new habi ual beha iou a wo k was
associa ed wi h highe wo k engagemen and goal p og ess a he day- le el. Daily implemen a ion
in en ions p edic ed daily equency and au oma ici y o his habi ual beha iou . Howe e , his
ela ionship was independen o he in e en ion implemen ed. Habi s a wo k acili a e au oma ic
beha iou s ha posi i ely ela e o employee engagemen and e iciency. Implemen a ion in en ions
ep esen a p omising s a egy o p omo ing habi s a wo k, he an eceden s o which migh be
u he explo ed.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Nina T enz: Concep ualiza ion; me hodology; o mal analysis; w i ing – o iginal d a ; w i -
ing – e iew and edi ing; isualiza ion; in es iga ion; p ojec adminis a ion. Nina Kei h:
Concep ualiza ion; me hodology; w i ing – e iew and edi ing; supe ision; p ojec adminis a ion;
esou ces.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like o hank E a Ki che o da a collec ion. Open Access unding enabled and o ganized
by P ojek DEAL.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no con lic o in e es .
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e openly a ailable a h ps:// esea chbox. o g/
1740.
ORCID
Nina T enz h ps://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4060-1233
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11. 003
SUPPORTING INFORMATION
Addi ional suppo ing in o ma ion can be ound online in he Suppo ing In o ma ion sec ion a he
end o his a icle.
Table S1.–S3.
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implemen a ion in en ions. Jou nal o Occupa ional and O ganiza ional Psychology, 97, 1813–1834.
h p s://doi.o g/10.1111/joop.12540
