Zhang, Sen; Zhao, Meng u
A icle
A aul con essed is hal ed essed: The impac o de ian
wo kplace beha io on p oac i e beha io
Adminis a i e Sciences
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Ci a ion: Zhang, Sen, and Meng u
Zhao. 2024. A Faul Con essed Is Hal
Red essed: The Impac o De ian
Wo kplace Beha io on P oac i e
Beha io . Adminis a i e Sciences 14:
141. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci14070141
Recei ed: 26 May 2024
Re ised: 27 June 2024
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adminis a i e
sciences
A icle
A Faul Con essed Is Hal Red essed: The Impac o De ian
Wo kplace Beha io on P oac i e Beha io
Sen Zhang and Meng u Zhao *
G adua e School o Comme ce, Waseda Uni e si y, Tokyo 169-8050, Japan; [email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: zhaomeng [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The ex an esea ch on de ian wo kplace beha io has mainly examined he consequences
o such beha io om a “ ic im-cen ic” pe spec i e, while igno ing he psychological and beha io al
esponses o he employees who engaged in i . D awing upon mo al cleansing heo y, we adop a
“ ic imize -cen ic” pe spec i e and con end ha employees expe ience mo al de ici s a e engaging
in de ian wo kplace beha io , which consequen ly lead o subsequen p oac i e beha io . We also
p opose ha he indi ec ela ionship be ween de ian wo kplace beha io and p oac i e beha io is
con ingen upon indi iduals’ mo al cou age. Speci ically, employees wi h high mo al cou age a e
mo e inclined o pe o m subsequen p oac i e beha io upon pe cei ing a mo al de ici han hose
wi h low mo al cou age. Ou hypo heses a e suppo ed by empi ical da a om an expe imen al
s udy in ol ing 128 pa icipan s in he Uni ed Kingdom (S udy 1) and a mul i-wa e su ey-based
ield s udy wi h a sample o 180 employees conduc ed in he Uni ed S a es (S udy 2). Ou esea ch
p o ides con ibu ions o he li e a u e on de ian wo kplace beha io by demons a ing how and
when de ian wo kplace beha io can lead o subsequen compensa o y beha io , as well as p ac ical
insigh s o bo h employees and o ganiza ions.
Keywo ds: de ian wo kplace beha io ; mo al cleansing; mo al de ici ; mo al cou age; p oac i e
beha io
1. In oduc ion
De ian wo kplace beha io (DWB), concep ualized as “ olun a y beha io ha
iola es o ganiza ional no ms and he eby h ea ens he well-being o he o ganiza ion, i s
membe s, o bo h” (Robinson and Benne 1995, p. 556), is a widesp ead mani es a ion o
nega i e wo kplace beha io s (Benne and Robinson 2000;Zhong and Robinson 2021),
which includes he , lying, o b eaking wo kplace ules. As one pe asi e o m o nega i e
wo kplace beha io s (Dhanani and LaPalme 2019;Zhong and Robinson 2021), many
employees engage in such beha io s o some deg ee, which leads o nume ous mone a y
and socie al cos s o he o ganiza ion. P e ious s udies ha e ex ensi ely ocused on he
an eceden s o DWB (e.g., Bol on e al. 2010;Fe guson e al. 2012;Mackey e al. 2021;Li
e al. 2023) and he s a egies ha o ganiza ions can employ o cu b i (e.g., Di S e ano e al.
2019;Tho n on and Rupp 2016;Shahzad e al. 2023).
Howe e , mos esea ch on DWB has adop ed a “ ic im-cen ic” pe spec i e, wi h
li le a en ion gi en o he “ ic imize -cen ic” pe spec i e, which means we know li le
abou how he “ ic imize s” iew hemsel es and beha e as a esul (Fan e al. 2021). This is
a c i ical omission because employees con inuously engage in a ious beha io s, and hei
p e ious beha io s may shape how hey beha e la e (e.g., Lin e al. 2016). Some schola s
ha e adop ed a “cogni i e dissonance” pe spec i e h ough which o iew employees’
nega i e beha io s (see a e iew by Zhong and Robinson 2021). Speci ically, ollowing
mo al cleansing heo y (Mille and E on 2010;Mullen and Monin 2016), people may
expe ience a dissonance be ween hei desi ed mo al sel -image and hei cu en mo al
le el a e engaging in immo al beha io s (e.g., Ba kan e al. 2015;Ilies e al. 2013;Liao e al.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14070141 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141 2 o 18
2018), and he pe cei ed mo al de ici may mo i a e indi iduals o subsequen ly engage in
compensa o y beha io s o es o e hei mo al sel -concep (Zhong e al. 2009). The e o e,
we p opose ha , a e engaging in DWB, employees may subsequen ly ac in ways ha
bene i o ganiza ional e ec i eness o compensa e o hei p e ious mo ally ques ionable
beha io s. Ne e heless, o he bes o ou knowledge, he e a e ew empi ical s udies ha
ha e in es iga ed how and when DWB will lead o subsequen compensa o y beha io s
(e.g., Dadaboye e al. 2023;Fan e al. 2021). Ou esea ch aims o ill his esea ch gap by
examining he unde lying mechanism o he ela ionship be ween DWB and subsequen ly
posi i e wo kplace beha io s.
In his s udy, we ocus on a speci ic o m o posi i e wo kplace beha io , namely
p oac i e beha io , de ined as “an icipa o y ac ion ha employees ake o impac hemsel es
and/o hei en i onmen s” (G an and Ash o d 2008, p. 5). Examples o p oac i e
beha io s include eedback-seeking (Ash o d e al. 2003), pe sonal ini ia i e (F ese and
Fay 2001), aking cha ge (Mo ison and Phelps 1999), and oice (LePine and Dyne 1998).
Mo al cleansing heo y posi s ha indi iduals a e inclined o unde ake epa a i e ac ions
ha a e designed o compensa e ic ims (Zhong e al. 2009;Wes and Zhong 2015) and,
since o ganiza ions a e gene ally he ic ims o employees’ DWB, employees may engage
in p oac i e beha io s as a o m o compensa ion owa ds he company because such
beha io can enhance o ganiza ional e iciency, inancial pe o mance, inno a ion, and
a ious o he posi i e o ganiza ional ou comes (e.g., Bindl and Pa ke 2011;Thomas e al.
2010). In sum, we hypo hesize ha he ic imize exhibi ing DWB will pe cei e a sense o
mo al de ici which, in u n, p omp s hem o subsequen ly engage in p oac i e beha io s
o epai his de ici .
Addi ionally, mo al cleansing heo y sugges s ha he mo al cleansing p ocess is
con ingen upon an indi idual’s mo al cha ac e is ics (Liao e al. 2018). Speci ically, we
ocus on an indi idual di e ence ha e lec s he le el o mo ali y in one’s beha io —
mo al cou age—which e e s o “ he s eng h o will is needed o ace and esol e e hical
challenges and o con on ba ie s ha may inhibi he abili y o p oceed owa d igh
ac ion” (Seke ka e al. 2009, p. 566). We con end ha mo al cou age mode a es he
ela ionship be ween employees’ mo al de ici and hei subsequen p oac i e beha io ;
mo ally cou ageous employees a e mo e likely o ake a p oac i e app oach (e.g., Seke ka
2015;Seke ka e al. 2009) and engage in compensa o y beha io s han hose wi h low
mo al cou age. We o e a mode a ed media ion model o in es iga e how and when an
employee’s DWB will p edic subsequen p oac i e beha io . Ou o e all heo e ical model
is depic ed in Figu e 1.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 o 18
mo al le el a e engaging in immo al beha io s (e.g., Ba kan e al. 2015; Ilies e al. 2013;
Liao e al. 2018), and he pe cei ed mo al de ici may mo i a e indi iduals o subsequen ly
engage in compensa o y beha io s o es o e hei mo al sel -concep (Zhong e al. 2009).
The e o e, we p opose ha , a e engaging in DWB, employees may subsequen ly ac in
ways ha bene i o ganiza ional effec i eness o compensa e o hei p e ious mo ally
ques ionable beha io s. Ne e heless, o he bes o ou knowledge, he e a e ew empi -
ical s udies ha ha e in es iga ed how and when DWB will lead o subsequen compen-
sa o y beha io s (e.g., Dadaboye e al. 2023; Fan e al. 2021). Ou esea ch aims o ill his
esea ch gap by examining he unde lying mechanism o he ela ionship be ween DWB
and subsequen ly posi i e wo kplace beha io s.
In his s udy, we ocus on a speci ic o m o posi i e wo kplace beha io , namely
p oac i e beha io , de ined as “an icipa o y ac ion ha employees ake o impac hem-
sel es and/o hei en i onmen s” (G an and Ash o d 2008, p. 5). Examples o p oac i e
beha io s include eedback-seeking (Ash o d e al. 2003), pe sonal ini ia i e (F ese and
Fay 2001), aking cha ge (Mo ison and Phelps 1999), and oice (LePine and Van Dyne
1998). Mo al cleansing heo y posi s ha indi iduals a e inclined o unde ake epa a i e
ac ions ha a e designed o compensa e ic ims (Zhong e al. 2009; Wes and Zhong 2015)
and, since o ganiza ions a e gene ally he ic ims o employees’ DWB, employees may
engage in p oac i e beha io s as a o m o compensa ion owa ds he company because
such beha io can enhance o ganiza ional efficiency, inancial pe o mance, inno a ion,
and a ious o he posi i e o ganiza ional ou comes (e.g., Bindl and Pa ke 2011; Thomas
e al. 2010). In sum, we hypo hesize ha he ic imize exhibi ing DWB will pe cei e a
sense o mo al de ici which, in u n, p omp s hem o subsequen ly engage in p oac i e
beha io s o epai his de ici .
Addi ionally, mo al cleansing heo y sugges s ha he mo al cleansing p ocess is
con ingen upon an indi idual’s mo al cha ac e is ics (Liao e al. 2018). Speci ically, we
ocus on an indi idual diffe ence ha e lec s he le el o mo ali y in one’s beha io —
mo al cou age—which e e s o “ he s eng h o will is needed o ace and esol e e hical
challenges and o con on ba ie s ha may inhibi he abili y o p oceed owa d igh
ac ion” (Seke ka e al. 2009, p. 566). We con end ha mo al cou age mode a es he ela-
ionship be ween employees’ mo al de ici and hei subsequen p oac i e beha io ; mo -
ally cou ageous employees a e mo e likely o ake a p oac i e app oach (e.g., Seke ka
2015; Seke ka e al. 2009) and engage in compensa o y beha io s han hose wi h low
mo al cou age. We offe a mode a ed media ion model o in es iga e how and when an
employee’s DWB will p edic subsequen p oac i e beha io . Ou o e all heo e ical
model is depic ed in Figu e 1.
Figu e 1. O e all hypo hesized model.
We es ou hypo heses ac oss wo s udies, namely an expe imen al s udy conduc ed
in he Uni ed Kingdom and a su ey-based ield s udy conduc ed in he Uni ed S a es.
Ou esea ch con ibu es o he li e a u e in se e al ways. Fi s , he li e a u e on DWB
p ima ily ocuses on he de imen al consequences, igno ing i s po en ial posi i e ou -
comes; ou esea ch helps coun e his imbalance by in oducing a no el “ ic imize -
Figu e 1. O e all hypo hesized model.
We es ou hypo heses ac oss wo s udies, namely an expe imen al s udy conduc ed
in he Uni ed Kingdom and a su ey-based ield s udy conduc ed in he Uni ed S a es.
Ou esea ch con ibu es o he li e a u e in se e al ways. Fi s , he li e a u e on DWB
p ima ily ocuses on he de imen al consequences, igno ing i s po en ial posi i e ou comes;
ou esea ch helps coun e his imbalance by in oducing a no el “ ic imize -cen ic”
pe spec i e, h ough which we in es iga e he psychological and beha io al ou comes o
DWB. In doing so, we sugges ha DWB can subsequen ly lead o mo ally laudable ac s
(i.e., p oac i e beha io ) once hey expe ience a sense o mo al de ici . Second, we in eg a e
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141 3 o 18
he b oade p oac i e beha io li e a u e wi h he mo al li e a u e o p o ide addi ional
insigh s in o elabo a ing he an eceden s o p oac i e beha io om a mo al pe spec i e.
Finally, we con ibu e o he mo al cleansing li e a u e by iden i ying mo al cou age as
a i al bounda y condi ion ha in luences he ela ionship be ween a mo al de ici and
socially desi able ou comes.
2. Theo e ical Backg ound and Hypo hesis De elopmen
2.1. De ian Wo kplace Beha io (DWB)
DWB is de ined as any olun a y beha io whe e employees iola e he expec a ions
o he social con ex in he wo kplace (Kaplan 1975), and i comp ises a ange o beha io s,
such as he , ha assmen , and dishones y, ha go agains wo kplace ules and egula ions
(Robinson and Benne 1995). Employees may engage in DWB o bo h indi idual and
o ganiza ional easons, including sel -in e es , emo ional exhaus ion, mis ea men o
injus ice, une hical collogues o leade ship, o issues wi h he o ganiza ional clima e (Chen
and King 2018;Mackey e al. 2021;Miao e al. 2020;Pa k e al. 2019;Sha e 2008;Sche e
e al. 2001;Wilson e al. 2015).
DWB has de imen al e ec s on bo h o ganiza ions and employees (Robinson and
Benne 1995). Fo ins ance, i can exace ba e wo kplace inci ili y among membe s (Meie
and Spec o 2013), con ibu e o abusi e supe ision (Lian e al. 2014), and e en lead
o insomnia (Yuan e al. 2018). Howe e , ecen esea ch has also begun o explo e he
po en ial posi i e e ec s o DWB; o ins ance, Fan e al. (2021) ound ha DWB can
posi i ely con ibu e o he eco e y o employees’ esou ces, which, in u n, enhances hei
wo k engagemen . Simila ly, Ilies e al. (2013) demons a ed ha undesi able wo kplace
beha io s a e posi i ely associa ed wi h o ganiza ional ci izenship beha io (OCB) h ough
he emo ional mechanism o guil . Di e ging om hese s udies, ou esea ch seeks o
explo e he po en ial posi i e impac s o DWB on p oac i e beha io and he unde lying
mechanisms om a mo al cogni i e pe spec i e.
2.2. Mo al Cogni i e Responses o DWB
The undamen al a gumen o mo al cleansing heo y is based on a mo al balance
model (Nisan and Ho enczyk 1990) ha p oposes ha indi iduals ha e a mo al sel - ega d,
which e e s o a sel -assessmen o hei cu en mo al deg ee; he le el o mo al sel -
ega d inc eases when hey engage in mo ally laudable beha io s and dec eases when
hey engage in mo ally ques ionable beha io s. E e y indi idual has a ela i ely s able
mo al equilib ium poin , which is he ideal le el o one’s mo al sel - ega d, and people
a e mo i a ed o main ain hei mo al sel - ega d so ha i aligns wi h hei equilib ium
poin (e.g., Ahmad e al. 2021;Sachde a e al. 2009). When he e is a disc epancy be ween
people’s mo al sel - ega d and hei mo al equilib ium poin , hey a e mo e likely o ac
ei he mo ally o immo ally o main ain he balance. Speci ically, i indi iduals engage in
mo ally commendable beha io s, his endows hem wi h a psychological “license” ha
allows hem o ac in a mo ally ques ionable way wi hou conce ning hei sel -image
(e.g., Loi e al. 2020;Yam e al. 2017). Con e sely, he p inciple applies when hei mo al
sel - ega d is lowe han he mo al equilib ium poin . I indi iduals expe ience a decline in
hei mo al sel - ega d due o engaging in immo al ac ions, hey a e inclined o engage in
compensa o y beha io s o “cleanse” hei mo al impu i y and boos hei mo al sel - ega d
o keep i consis en wi h he mo al equilib ium poin .
Fu he mo e, mo al cleansing heo y sugges s ha p e ious une hical beha io s shape
subsequen ly a o able beha io s ia bo h emo ional and cogni i e mechanisms (Zhong
e al. 2009). Se e al s udies ha e demons a ed he emo ional ami ica ions ha occu a e
immo al beha io s. Fo ins ance, Ilies e al. (2013) showed ha , when indi iduals ealized
hei pas beha io s iola e o ganiza ional o social no ms, hey eel guil y.
Unlike hese s udies, ou esea ch p edominan ly ocuses on he cogni i e mechanism.
As we discussed abo e, DWB exe s de imen al consequences on he o ganiza ions and
simul aneously jeopa dizes he indi idual’s mo al sel - ega d (e.g., Aquino and Reed 2002).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141 4 o 18
The e o e, ollowing mo al cleansing heo y, we con end ha , when employees engaged
in DWB, hey a e mo e likely o pe cei e a high mo al de ici , which e e s o a de ici
in pe sonal mo al c edi s esul ing om one’s own une hical beha io s (Liao e al. 2023).
The cons uc o mo al c edi is analogous o keeping a mo al bank accoun . Indi iduals
end o e alua e hei beha io s ega ding e hicali y, whe e good deeds accumula e mo al
c edi s ha can be used o pay o subsequen immo al beha io s (Lin e al. 2016), and
bad deeds lead o a mo al deb , necessi a ing engagemen in compensa o y beha io s o
“ epay” his deb (Mille and E on 2010;Zhong e al. 2009). The e o e, he luc ua ion
o mo al c edi s in esponse o one’s ac ions mi o s an indi idual’s cogni i e esponse
o subsequen mo al o immo al beha io s. Building on his, pe pe a ing DWB no only
iola es social no ms bu also in lic s ha m on he o ganiza ion and on colleagues (e.g.,
Robinson e al. 2014). Thus, employees may pe cei e a loss o mo al c edi (i.e., mo al
de ici ). Suppo ing ou a gumen , se e al s udies ha e iden i ied a posi i e ela ionship
be ween mo al de ici and p e ious e hical ansg essions. Fo example, Zhong e al. (2010)
conduc ed wo expe imen s and ound ha indi iduals el a mo al de ici upon making an
une hical choice. In a simila ein, Liao e al. (2018) showed ha leade s expe ienced a loss
o mo al c edi a e pe pe a ing abusi e leade ship beha io s.
We, he e o e, hypo hesize ha employees a e mo e likely o pe cei e mo al de ici as
a cogni i e esponse o hei DWB.
Hypo hesis 1 (H1). The ac o engaging in DWB is posi i ely associa ed wi h an inc ease in mo al
de ici .
2.3. Compensa o y Response o Pe cei ed Mo al De ici
As p e iously discussed, mo al cleansing heo y sugges s ha indi iduals a e inclined
o align hei mo al sel - ega d wi h hei mo al equilib ium and a e, he e o e, mo i a ed o
engage in mo ally laudable beha io s o compensa e o hei p e ious immo al beha io s.
A hand ul o empi ical s udies ound ha employees o en engaged in mul iple subsequen
beha io s, such as apologizing and compensa ing (Gho bani e al. 2013), OCB (Ilies e al.
2013), se ice-o ien ed helping beha io (Liao e al. 2023), and pe son-o ien ed leade ship
beha io (Liao e al. 2018), o epai hei sel -image and aise hei mo al sel - ega d.
Al hough hese s udies imply ha indi iduals p oac i ely engage in epa a i e beha io s
o a one o hei pas ansg essions, i is su p ising ha ew s udies ha e, so a , empi i-
cally es ed whe he p oac i e beha io can “cleanse” a mo al de ici (excep Wang e al.
2022). Consequen ly, ou esea ch con ends ha p oac i e beha io is an app op ia ely
compensa o y beha io in esponse o a mo al de ici caused by engagemen in DWB.
P oac i e beha io in ol es employees’ ac ing in an icipa ion o b ing abou change
in he wo kplace o enhance o ganiza ional e ec i eness. I has h ee i al a ibu es;
sel -ini ia ion, change-o ien ed, and u u e- ocused (Pa ke e al. 2010;Pa ke and Collins
2010). P oac i e employees ake he ini ia i e o make hings happen, a he han wai ing
o hings happen, and i is conside ed o be a speci ic o m o p osocial beha io (e.g.,
Belschak and Den Ha og 2017;Mackenzie e al. 2011), which means i o e laps o some
ex en wi h OCB. Howe e , a consensus in much o he p oac i e beha io li e a u e is ha
p oac i e beha io is no an ex a ole beha io like OCB. As p oac i i y is a “goal-d i en
p ocess” (Pa ke e al. 2010), indi iduals engaging in i b oadly comp ehend and ede ine
hei oles so ha hey can encapsula e he desi able u u e (i.e., goals) ha hey wish o
achie e (F ese and Fay 2001;G an and Ash o d 2008;G i in e al. 2007;Pa ke e al. 2006).
In o he wo ds, bo h in- ole and ex a- ole pe o mance can, o some ex en , be mani es ed
in a p oac i e way.
We posi ha p oac i e beha io may be a plausible beha io al esponse o ed ess
a pe cei ed mo al de ici o wo easons. Fi s , when employees expe ience a mo al
de ici in hemsel es, he compensa o y beha io s hey subsequen ly use o amend hei
pas immo al beha io s a e ypically sel -s a ed. Second, since o ganiza ions a e o en
he p ima y ic ims o DWB (e.g., Zhong and Robinson 2021), indi iduals a e likely o
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141 5 o 18
p io i ize compensa ing he o ganiza ion and enhancing i s e iciency as hei o emos goal
(C yde e al. 2012;Wang e al. 2022). P oac i e beha io , which is dedica ed o changing
he s a us quo o a be e u u e, can yield nume ous posi i e o ganiza ional ou comes,
including inno a ions, esilience, and imp o ed o ganiza ional e ec i eness (e.g., De e
and Bu is 2007;Liang e al. 2012;Moon e al. 2008), ha can coun e balance he ha m
in lic ed by a p e ious engagemen in DWB. Fu he mo e, employees equen ly ecei e
angible ewa ds, such as p omo ions o inc eased sala ies, om engaging in p oac i e
beha io s (e.g., Seibe e al. 2001;Thompson 2005), which can se e o enhance hei mo al
sel - ega d. Employees can le e age p oac i e beha io o epai he pe cei ed mo al de ici
esul ing om hei p e ious DWB. Based on hese a gumen s, we p opose he ollowing:
Hypo hesis 2 (H2). A pe cei ed mo al de ici is posi i ely associa ed wi h subsequen p oac i e
beha io .
Combining H1 wi h H2, we con end ha a pe cei ed mo al de ici is he unde ly-
ing mechanism ha elabo a es he posi i e ela ionship be ween DWB and subsequen
p oac i e beha io .
Hypo hesis 3 (H3). The ac o engaging in DWB is posi i ely associa ed wi h subsequen p oac i e
beha io ia a pe cei ed mo al de ici .
2.4. The Mode a ing Role o Mo al Cou age
Thus a , we ha e emphasized he unde lying mechanism o he mo al cleansing
p ocess om a “wi hin-employee” pe spec i e. Howe e , mo al cleansing heo y also
sugges s ha he media ion e ec o his p ocess may di e among indi iduals who
possess a ying mo al cha ac e is ics (Mullen and Monin 2016). A ecen s udy showed
ha indi iduals ac i a ed a “double-dis ancing mechanism” o hei immo al beha io s,
ea ing he mo ally ques ionable beha io s o o he s o e ly ha shly, a he han engaging
in compensa o y beha io s hemsel es (Ba kan e al. 2012). D awing upon hese insigh s,
we iden i y mo al cou age as a i al ac o in shaping e hical decision-making.
Mo al cou age e e s o he ex en o which indi iduals a e commi ed o mo al
p inciples and hei willingness o ac in esponse o hei own immo al ac s (Liao e al.
2018). P io s udies ha e shown ha mo al cou age can appea bo h as a s able pe sonal
ai (e.g., Pe al a e al. 2021;Seke ka e al. 2009) and as a malleable s a e (e.g., Jonas e al.
2007;Hannah e al. 2011;Hannah e al. 2013). Fo example, mo al cou age can be enhanced
by aining (Jonas e al. 2007) o a posi i e leade ship s yle (e.g., Alsheh i and Elsaied 2022;
Cheng e al. 2019), and mo ally cou ageous indi iduals a e mo e likely o in en ionally
conduc in mo ally good ways, despi e any pe cei ed isks o obs acles (e.g., Pe al a e al.
2021).
Building on hese a gumen s, we p opose ha employees wi h high mo al cou age
a e mo e likely o engage in p oac i e beha io when hey pe cei e a mo al de ici caused
by hei p e ious DWB han hose wi h low mo al cou age; indeed, p oac i e beha io s
ha con as wi h p io DWB a e an implici and public acknowledgmen o an employee’s
p e ious misconduc . The e o e, i may be mo e expedien o employees o igno e hei
mo al de ici s o s a e ha hei engagemen in DWB is a ibu ed o se e al con ex ual
ac o s (e.g., wo k s ess, un ai ea men ) (e.g., Dhanani and LaPalme 2019;Li e al. 2017).
E en i employees pe cei e a mo al de ici , hey migh op o engage in compensa o y
beha io s ha a e di ec ed owa ds indi iduals ou side o he wo kplace (Sachde a e al.
2009) o ind a plausible excuse o jus i y hei immo al beha io s, a he han p oac i ely
helping he o ganiza ion and make amends o hei mis akes. Howe e , employees wi h
high mo al cou age a e mo e likely o b a ely acknowledge hei p e ious w ongdoings
wi hou ea ing he isks associa ed wi h such an admission. Mo eo e , such employees
end o con on hei immo al deeds and a e mo e likely o conduc e ec i e compen-
sa o y beha io s o assuage hei mo al de ici . In addi ion, schola s ha e a gued ha
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141 6 o 18
engaging in p oac i e beha io is no easy (e.g., G i in e al. 2007), as employees need o be
cou ageous in challenging he s a us quo, o e coming di icul ies, and obs acles, e en ually
con ibu ing o a mo e desi able u u e.
Based on hese a gumen s, we hypo hesize ha :
Hypo hesis 4 (H4). Employees’ mo al cou age mode a es he ela ionship be ween pe cei ed mo al
de ici and p oac i e beha io , such ha , he posi i e ela ionship is s onge when hei mo al
cou age is high a he han low.
In eg a ing ou heo e ical a gumen s abou he mode a ing ole o mo al cou age
and he media ing ole o mo al de ici , we con end he ollowing i s s age mode a ed
media ion hypo hesis:
Hypo hesis 5 (H5). Employees’ mo al cou age mode a es he indi ec e ec o hei DWB on
subsequen p oac i e beha io ia pe cei ed mo al de ici , such ha he indi ec e ec is s onge
when hei mo al cou age is high a he han low.
3. Me hod
We conduc ed wo s udies o es ou hypo heses. In S udy 1, we used expe imen al
se ings o es he causal e ec s o DWB on employees’ subsequen pe cei ed mo al de ici
and p oac i e beha io , since p e ious esea ch has ound ha employees will engage in
une hical beha io subsequen o exhibi ing p o-social beha io (e.g., Yam e al. 2017;Loi
e al. 2020). In S udy 2, we employed a mul i-wa e su ey-based s udy o examine ou
en i e hypo hesized model.
3.1. S udy 1
3.1.1. Design and Pa icipan s
We ec ui ed 130 ull- ime employees wo king ac oss he Uni ed Kingdom using
P oli ic, an online su ey pla o m widely used o esea ch pu poses (Pee e al. 2017). The
pa icipan s we e om a ious indus ies, including manu ac u ing, e ail, and inance, and
we e andomly alloca ed o ei he he expe imen g oup o he con ol g oup. Pa icipan s
in he expe imen al condi ion we e p esen ed wi h an o e iew o DWB, supplemen ed
by some examples, such as “ aking an addi ional o longe b eak” (Benne and Robinson
2000). Subsequen ly, hey we e equi ed o ecall and de ail any such ac ions ha hey
had exhibi ed in he pas mon h. Two sample esponses we e “I ook a longe lunch
b eak so I could ha e a nap” and “I ha e a dayd eam when I should ha e been w i ing
unc ional specs”. On he con a y, pa icipan s in he con ol condi ion we e asked o
ecall and desc ibe a ou ine wo k ac i i y hey had pe o med. Two sample esponses
we e “c ea ing epo s and analyzing da a o p o ide insigh s o s akeholde s,” and “using
p ojec managemen so wa e o manage budge s”. We me iculously examined all o he
esponses o ensu e hey aligned wi h ou ins uc ions. Two pa icipan s we e excluded, as
hei esponses did no mee ou minimum wo d-coun equi emen , esul ing in a inal
sample o 128 pa icipan s, o whom 51.6% we e male; hei a e age was 43.81 (SD = 11.33);
86.5% o hem had a bachelo ’s deg ee o highe ; 51.6% did no hold a manage ial posi ion,
and he a e age o ganiza ional enu e was 10.37 yea s (SD = 8.67). A e comple ing he
ex i em, hey we e asked o espond o ques ions abou manipula ion check, mo al de ici ,
and subsequen p oac i e beha io .
3.1.2. Measu es
Unless o he wise s a ed, he speci ic a iables ha a e desc ibed below we e a ed on
a i e-poin Like - ype scale anging om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 5 (s ongly ag ee).
The media o is mo al de ici . We adop ed a i e-i em scale de eloped by Yuan e al.
(2018) o measu e mo al de ici (
α
= 0.97). The pa icipan s we e ins uc ed o indica e hei
ag eemen wi h each i em based on how hey hough abou hemsel es a e engaging in
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141 7 o 18
DWB. One ep esen a i e i em was, “When I engaged in his beha io , I los mo al c edi
o pe o ming a mo ally ques ionable beha io ”.
The dependen a iable is p oac i e beha io . We measu ed p oac i e beha io using
nine i ems om G i in e al. (2007) (
α
= 0.91). The pa icipan s we e asked o indica e how
equen ly hey ha e engaged in p oac i e beha io s a e exhibi ing DWB on a i e-poin
scale om 1 (ne e ) o 5 (always). A sample i em was, “I ini ia e be e ways o doing my
co e asks”.
3.1.3. Manipula ion Check
P io o he p ima y analysis, we conduc ed an analysis o a iance (ANOVA) o check
he alidi y o he e ec i eness o ou manipula ion check using he i em “The beha io
you ha e ecalled was e hical” (Wang e al. 2022). The esul s show ha pa icipan s in he
expe imen al condi ion a ed his i em lowe (M = 2.75, SD = 0.78) han hose in he con ol
condi ion (M = 4.63, SD = 0.63; F [1, 126] = 225, p< 0.01,
ηp2
= 0.64), indica ing ha DWB
was success ully manipula ed in ou expe imen .
3.1.4. S udy 1 Resul s
We conduc ed a one-way ANOVA o examine whe he he pa icipan s in he expe i-
men al condi ion pe cei ed mo e o a mo al de ici han hose in he con ol condi ion. H1
posi s ha he ac o engaging in DWB is posi i ely associa ed wi h an inc ease in mo al
de ici . Figu e 2 e eals ha hose who ecalled a DWB epo ed a highe deg ee o mo al
de ici (M = 2.47, SD = 0.86) han hose who ecalled a ou ine wo kplace beha io (M = 1.20,
SD = 0.46; F [1, 126] = 107.43, p< 0.01,
ηp2
= 0.46), sugges ing ha employees’ DWB has an
impac on pe cei ed mo al de ici , he eby suppo ing H1. Fu he mo e, we es ed whe he
he pa icipan s in he expe imen al condi ion engaged in mo e p oac i e beha io han
hose in he con ol condi ion. The esul s show ha hose who ecalled a DWB epo ed
mo e p oac i e beha io s (M = 3.52, SD = 0.61) han hose who ecalled a ou ine wo kplace
beha io (M = 3.22, SD = 0.78; F [1, 126] = 5.83, p< 0.05,
ηp2
= 0.04), p o iding p elimina y
suppo o H3. O e all, we le e aged S udy 1 o demons a e he causal e ec o DWB on
mo al de ici and subsequen p oac i e beha io .
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 o 18
Figu e 2. Ou comes o expe imen al condi ions on mo al de ici and p oac i e beha io (S udy 1).
3.2. S udy 2
3.2.1. Design and Pa icipan s
We conduc ed a su ey-based s udy o es all ou hypo heses. We ec ui ed ull- ime
employees wo king in he Uni ed S a es h ough P oli ic and employed a mul i-wa e su -
ey design o collec da a ac oss wo diffe en ime poin s, sepa a ed by a one-week in e -
al, o mi iga e common me hod bias (Podsakoff e al. 2003). A Time 1, 203 pa icipan s
esponded o ques ions ega ding demog aphic in o ma ion, DWB, and mo al de ici . A -
e emo ing he esponden s who ailed he a en ion check, we e ained 197 effec i e
esponses. One week la e , a Time 2, 180 pa icipan s ( esponse a e 91.4%) comple ed a
ollow-up su ey including ques ions on p oac i e beha io , mo al cou age, and he con-
ol a iables. Each pa icipan was compensa ed wi h GPB 0.50 (app oxima ely USD 0.65)
a Time 1 and GBP 0.63 (app oxima ely USD 0.80) a Time 2. The inal sample o 180 alid
pa icipan s wo ked in a ious indus ies, including inance, insu ance, e ail, manu ac-
u ing, and IT. Among hem, 51.7% we e emale; 79.4% we e iden i ied as Caucasian; he
a e age age was 38.29 (SD = 10.80); 78.4% held a deg ee o bachelo ’s deg ee o highe ;
and 59.4% held a non-manage ial posi ion. Thei a e age enu e a hei cu en o gani-
za ion was 6.91 yea s (SD = 6.96).
3.2.2. Measu es
Unless o he wise no ed, he speci ic a iables desc ibed below we e a ed on a i e-
poin Like - ype scale anging om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 5 (s ongly ag ee).
The independen a iable is DWB. We measu ed DWB using he six-i em sel - e-
po ed measu e de eloped by Benne and Robinson (2000) on a i e-poin scale om 1
(ne e ) o 5 (always) (α = 0.83). A sample i em was “I ake an addi ional o longe b eak
han is accep able a my wo kplace”.
The mode a o is mo al cou age. Mo al cou age was assessed using he h ee-i em
scale om Hannah and A olio (2010) (α = 0.73). An example i em was, “I demons a e
cou age o do he igh hing, e en a pe sonal cos ”.
Fo he media o and dependen a iable, we used he same i ems om S udy 1 o
measu e mo al de ici (α = 0.97) and he employee’s p oac i e beha io (α = 0.90).
Fo he con ol a iables, we included a ange o con ol a iables o enhance he
alidi y o he ela ionships among he co e cons uc s (Be ne h and Aguinis 2016). Fi s ,
e e ing o p e ious s udies on DWB (e.g., Yuan e al. 2018), we con olled o demo-
g aphic a iables, speci ically gende , age, educa ion, o ganiza ional enu e, and posi ion,
as hese a iables ha e impac s on DWBs and p oac i e beha io s. Fu he , we con olled
Figu e 2. Ou comes o expe imen al condi ions on mo al de ici and p oac i e beha io (S udy 1).
3.2. S udy 2
3.2.1. Design and Pa icipan s
We conduc ed a su ey-based s udy o es all ou hypo heses. We ec ui ed ull- ime
employees wo king in he Uni ed S a es h ough P oli ic and employed a mul i-wa e su ey
design o collec da a ac oss wo di e en ime poin s, sepa a ed by a one-week in e al, o
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141 8 o 18
mi iga e common me hod bias (Podsako e al. 2003). A Time 1, 203 pa icipan s esponded
o ques ions ega ding demog aphic in o ma ion, DWB, and mo al de ici . A e emo ing
he esponden s who ailed he a en ion check, we e ained 197 e ec i e esponses. One
week la e , a Time 2, 180 pa icipan s ( esponse a e 91.4%) comple ed a ollow-up su ey
including ques ions on p oac i e beha io , mo al cou age, and he con ol a iables. Each
pa icipan was compensa ed wi h GPB 0.50 (app oxima ely USD 0.65) a Time 1 and
GBP 0.63 (app oxima ely USD 0.80) a Time 2. The inal sample o 180 alid pa icipan s
wo ked in a ious indus ies, including inance, insu ance, e ail, manu ac u ing, and IT.
Among hem, 51.7% we e emale; 79.4% we e iden i ied as Caucasian; he a e age age was
38.29 (SD = 10.80); 78.4% held a deg ee o bachelo ’s deg ee o highe ; and 59.4% held a
non-manage ial posi ion. Thei a e age enu e a hei cu en o ganiza ion was 6.91 yea s
(SD = 6.96).
3.2.2. Measu es
Unless o he wise no ed, he speci ic a iables desc ibed below we e a ed on a i e-
poin Like - ype scale anging om 1 (s ongly disag ee) o 5 (s ongly ag ee).
The independen a iable is DWB. We measu ed DWB using he six-i em sel - epo ed
measu e de eloped by Benne and Robinson (2000) on a i e-poin scale om 1 (ne e )
o 5 (always) (
α
= 0.83). A sample i em was “I ake an addi ional o longe b eak han is
accep able a my wo kplace”.
The mode a o is mo al cou age. Mo al cou age was assessed using he h ee-i em
scale om Hannah and A olio (2010) (
α
= 0.73). An example i em was, “I demons a e
cou age o do he igh hing, e en a pe sonal cos ”.
Fo he media o and dependen a iable, we used he same i ems om S udy 1 o
measu e mo al de ici (α= 0.97) and he employee’s p oac i e beha io (α= 0.90).
Fo he con ol a iables, we included a ange o con ol a iables o enhance he
alidi y o he ela ionships among he co e cons uc s (Be ne h and Aguinis 2016). Fi s ,
e e ing o p e ious s udies on DWB (e.g., Yuan e al. 2018), we con olled o demo-
g aphic a iables, speci ically gende , age, educa ion, o ganiza ional enu e, and posi ion,
as hese a iables ha e impac s on DWBs and p oac i e beha io s. Fu he , we con olled
o h ee pe sonali y ai s ha may in luence p oac i e beha io , namely ag eeableness,
consciousness, and p oac i e pe sonali y (e.g., Fulle and Ma le 2009;Pa ke e al. 2010).
Ag eeableness (
α
= 0.69) and consciousness (
α
= 0.81) we e measu ed using he scale
de eloped by So o and John (2017), and p oac i e pe sonali y was measu ed using Seibe
e al.’s (1999) en-i em scale (α= 0.87).
3.2.3. S udy 2 Resul s
Fo he con i ma o y ac o analysis, p io o es ing he hypo heses, we pe o med
a se ies o con i ma o y ac o analyses (CFAs) using RS udio and he La aan package
(Rosseel 2012) o examine he cons uc alidi y o he measu es (i.e., DWB, mo al de ici ,
mo al cou age, and p oac i e beha io ). Table 1shows ha he hypo hesized ou - ac o
model had a be e i (
χ2
= 473.04, d = 225,
χ2
/d = 2.10; compa a i e i index
[CFI] = 0.91
,
inc emen al i index [IFI] = 0.91, s anda dized oo mean squa e esidual [SRMR] = 0.06,
oo -mean-squa e e o o app oxima ion [RMSEA] = 0.08) o he da a han any o he
al e na i e models, such as a h ee- ac o model ha combined mo al cou age and mo al
de ici (
χ2
= 594.65, d = 227,
χ2
/d = 2.62; CFI = 0.86, IFI = 0.86, SRMR = 0.09,
RMSEA = 0.10
)
and a wo- ac o model ha combined DWB, mo al cou age, and mo al de ici (
χ2
= 918.49,
d = 229,
χ2
/d = 4.01; CFI = 0.74, IFI = 0.74, SRMR = 0.14, RMSEA = 0.13). The esul s
demons a e he disc iminan alidi y o ou ocal cons uc s.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 141 15 o 18
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, S.Z. and M.Z.; me hodology, S.Z. and M.Z.; so wa e, S.Z.;
alida ion, M.Z.; o mal analysis, S.Z. and M.Z.; in es iga ion, S.Z. and M.Z.; esou ces, S.Z.; da a
cu a ion, S.Z. and M.Z.; w i ing—o iginal d a p epa a ion, S.Z. and M.Z.; w i ing— e iew and
edi ing, S.Z. and M.Z.; isualiza ion, S.Z.; supe ision, S.Z. and M.Z.; p ojec adminis a ion, S.Z. All
au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: The esea ch ecei ed no ex e nal unding.
Ins i u ional Re iew Boa d S a emen : E hical e iew and app o al we e wai ed o his s udy due
o in o med consen ob ained om all subjec s in ol ed in his esea ch.
In o med Consen S a emen : In o med consen was ob ained om all subjec s included in he s udy.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a ha suppo he indings o his s udy a e a ailable om he
co esponding au ho upon eques .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic s o in e es .
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