Algorithmic Decision-Making in Service Work: An Analysis of Changing Job Autonomy

Glock, Gina
Book
Algo i hmic Decision-Making in Se ice Wo k: An Analysis
o Changing Job Au onomy
A bei , Digi alisie ung und O ganisa ion, No. 3
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Nomos Ve lagsgesellscha mbH & Co. KG
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Glock, Gina (2024) : Algo i hmic Decision-Making in Se ice Wo k: An Analysis o
Changing Job Au onomy, A bei , Digi alisie ung und O ganisa ion, No. 3, ISBN 978-3-7489-4666-3,
Nomos, Baden-Baden,
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Algo i hmic Decision-Making
in Se ice Wo k Glock
A bei , Digi alisie ung und O ganisa ion | 3
Gina Glock
Algo i hmic Decision-Making
in Se ice Wo k
An Analysis o Changing Job Au onomy
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A bei , Digi alisie ung und O ganisa ion
Edi ed by
P o . D . Maximilian Heims äd
P o . D . Ma kus He wig
P o . D . Elke Schüßle
P o . D . Ca oline Ruine
P o . D . Ca s en Wi h
Volume 3
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Gina Glock
Algo i hmic Decision-Making
in Se ice Wo k
An Analysis o Changing Job Au onomy
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The Deu sche Na ionalbiblio hek lis s his publica ion in he
Deu sche Na ionalbibliog a ie; de ailed bibliog aphic da a
a e a ailable on he In e ne a h p://dnb.d-nb.de
a. .: D esden, Uni ., Diss., 2024
1s Edi ion 2024
© Gina Glock
Published by
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ISBN 978-3-7560-1013-4 (P in )
ISBN 978-3-7489-4666-3 (ePDF)
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Acknowledgemen s
As a membe o he Schau le Lab@TU D esden, I would like o hank
all he people behind he o ganiza ion who ha e accompanied and sup‐
po ed me since 2020 and who ha e kep my back ee bo h o ganiza‐
ionally and inancially.
My since e hanks go o P o . D . An onia Kup e , who no only
guided me on my pa h o my doc o a e bu , abo e all, ga e me he chance
and he con idence o s a his p ojec in he i s place.
My hanks go o P o . D . Sabine P ei e , who always managed o
p o ide mo i a ing and ins uc i e ad ice a he igh momen s.
Wi hou he suppo and ime commi men o my in e iew pa ne s,
his hesis would no ha e been possible. I would like o hank he em‐
ployees o he ou pa ien ca e p o ide in he i s case s udy, who pa ‐
icipa ed in his p ojec wi h g ea engagemen despi e he la ge olume
o wo k. I would also like o hank he employees o he second case
s udy company in banking se ices, who ga e me a deep insigh in o
hei daily wo k despi e he ongoing economic p essu e. I would like o
hank he expe s who ga e me aluable in o ma ion in ou discussions
ha ex ended well beyond my empi ical analyses.
I mus hank my pa en s, who made my pa h in o educa ion and
science possible in he i s place. I do no hink any o us would ha e
guessed ha I would go on o do a doc o a e.
I would like o hank my dea iends who ne e doub ed ha I could
comple e his p ojec . I ha e ne e lacked suppo o mo i a ing wo ds.
Finally, my hanks go o my pa ne , who has expe ienced, suppo ed,
and endu ed he daily highs and lows o his p ojec like no o he .
I am beyond happy and p oud o ha e comple ed his p ojec .
I am looking o wa d o wha ’s ahead.
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“My wo k comes o me in a comple ely au oma ic way, in
he ges u es o an au oma ion. [...] Bu unde nea h his my
mind ne e s ops wo king. I li es by i sel . Some call i
d eaming, and i so, I am d eaming all day long, i e days a
week. [...] The whole bench d eams like his. I is a galle y
o au oma ions locked in d eams.”
F om B yan Sla e ’s On he line
in Ronald F ase ’s Wo k: Twen y pe sonal accoun s (1968, pp. 97–98).
Found in Amelia Ho gan’s Los in wo k. Escaping capi alism (2021, p. 49).
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Table o Con en s
Acknowledgemen s 5
Lis o igu es 11
Lis o ables 13
Lis o abb e ia ions 15
1. In oduc ion 17
1.1. The necessi y o a sociological lens on AI 22
1.2. A oiding con usion: wo ke s’ au onomy and
machine au oma ion 27
1.3. F aming job au onomy in he o ganiza ion o wo k 30
1.4. Rele ance and ex en o job au onomy 33
1.5. Excu sus: How a e you, se ice wo ke s? 38
2. Resea ch objec i e and s uc u e 48
PART I Linking ADM, job au onomy & se ice wo k:
an a emp a concep ual embedding
3. AI in he wo k p ocess 55
3.1. F om AI o algo i hmic decision-making 55
3.2. Di e en ia ing a ec ed asks 61
3.3. Towa ds a ca ego iza ion o ADM sys ems 65
3.4. Excu sus: Digi aliza ion, ADM, and AI in igu es 70
4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 74
4.1. Call o concep ual enewal 74
4.2. Se en dimensions o job au onomy 77
4.2.1. Task Au onomy 80
4.2.2. Me hod Au onomy 82
4.2.3. C i e ia Au onomy 85
4.2.4. Scheduling Au onomy 87
4.2.5. Wo king Time Au onomy 90
4.2.6. Loca ional Au onomy 93
4.2.7. In e ac ional Au onomy 96
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8 Table o Con en s
5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol 100
5.1. Ra ionaliza ion a i s co e: minimizing job
au onomy and di ec con ol 102
5.2. Exploi ing he subjec : g an ing job au onomy and
indi ec con ol 106
5.3. Digi al Taylo ism: Jus old wine in new bo les? 110
5.4. Co po a e s a egies as d i e s be ween
echnology and job au onomy 114
5.5. Expec a ions o ADM in se ice wo k and missing pieces 118
PART II Who ca ches he eye?
Quan i ying job au onomy in se ice wo k
6. Objec i e 129
7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index 131
7.1. A ques ion o ope a ionaliza ion 132
7.2. I em selec ion 137
7.3. Calcula ion, sample, and a iable desc ip ion 142
8. Resul s: Au onomy Index 148
8.1. By se ice b anch and ask ype 150
8.2. By selec ed socio-economic aspec s 158
8.3. By selec ed ADM aspec s 163
8.4. Changes be ween 2012 and 2018 168
9. Limi a ions 176
10. Summa y: solidi ied pola iza ions, less in ensi y o some 178
PART III Case s udy insigh s: glances in o changing
job au onomy o se ice wo ke s
11. Objec i e 183
12. Me hod: unde s anding and conduc o case s udies 186
12.1. Wha is a case? 187
12.2. Da a collec ion 188
12.3. In e iew ini ia ion and conduc ion 192
12.4. Da a p epa a ion and analysis 194
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Lis o abb e ia ions
ADM Algo i hmic Decision-Making
AI A i icial In elligence
ANN A i icial Neu al Ne wo ks
BAuA Fede al Ins i u e o Occupa ional Sa e y and Heal h
BIBB Fede al Ins i u e o Voca ional Educa ion and T aining
DA Da a analy ics
DL Deep lea ning
ETB Employmen Su ey
GDPR Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula
HAS Highly au onomous se ice
ICT In o ma ion and Communica ions Technologies
JCI Job Cha ac e is ic In en o y
JDC Job Demand-Con ol Model
JD-R Job Demands-Resou ces Model
JDS Job Diagnos ic Su ey
KIS Knowledge-in ensi e se ices
LAS Less au onomous se ice
LEEP Linked-Employe -Employee-Panel
LKIS Less knowledge-in ensi e se ices
M Mean
ML Machine lea ning
NLP Na u al language p ocessing
PEP Pe sonnel esou ce planning
PoC Poin o Ca e
pp Pe cen age poin s
SD S anda d de ia ion
SOEP-IS Socio-Economic Panel Inno a ion Sample
TBA Task-based App oach
w / o Wi hou
This hesis ollows he ci a ion s yle o he 7 h edi ion o he Ame ican
Psychological Associa ion (APA).
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1. In oduc ion
Despi e he o wa d-looking na u e o deba ing he impac ha A i icial
In elligence (AI) has on human labo , his hesis begins wi h a glance back
in o he pas : In an essay om 1986, he social and occupa ional psy‐
chologis Ma ie Jahoda i s add essed AI. He analysis e lec s ensions
in he ela ionship be ween AI and humans ha s ill apply oday and a e
ans e able o he wo ld o wo k. Th ee quo a ions om his essay a e
in ended o p o ide an opening explana ion o some co e ideas and he
esea ch ocus o his hesis:
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) demons a es he habi ual s a e o e e y
science – unce ain y and con o e sy – almos o he ex eme. Few hings a e
ce ain in his young and apidly g owing ield and con o e sy wi hin and
wi hou he AI communi y is sha p on majo issues. (Jahoda, 1986, p. 333)
AI esea ch is no longe conside ed young, as he e m was i s men‐
ioned in a scien i ic con ex a he amous Da mou h Con e ence in
1956. Rega ding he discussion o wo k and AI wi hin he social sciences,
unce ain y and con o e sy a e wha emain; con o e sy, pa icula ly
wi h espec o he discou se on he oppo uni ies and isks o AI o
he economy and he wo king wo ld, in which many public deba es
ha dly go beyond supe icial discussions. Expec a ions o he po en ial
o AI a e o en high, while he ac ual isks o socie y and indi iduals
a e di icul o g asp. F om wo ke s’ pe spec i e, he key ques ions in
dealing wi h AI mus be o wha ex en (we a e clea ly beyond whe he )
his changed ela ion o echnology leads o a shi in powe owa ds
employe s. In wha con ex s can AI be a d i e o inequali y? Will AI
be u ilized o suppo wo ke s, se he pace, o e en ake o e ce ain
asks en i ely? A e AI sys ems e en capable o ul illing hese di e se
expec a ions?
The c ucial u ning poin was he ealisa ion ha compu e s we e capable
o mo e han ’numbe c unching’: hey we e also compe en manipula o s o
concep s and meaning. (Jahoda, 1986, p. 334)
The e is no ques ion ha he esea ch successes and applicabili y o
AI in e e yday li e ha e seen eno mous ad ances in ecen yea s. The
easons o his include he a ailabili y o la ge amoun s o da a and
lowe cos s o high compu e pe o mance. Today, digi al and AI-based
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18 1. In oduc ion
sys ems a e capable o mo e han simple da a p ocessing. In addi ion o
ul illing wo k ou ines in s anda dized se ings, hey a e no longe jus
app oaching in e en ion in cogni i e and c ea i e ac i i ies. They a e
al eady pe o ming hem. As a esul , echnical sys ems a e po en ially
in e ening in mo e a eas o employees’ wo k. The new capabili ies o
AI a e he i s eason o speci ically add ess hei in luence on wo k
si ua ions. I is no only ou ine, easily o malized asks o cogni i e-
c ea i e wo k ha is unde p essu e o change.
AI sys ems a e also inc easingly gaining access o he in e ac ion
componen s o wo k, be i in e ail, inance, educa ion, o heal hca e –
hus, in many wo k si ua ions in which human skills ha e long e‐
ained so e eign y o e wo k. The in e en ion in wo k ac ion mus be
e hough as a as no only ule-guided, o malizable ac ion bu possibly
also si ua ion- ela ed, expe ience-based ac ion can be au oma ed by an
AI sys em. Will he new and apidly changing capabili ies o AI sys ems
be e lec ed as a means o comp essing and in ensi ying wo k i hey can
in e ene in e en mo e p ocesses, o will wo ke s es ablish new ways o
e aining hei sel -de e mina ion?
Hope ully majo decisions will ne e ely en i ely on expe sys ems and hey
will emain ools no become mas e s. (Jahoda, 1986, p. 333)
Jahoda is only e e ing o he expe sys ems ha we e common a
he ime, i.e., s ongly ule-based concep s, and no he app oaches o
lea ning AI ha a e widesp ead oday. The imp ession ha AI sys ems
ha e al eady become he mas e s o wo k can al eady be de i ed om
s udying wo k models in which AI sys ems comple ely ake o e he
planning and con ol, such as pla o m wo k o in logis ics companies. In
hese examples, AI sys ems exe a massi e in luence on wo k p ocesses
by con olling, speci ying, and e alua ing hem. Wo ke s a e some imes
only le wi h he ole o an execu ing o ce. The ques ion o AI impac ing
wo k is he e o e also one o nego ia ing au onomy a wo k.
Ul ima ely, no hing less han he ole o humans in wo k p ocesses –
and he e o e also ques ions abou he quali y o wo k and he scope
o ac ion g an ed – is up o deba e when using AI in he wo kplace.
In pa icula , he change in job au onomy as a wo k esou ce e lec s a
cen al means o coping wi h wo k equi emen s and hus in luences he
well-being, c ea i i y, and p oduc i i y o wo ke s. Job au onomy and
quali y o wo k a e di ec ly linked in his con ex . Jahoda (1983, p. 141)
emphasizes he p io i y o a “wo k si ua ion in which he indi idual
has a ce ain amoun o con ol o e he na u e and speed o his [o
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1. In oduc ion 19
he ] wo k, in which he [o she] unde s ands he easons o ules and
o de s” 1
. Hence, i is he sel -de e mined momen s a wo k ha make
o posi i e expe iences. They e en acili a e he accep ance o di icul
wo king condi ions.
Wi h li le scope o ac ion, wo k inc easingly esembles dehuman‐
ized, mono onous wo k. In his sense, a lack o job au onomy wi h ega d
o wo k con en and asks can be a key d i e o aliena ion ( Jahoda,
1983, p. 129). I job au onomy is g an ed, by con as , wo ke s un he
isk o being exposed o ma ke iza ion as well as economiza ion p o‐
cesses while no longe being able o escape hem when managemen
s a egies a e exploi ed acco dingly.
Undoub edly, a cen al di icul y in desc ibing he ela ionship be‐
ween AI and job au onomy is he ex en o which wo k, i s execu ion,
and con ex , a e pe mea ed by au onomous and he e onomous momen s.
Jahoda (1983, pp. 69–70) emphasizes he dis inc ion be ween olun a y
and in olun a y ac ions in wo king en i onmen s. Dependen employees
in pa icula canno escape he e onomous bounda ies wi hin he p e ail‐
ing economic sys em (Jahoda, 1983, p. 116). The eeling o sel -de e ‐
mined wo k can he e o e only come o ui ion wi hin he ela ionship
be ween au onomy and he e onomy in he wo kplace. I is c ucial ha
he di ec o ganiza ion o an indi idual’s wo k can be co-de e mined
( Jahoda, 1983, p. 117), mo e so i echnical and o ganiza ional in e en‐
ions a e unde aken in wo k p ocesses.
This hesis “Algo i hmic Decision-Making in Se ice Wo k. An Anal‐
ysis o Changing Job Au onomy” examines he complex ela ionship be‐
ween job au onomy and using no el AI sys ems. The main ques ion is:
Wha impac does using ADM sys ems, as a speci ica ion o AI sys ems,
ha e on he job au onomy o employees in he se ice sec o ? In his
way, his hesis also aims o cla i y he condi ions unde which posi i e
expe iences o job au onomy can be c ea ed.
The concep o job au onomy used has a di ec e e ence o ac ion.
This includes he unde s anding o job au onomy as au onomy a wo k,
i.e., he possibili y o de e mining he cou ses o ac ion in ela ion o
an indi idual’s own wo k p ocesses. This concep o job au onomy is
ex ended by selec ed dimensions ela ing o wo k asks, me hods, objec‐
i es, scheduling, wo king ime and place, and in e ac ion.
1 Own ansla ion o “A bei ssi ua ion, in de de einzelne eine gewisse Kon olle übe
A und Geschwindigkei seine Tä igkei ha , in de e die G ünde ü Regeln und
Ano dnungen e s eh ” (Jahoda, 1983, p. 141).
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20 1. In oduc ion
Job au onomy is ancho ed in he sociological esea ch on wo k
as i ep esen s an essen ial wo kplace esou ce and, in his ole, can
be u ilized as an adjus ing sc ew o mo i a ing o s ess- educing de‐
elopmen s. The posi i e in luence o au onomy in he wo kplace has
been p o en o se e al mo i a ional ac o s: o ganiza ional commi ‐
men (e.g., Pa k & Sea cy, 2012), wo k engagemen (e.g., Spiegelae e
e al., 2016), c ea i i y (e.g., Sia & Appu, 2015), job sa is ac ion (e.g.,
Whea ley, 2017), and pe o mance (e.g., Lang ed & Moye, 2004),
among o he s. Job au onomy also has a s eng hening e ec on well-
being in ha i can ha e a mi iga ing e ec on s ain (e.g., Bakke &
Deme ou i, 2007), wo k p essu e (e.g., Ca ayon, 2006), o delimi a ion
(e.g., Voydano , 2004).
In his hesis, job au onomy explici ly includes an in e ac ional com‐
ponen ha e lec s he dependence on hi d pa ies a wo k. A high p o‐
po ion and in ensi y o in e ac ion a wo k is conside ed o be he co e
elemen o se ice wo k, al hough he e is no consensus on he de ini ion
o bo h e ms, se ice and in e ac ion wo k, due o hei wide a ie y
and in e p e a ions. In e ac ion wo k plays a pa icula ly key ole in he
se ice sec o , as wo king on and wi h people c ea es meaning ul and mo‐
i a ing esou ces on he one hand bu also demanding wo k si ua ions
on he o he . I is ue ha in e ac ion wo k has no always been gi en
he app op ia e a en ion and impo ance. Howe e , A lie Hochschild’s
e lec ions on “The Managed Hea ” (1983) we e he mos signi ican
o b eak h ough his iew and e ame he unde s anding ega ding he
impac o in e ac ion wo k in wo k p ocesses (Ko czynski, 2013, p. 2).
The inclusion o using AI in he wo kplace in he opic o job au on‐
omy in he se ice sec o is likewise hampe ed by de ini ional ambigui‐
ies. This is why some ypes o da a analysis a e misused o ma ke ing
pu poses and alsely labeled as AI. Howe e , as soon as egula o y mea‐
su es on AI ake e ec , i is also possible ha AI will be a gued ou o
echnical sys ems. Wha is mo e e iden in he cu en use o language is
p edominan ly he a emp o emphasize he supposedly (supe )human
capabili ies o AI sys ems (language o an h opomo phism, Wajcman,
2017, pp. 121–122). Pu simila ly: “The esul [o massi e media expo‐
su e and commen a y] has been a some imes incomp ehensible mix u e
o ca e ul, e idence-based analysis, oge he wi h hype, specula ion and
wha migh be cha ac e ized as ou igh ea -monge ing” (Fo d, 2018,
p. 2).
In his espec , i is necessa y o depa ea ly om he e m “AI”, no
only because no (in e disciplina y) de ini ion o AI has ye been es ab‐
lished o because he concep o in elligence has p o ed o be deba able.
This hesis deals wi h echnical sys ems ha a e al eady being used in
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1. In oduc ion 21
he wo king wo ld. These can be limi ed o algo i hmic decision-mak‐
ing (ADM), i.e., ule-based o lea ning echnical sys ems ha ha e an
algo i hm a hei co e as a decision-make . This concep ual limi a ion
al eady o e s a less complex app oach o unde s anding he in luence o
no el echnical sys ems on wo k.
The aim o his hesis is o analyze he impac o ADM sys ems on
job au onomy. The ocus lies on he se ice sec o , which pa ly adap s
ecen echnologies wi h a ce ain ime lag compa ed o manu ac u ing
bu which seems pa icula ly a ac i e o such an analysis due o i s
p o essional di e si y, employmen s eng h, and he wide ange o di ‐
e en o ms o o ganiza ion and ask p o iles. As a p e equisi e o he
empi ical analysis, he concep o job au onomy and ela ed dimensions
a e analyzed in dep h in he con ex o mode n wo king en i onmen s.
The me hodical app oach aken o add ess his complex o issues is
a mul i-me hod concep consis ing o quan i a i e and quali a i e ele‐
men s. Building on he a emp o quan i y job au onomy using a ep e‐
sen a i e su ey o wo ke s, wo company case s udies (ou pa ien ca e
and banking se ices) a e p esen ed o desc ibe he in luence o cu en ly
deployed ADM sys ems on job au onomy. This app oach asks s ic ly
abou he subjec i e expe ience o job au onomy in he pe o mance o
wo k. The pe cei ed au onomy a wo k esul s om he speci ic com‐
bina ion o demands and esou ces and ul ima ely also he psychologi‐
cal p edisposi ion o he indi idual (Sel -De e mina ion Theo y, Ryan &
Deci, 2000).
The numbe o s udies ha show a connec ion be ween job au on‐
omy and digi aliza ion, le alone AI, is s ill limi ed. Wha is isible is
ha he cu en discou se on he impac o AI on wo king en i onmen s
and condi ions is inc easingly ocused on he change in job au onomy
(e.g., Bu ollo, Jü gens, & K zywdzinski, 2018; Gensle & Abend o h,
2021; Gie ing & Ki chne , 2021; Ki chne e al., 2020; S.-C. Meye e
al., 2019; Nies, 2021). Pessimis ic oices assume a massi e expansion
o con ol mechanisms a he wo kplace and, in he wo s case, assign
wo ke s no ole o only an assis i e one in AI-domina ed en i onmen s;
in he be e case, hey a e equal o AI sys ems and wo k oge he wi h
hei new “AI colleague” (e.g., G öne & Heinecke, 2019). Mo e op‐
imis ic oices u he suppo he na a i e o eme ging eedoms o
wo ke s, elie ing hem om edious wo k asks, eleasing po en ial o
p oduc i i y and c ea i i y, and helping wo ke s o achie e a new sense
o sel -de e mina ion ha ansla es in o less wo k (e.g., Ki chne e al.,
2020).
These exce p s om he AI discou se no only illus a e ha ex‐
emely con lic ing iews on he impac o AI in he wo ld o wo k
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22 1. In oduc ion
p e ail. They also sugges ha new pola iza ions and inequali ies a e
eme ging om hese a eas o ension, in which some wo ke s a e gaining
in e ms o new sel -de e mina ion and o he s migh ( u he ) lose op‐
po uni ies o ac ion. This hesis aims o p o ide an empi ically based
con ibu ion o cla i ying his a ea o unce ain y.
To sys ema ically examine he ela ionship be ween job au onomy
and AI, his hesis o e s ou pa s ha build on each o he : Pa I o ms
he heo e ical-concep ual basis, sha pens cen al e ms, and p o ides an
in e p e a i e amewo k o he co po a e u iliza ion o job au onomy.
Pa II, as a i s empi ical app oach, quan i ies job au onomy in he
se ice sec o , hus es ablishing compa abili y and a emp ing o isola e
he i s po en ial links o AI. Pa III is he main empi ical con ibu ion
wi hin wo company case s udies, in which cu en AI sys ems applied in
he se ice sec o a e examined o hei in luence on job au onomy. Pa
IV concludes he analysis o his hesis, de i ing he co e impac s o AI
on job au onomy o se ice wo k and hus opening cou ses o ac ion o
social, economic, and poli ical decision-make s. Chap. 1 ini ially o ms
he hema ic in oduc ion o his main sec ion and, in pa icula , se s ou
he ele ance and embedding o job au onomy in o ganiza ions and wo k
p ocesses. A de ailed o mula ion o he esea ch objec i es and s uc u e
is p o ided in Chap. 2 .
Whe he and o wha ex en AI b ings abou adical changes in ela‐
ion o wo k emains o be seen – and is analyzed in his hesis. Wha
is clea is ha he ans o ma i e na u e o AI is no undamen ally
“ine i able, necessa y o his o ically unp eceden ed” (Boyd & Hol on,
2018, p. 334). Ul ima ely, he in luence o AI on wo k mus also be
iewed as a socio- echnical p ojec o change (Hi sch-K einsen, 2023,
p. 330) ha allows o , indeed absolu ely equi es, social and poli ical
in luence. This hesis con ibu es o his o ma i e p ocess.
1.1. The necessi y o a sociological lens on AI
While esea ch on he e ec s o AI on wo k, al hough s ill limi ed in
quan i y, has i s oo s p ima ily in compu e science, economics, and so‐
cial sciences, many a emp s a conside ing he in e play o AI and wo k
a e limi ed o a hand ul o indica o s o employmen and p oduc i i y
de elopmen o human-machine in e ac ion ( Figu e 1 ). In he public dis‐
cou se, economic issues in pa icula a e p esen in he discussion o AI
(Fische & Puschmann, 2021, p. 18). A comp ehensi e, empi ically based
assessmen o he e ec s o using AI in he wo kplace is s ill pending
(Deu sche Bundes ag, 2020, p. 282). In absolu e e ms, quan i a i e es‐
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1. In oduc ion 23
Figu e 1: Domina ing esea ch a emp s ega ding AI and wo k
Sou ce: F on ie Economics (2018, p. 13).
ima es o AI impac ing employmen (e.g., Bonin e al., 2015; Fel en e
al., 2019; C. B. F ey & Osbo ne, 2017), quali ica ion needs (e.g., And é
e al., 2021; Ramme , 2022; Squiccia ini & Nach igall, 2021; Susskind
& Susskind, 2015), o he u u e economic capabili ies o AI applica‐
ions (e.g., Aghion e al., 2017; Ag awal e al., 2018; B ynjol sson &
McA ee, 2014; Daughe y & Wilson, 2018) ha e domina ed so a . A ‐
emp s o ans e knowledge om ea lie phases o au oma ion wa es
a e con ibu ing (e.g., Acemoglu & Res epo, 2018, 2019; Bessen, 2019;
Nedelkoska & Quin ini, 2018), as a e e hical conside a ions ega ding
he applica ion o AI sys ems in socie y (e.g., Ada Lo elace Ins i u e,
2022; Liao, 2020; Munn, 2023). Comp ehensi e s udies om he social
sciences ha deal wi h he conc e e e ec s o using AI on wo ke s and
wo king en i onmen s a e limi ed in numbe and dep h.
Some easons o his esea ch gap a e g ounded bo h in he small
sp ead o AI-based sys ems o da e and in he ime necessa y o eliable
s udies o be conduc ed. Howe e , he cu en scien i ic discou se on AI
appea s o be eminiscen o echnological de e minism in esea ch. The
economic and echnical pe spec i es domina e. A sociological oice e‐
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24 1. In oduc ion
cei es li le public a en ion – e en hough i ob iously exis s. To ill his
esea ch gap wi h e en mo e li e om he pe spec i e o he sociology o
wo k is a designa ed goal o his hesis.
F om a his o ical poin o iew, wa es o echnological inno a ion
a e o en cha ac e ized by bo h isiona y and skep ical expec a ions o
i s e ec s on socie y, business, o speci ic social o ma ions. In he case o
AI, he exis ing concep ual inde e minacy and ambigui y add di icul ies
o he p ecise analysis o AI. The absence o a consensual de ini ion o AI
is also due o he ac ha “The e is basically no consensus on he place,
unc ion, and ope a ing mode o na u al in elligence” 2 (Ramme , 1995,
p. 9). Some popula AI de ini ions will be aken up in la e chap e s. A
hei co e, hese will co e ADM sys ems, i.e., ule-based o lea ning ech‐
nical sys ems ha ha e an algo i hm a hei co e as a decision-make .
Howe e , whe he echnology quali ies as in elligen is no he sub‐
jec o discussion in his hesis. 3 Su ice i o say ha “Compu e s
a e in elligen p ecisely when we hink hey a e. [ . . . ] On he basis o
which p ocesses and in which social con ex s is in elligence a ibu ed
o hem?” 4 (Hein z, 1995, p. 49). Hein z (1995, p. 51) shi s he ocus
o deba ing AI om he ques ions o wha machine in elligence is and
whe he i is compa able o human in elligence o he social embedding
o AI applica ions. R. D. Schwa z (1989, p. 187) adds ha sociology can
p o ide new pe spec i es on AI and assumes ha AI applica ions ac in
social si ua ions and hus in e ene in hem.
Since he beginning o esea ch on he concep o AI, he social sciences
and humani ies, p edominan ly philosophy and psychology (Hein z, 1995,
p. 48), ha e only been ma ginally in ol ed in i s u he de elopmen and
discussion. I he e was any men ion o a sociological app oach o AI a
all, i was in he o m o asking how AI ela es o socie y (e.g., accep‐
ance o and expec a ions owa ds AI), bu no i s genesis (Hein z, 1995,
p. 48; Woolga , 1985, p. 558). The s a us quo seems o ha e changed only
sligh ly, as Rezae e al. (2018, p. 368) poin edly s a e: “Wha is mos
s iking abou sociological li e a u e on AI is how small i is”.
2 Own ansla ion o “Übe den O , die Funk ion und die Ope a ionsweise de ‘na ü ‐
lichen In elligenz’ bes eh im G unde keine Einigkei ” (Ramme , 1995, p. 9).
3 Joseph Weizenbaum (1976) al eady assumed ha he ype o in elligence ha can be
ans e ed o a compu e is limi ed and ha a compa ison wi h human in elligence is
inapp op ia e. This akes up he s ill alid heo y ha AI sys ems a e only unc ional and
adap i e o a limi ed ex en in closed, p ede ined si ua ions and domains.
4 Own ansla ion o “Compu e sind genau dann in elligen , wenn wi de Meinung sind,
sie seien es. [ . . . ] Au g und welche P ozesse und in welchen sozialen Kon ex en wi d
ihnen In elligenz zugesch ieben?” (Hein z, 1995, p. 49).
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1. In oduc ion 31
pe o mance gains wi hin o ganiza ions. Job edesign e e s o he a ‐
emp o es uc u e wo kplaces, which, due o hei o ien a ion owa ds
Taylo is ic wo k sys ems, led o aliena ion om wo k (e.g., Sims e al.,
1976) and a dec ease in he mo i a ion and pe o mance o employees
(e.g., Hackman & Oldham, 1975). The h ee model app oaches ou lined
in he ollowing a e in ended o exempli y he o ganiza ional embedding
o job au onomy om his esea ch pe spec i e:
– The Job Diagnos ic Su ey (JDS), mo e commonly known as he “Job
Cha ac e is ics Model” by Hackman and Oldham (1975), empha‐
sizes he impo ance o au onomy o employee pe o mance, sa is‐
ac ion a wo k, and job in ol emen . Wi hou he p esence o job
au onomy, no wo k mo i a ion can a ise. Hackman and Oldham
(1975, p. 162) cha ac e ize job au onomy as “The deg ee o which
he job p o ides subs an ial eedom, independence, and disc e ion
o he indi idual in scheduling he wo k and in de e mining he p o‐
cedu es o be used in ca ying i ou ”. The au ho s name i e dimen‐
sions o job cha ac e is ics ha enable so-called c i ical psychological
s a es o employees (e.g., pe cei ed meaning ulness o wo k) – one o
which is au onomy. Acco dingly, au onomy is posi i ely ela ed o
he expe ienced esponsibili y o ou comes o he wo k, i.e., “The
deg ee o which he employee eels pe sonally accoun able and e‐
sponsible o he esul s o he wo k he o she does” (Hackman &
Oldham, 1975, p. 162).
– Wi h he Job Cha ac e is ic In en o y (JCI), Sims e al. (1976) in end
o e alua e how selec ed cha ac e is ics o a job, such as au onomy,
in luence p oduc i i y, mo i a ion, and o e all job sa is ac ion. Thei
de ini ion o au onomy is de i ed om Hackman and Lawle (1971,
p. 265) and desc ibes “The ex en o which employees ha e a ma‐
jo say in scheduling hei wo k, selec ing he equipmen hey will
use, and deciding on p ocedu es o be ollowed” (Sims e al., 1976,
p. 197). In his model, he ime- and me hod- ela ed elemen s o job
au onomy a e emphasized. Addi ionally, he choice o wo k equip‐
men is included.
– The concep ualiza ion o job au onomy by B eaugh (1985) di e s
om JDS and JCI in ha i makes a dis inc ion be ween h ee con‐
c e e au onomy dimensions: B eaugh’s a emp o measu e job au‐
onomy app oaches wo k me hod au onomy, wo k scheduling au‐
onomy, and wo k c i e ia au onomy. Wo k me hod au onomy e e s
o he scope o pe sonal disc e ion while choosing wo k me hods.
Wo k scheduling au onomy is de ined as he abili y o independen ly
sequence asks. Wo k c i e ia au onomy desc ibes he oppo uni y
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32 1. In oduc ion
o indi idually choose wo k pe o mance c i e ia (B eaugh, 1985,
p. 556). The dis inc i e ea u e o B eaugh’s app oach is ha he no
only de ines h ee applicable au onomy dimensions bu also speci i‐
cally ope a ionalizes hem (also Chap. 7.1 ).
Re iewing he selec ed de ini ions o job au onomy o igina ing in job
edesign esea ch om he 1970s and 1980s, i becomes appa en ha
a limi ed unde s anding o job au onomy was p edominan . I s jus i ica‐
ion in ypical Taylo is ic wo k sys ems becomes as clea as i s essen ial
limi a ion o B eaugh’s (1985) h ee dimensions o job au onomy. Ne e ‐
heless, he abo e-men ioned dimensions ha e no los hei signi icance
oday. Ra he , hey mus be supplemen ed by o he elemen s ha e lec
oday’s wo king wo ld.
The 1970s also saw he eme gence o esea ch in o he ensions
be ween wo k demands and wo k esou ces, ha is, he demands ha
wo ke s mus mee and he esou ces ha hey ha e a hei disposal o
cope wi h hese demands. The ollowing wo model app oaches show
hei mu ual ela ionship and hus allow conclusions o be d awn abou
he embedding o job au onomy in he in e play o demands and e‐
sou ces:
– The Job Demand-Con ol Model (JDC), also known as he “Job
S ain Model” ollowing Ka asek (1979), aims o analyze s ess ac‐
o s o employees in o de o de i e heal h-p omo ing measu es.
Ka asek (1979, pp. 287–290) compa es job demands wi h gi en job
decision la i ude (i.e., job au onomy) and de ines he la e as “ he
cons ain which modula es he elease o ans o ma ion o ‘s ess’
(po en ial ene gy) in o he ene gy o ac ion. [ . . . ] Job decision la i ude
is de ined as he wo king indi idual’s po en ial con ol o e his asks
and his conduc du ing he wo king day”. High wo k demands lead
o high s ess o employees when he exis ing job decision la i ude is
low. I bo h high demands and high job decision la i ude a e p esen ,
a mo i a ional push occu s (Ka asek, 1979, pp. 287–289).
Ka asek’s assump ions implied ha high wo k demands do no nec‐
essa ily ha e o be accompanied by high s ain, bu ha he ou comes
depend on he ex en o job au onomy.
– The JDC is ex ended by Deme ou i e al. (2001) wi h he Job De‐
mands-Resou ces Model (JD-R), which ela es job demands o job
esou ces, aking in o accoun indi idual, social, and o ganiza ional
a iables ha may ha e posi i e o nega i e e ec s on employees.
Job s ains esul om an imbalance be ween demands and esou ces.
Acco ding o Deme ou i e al. (2001, p. 501), job demands “ e e o
hose physical, social o o ganiza ional aspec s o he job ha equi e
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1. In oduc ion 33
sus ained physical o men al e o and a e he e o e associa ed wi h
ce ain physiological and psychological cos s”. In con as , job e‐
sou ces, which include job au onomy, a e conside ed “physical, psy‐
chological, social, o o ganiza ional aspec s o he job ha may do
any o he ollowing: (a) be unc ional in achie ing wo k goals; (b)
educe job demands a he associa ed physiological and psychological
cos s; (c) s imula e pe sonal g ow h and de elopmen ”. Acco ding o
Bakke and Deme ou i (2007, pp. 312–314), job esou ces may ac
as a coun e balance o job demands.
These concep ual embeddings o job au onomy in wo k o ganiza ions
assign dis inc oles, unc ions, and dimensions o job au onomy. They all
se hei own de ini ions o job au onomy and, in some cases, e en named
speci ic dimensions o he concep . The eby, hey o m he s a ing poin
o he concep ual e o mula ion o au onomy ha mee s he demands
o wo k oday (Chap. 4 ).
1.4. Rele ance and ex en o job au onomy
The e ec s o changes in job au onomy can be mani old o bo h wo ke s
and companies. Selec ed amewo ks ha co e esea ch on he o ganiza‐
ion o wo k iden i y job au onomy as a key enabling ac o o posi i e
pe sonal (such as mo i a ion o s ain educ ion, e.g., Deme ou i e al.,
2001) o o ganiza ional ou comes (such as p oduc i i y, e.g., Hackman
& Oldham, 1975; Sims e al., 1976). I s asc ibed esou ce quali y assigns
job au onomy a possible ole in educing wo k ensions, i.e., an imbal‐
ance be ween wo k demands and esou ces.
To illus a e he ele ance o job au onomy, i is pa icula ly use ul
o conside job au onomy as a job esou ce. Following he logic o he
JD-R model, high job esou ces may ha e posi i e e ec s on pe sonal
and o ganiza ional ou comes as well as a mi iga ing e ec on s ain
and i s nega i e consequences. Acco ding o a comp ehensi e li e a u e
s udy by Spec o (1986, p. 1011), posi i e ela ions be ween job au on‐
omy a e ound o job sa is ac ion, commi men , job in ol emen , pe ‐
o mance, and mo i a ion. In con as , mi iga ing e ec s a e ound o
physical symp oms, emo ional dis ess, u no e a e, and absen eeism.
Likewise, in e dependencies be ween job au onomy and o he job e‐
sou ces such as sel -e icacy, lea ning oppo uni ies, and ole b ea h ha e
been empi ically p o en (e.g., Den Ha og & Belschak, 2012, pp. 197–
199; Mo geson e al., 2005, p. 402; Sousa e al., 2012, pp. 165–167;
Wielenga-Meije e al., 2012, pp. 16–17).
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34 1. In oduc ion
The ollowing pa ag aphs summa ize selec ed s udies ha elabo a e
on he impo ance o job au onomy in ela ion o s ess, mo i a ion, and
pe sonal and o ganiza ional ou comes:
Rela ion o job s ain
– Acco ding o Ka asek (1979) and Deme ou i e al. (2001), job e‐
sou ces mi iga e he nega i e e ec s o job demands. This assump‐
ion may also apply o he ela ionship be ween job au onomy and
job s ain. The combina ion o low job au onomy and high job de‐
mands leads o men al s ain. Ca ayon and Zijls a (1999, pp. 40–43)
u he di e en ia e be ween wo ke s’ con ol o e wo k asks and
esou ces, which, i p esen , also ha e a mi iga ing e ec on wo k
p essu e. Fu he mo e, based on a low o medium le el o au onomy
among wo ke s, i is assumed ha in he case o an au onomy expan‐
sion, he isk o bu nou dec eases (Ge ich, 2019, p. 95).
– Wi h espec o a speci ic d i e o s ess o wo ke s, he inc easing
blu ing o he bounda ies be ween p i a e and p o essional li e, i.e.,
delimi a ion, i is assumed ha job au onomy helps o a oid con lic s
be ween wo k and p i a e li e (e.g., Ge ich, 2019, p. 88; Voydano ,
2004, p. 283). Whe he his posi i e e ec o job au onomy on he
econcilia ion o wo k and p i a e li e comes o ui ion depends on
he ex en o job au onomy. In con as , highe au onomy may also
ha e he opposi e e ec o neglec ing p i a e needs, o example, by
wo king mo e o a un ypical imes o achie e wo k goals.
Rela ion o job mo i a ion
– Job esou ces a e gene ally associa ed wi h posi i e e ec s on wo k
mo i a ion. This mo i a ion can mani es i sel in a a ie y o ways –
o example, h ough highe commi men o he o ganiza ion, en‐
gagemen , o job in ol emen . I is hese aspec s ha usually ha e
a posi i e e ec on o ganiza ional ou comes. Bakke e al. (2003,
p. 352) ind ha job esou ces a e “unique p edic o s o o ganiza‐
ional commi men ”. Spiegelae e e al. (2016, pp. 522–524) speci y
ha me hod- ela ed au onomy has a signi ican in luence on wo k
engagemen .
– C ea i i y is coun ed as a phenomenon o high mo i a ion since i
is assumed ha job esou ces can c ea e ee capaci y o c ea i e
wo k. Sia and Appu (2015, pp. 779–780) e e o he h ee au onomy
dimensions acco ding o B eaugh (1985) and ind ha all dimensions
enable posi i e e ec s on c ea i i y a he wo kplace. Chang e al.
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1. In oduc ion 35
(2012, p. 719), howe e , no e ha ask au onomy can limi he c e‐
a i e pe o mance o employees i no speci ic, ask- ela ed knowledge
was p e iously a ailable on he pa o he employees.
Rela ion o pe sonal and o ganiza ional ou comes
– Ry (1989, p. 1071) e e s o au onomy as one o six cen al c i e ia
o he psychological well-being o people. High au onomy is unde ‐
s ood as he independence and sel -de e mina ion o a pe son who
can ac in a ce ain way o egula e social p essu e si ua ions. Espe‐
cially wi hin he JD-R model (Bakke & Deme ou i, 2007; Deme ou i
e al., 2001), well-being is ea ed as a cen al a ge dimension
ha can be posi i ely in luenced by job esou ces. The dicho omy
be ween posi i e o nega i e e ec s o job au onomy and heal h,
which is assumed o be closely linked o well-being, is desc ibed by
he au onomy pa adox (see below). Exempla y, Ge ich (2019, p. 88)
desc ibes how lexible wo king hou s do no con ibu e o a be e
econcilia ion o amily and wo k bu can ake on sel -exploi a i e
endencies ha may lead o a de e io a ion in heal h.
– Rega ding job sa is ac ion, nume ous s udies e e o he posi i e
in luence o job au onomy. Fo example, Whea ley (2017, pp. 18–
19) con i ms ha con ol o e one’s own asks and he pace o wo k
inc ease job sa is ac ion. Lopes e al. (2014, pp. 317–320) add ha
job sa is ac ion is educed by inc eased wo kloads i hey a e no
accompanied by highe au onomy. Addi ionally, Nguyen e al. (2003,
pp. 8–10) app o e a signi ican posi i e in luence o au onomy on
i e dimensions o job sa is ac ion (pay, o he bene i s, p ospec s o
p omo ion, job secu i y, and he impo ance o challenge o wo k o
employees).
– Resea ch on job edesign (Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Sims e al.,
1976) is ollowed by empi ical e idence ha job au onomy can ha e
a posi i e impac on employee pe o mance. These indings a e espe‐
cially ela ed o he edesign o wo kplaces. O he con ibu ions (e.g.,
Claessens e al., 2004, pp. 944–946; Fulle e al., 2010, p. 45; Sa agih,
2011, p. 211) also e e o he posi i e in luence on pe o mance.
Lang ed and Moye (2004, pp. 939–940) complemen he app oach
o imp o ing pe o mance h ough ask au onomy by exploi ing mo‐
i a ional, in o ma ional, and s uc u al mechanisms, such as he u i‐
liza ion o in o ma ion asymme ies o he linking o wo k asks and
o ganiza ional s uc u es.
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36 1. In oduc ion
These exempla y desc ip ions ega ding he ele ance o job au onomy
ini ially led o he assump ion ha a high deg ee o au onomy always
has a posi i e e ec on he a ious possibili ies o exe ing in luence
as a job esou ce. Con a y o his pe spec i e, he e a e also s a es o
job au onomy ha can lead o highe le els o s ain. This idea implies
ha high deg ees o eedom can ha e a nega i e impac on wo king
condi ions a e eaching a ce ain sa u a ion poin . Howe e , he e a e
a ewe s udies dealing wi h he nega i e e ec s o job au onomy on
wo ke s and hei cons i u ion han he e is e idence ha documen s he
posi i e e ec s.
The ques ion o he ex en o job au onomy is none heless add essed
in he ollowing because i p o ides a i s indica ion o he di e en o ‐
ganiza ional oles ha job au onomy may ake. The ocus lies explici ly
on he o ganiza ional ole ha job au onomy ul ills while also acknowl‐
edging ha , om a psychological pe spec i e, indi iduals ha e di e en
needs o au onomy. 8
The concep o au onomy has long been ea ed in a no ma i e way
in ela ion o he nega i e consequences o es ic i e wo king condi‐
ions in Taylo is wo k sys ems (M. F ey, 2009, p. 24). E en oday, high
au onomy is unde s ood as undamen ally bene icial o wo ke s, while
low au onomy is associa ed wi h ad e se e ec s. Al hough he e is some
e i iable u h in his iew, a mo e nuanced pe spec i e on he ex en o
job au onomy and possible consequences o employees is ad isable.
Fi s and o emos , he so-called Vi amin Model 9 acco ding o Wa
(1994), d aws an analogy o he i amin in ake o humans: “The in ake
8 Sel -de e mina ion Theo y ollowing Ryan and Deci (2000) decla es job au onomy one
o h ee cen al psychological needs (along wi h he need o compe ence and ela ‐
edness) ha mus be me o ensu e no only mo i a ion and well-being bu also, o
example, employee pe o mance ( an den B oeck e al., 2016, p. 16). Acco dingly, people
ha e indi idual needs o au onomy (Kubicek e al., 2017, p. 53), which co-de e mines
he indi idual’s pe cei ed job au onomy. In pa icula , deg ees o eedom in e ms o
wo king ime and loca ion ha e a posi i e e ec on employees wi h a high need o
au onomy ( an Ype en e al., 2014, pp. 2–3). In con as , wo ke s wi h a low need o job
au onomy may pe cei e highe demands on hei wo k asks, con lic ing ela ionships
be ween hei p i a e and p o essional li es, o moni o ing endencies (Gagné e al.,
2022, p. 386).
9 The Vi amin Model is o pa icula impo ance wi h ega d o selec ed pe sonal wo k
ou comes such as job sa is ac ion and heal h. Ge ich (2019, p. 87) s a es ha job au on‐
omy is usually conside ed a heal h-p omo ing wo k cha ac e is ic in occupa ional heal h
esea ch. Bal es e al. (2002, p. 11) con i m his ela ionship wi h ega d o job sa is ac‐
ion: s a ing om a low o medium le el o job au onomy, job sa is ac ion inc eases,
while i dec eases abo e a ce ain le el.
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1. In oduc ion 37
o i amins is impo an o physical heal h up o, bu no beyond, a
ce ain le el” (Wa , 1994, p. 88). In he ans e o job au onomy, he
hus s a es he hesis ha oo much job au onomy is ha m ul o em‐
ployees. Wa (1994, p. 89) jus i ies his hesis by explaining, “ ha a
hose le els an ‘oppo uni y’ becomes an ‘una oidable equi emen ’, co‐
e cing a he han pe mi ing ac ion”. Acco dingly, excessi e job au on‐
omy is no longe exp essed in new sel -de e mina ion and mo e deg ees
o eedom bu b ings cons ain s such as he equen assump ion o
pe sonal esponsibili y o he accumula ion o o e ime. Kubicek e al.
(2017, p. 50) summa ize ha a high deg ee o job au onomy is no longe
pe cei ed as a nice y bu as a necessi y by wo ke s. Acco dingly, i is
easonable o assume ha high le els o job au onomy also go hand in
hand wi h high le els o o he job cha ac e is ics ha ha e a nega i e
impac on employees (e.g., ime p essu e) o low le els o desi able job
cha ac e is ics (e.g., social suppo ).
The e e ence o he so-called au onomy pa adox (Mazmanian e al.,
2013), which es ablishes a connec ion be ween high au onomy and he
delimi a ion o p i a e and p o essional li e, has an explana o y e ec :
The mo e job au onomy wo ke s a e gi en, he mo e ime hey in es
in hei wo k o p ocess mo e con en . Co espondingly, companies also
in e ene in he p i a e li es o hei employees. The au onomy pa a‐
dox is pa icula ly isible ega ding he dimensions o job au onomy in
e ms o wo king ime and place. In his con ex , Lo (2017, p. 19) no es
ha sel -de e mina ion wi h ega d o wo king ime can lose i s posi i e
e ec s, so i is impo an o ensu e ha high ime- ela ed au onomy is
no exploi ed o compensa e o high wo k p essu e o la ge wo kloads.
Simila ly, Hüne eld e al. (2019, p. 80) epo a ela ionship be ween
high ime- ela ed au onomy and he use o o e ime. In his con ex ,
Pe e s (2011) speaks o in e es ed sel -endange men (in e essie e Selb‐
s ge äh dung), e.g., employees willingly accep ing o wo k longe hou s
in o de o mee hei wo k a ge s, whe he due o a lack o ime o
pe sonnel. Employe s hus d aw on employees’ sense o esponsibili y
o hei own wo k.
The condi ions unde which job au onomy has posi i e o nega i e
e ec s on pe sonal ou comes ha e no ye been clea ly es ablished. Many
s udies show he posi i e bene i s o job au onomy as a wo k esou ce.
Few poin ou ha , unde ce ain ci cums ances, high au onomy has he
opposi e e ec . This endency e e s in pa icula o high le els o au‐
onomy in e ms o wo king ime and me hod. This dis inc ion indica es
ha o mos wo ke s, he g an ing o medium deg ees o au onomy is
associa ed wi h posi i e e ec s on mo i a ion, s ain, and o he aspec s.
Howe e , he e is a g oup o wo ke s who ha e such high le els o au‐
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38 1. In oduc ion
onomy ha he po en ially posi i e e ec s a e e e sed in he o m o
sel -exploi a i e endencies. This insigh is discussed in mo e de ail in
la e chap e s, as i con ibu es conside ably o he unde s anding o how
using AI is changing job au onomy in he se ice sec o .
In any case, he e is no doub ha no only do di e en dimensions
o job au onomy eme ge o wo ke s, bu ha hei ex en can ha e am‐
bi alen consequences depending on he o ganiza ional ci cums ances.
The ollowing excu sus, he e o e, p o ides an insigh in o some conc e e
aspec s o wo k ha a e closely ela ed o job au onomy. In doing so, he
de ini ional na owing o he objec o in es iga ion in his hesis – he
se ice sec o – is likewise pu sued.
1.5. Excu sus: How a e you, se ice wo ke s?
This b ie excu sus aims o ou line he basic unde s anding o se ice
wo k, labo ma ke - ela ed key igu es, speci ic wo k- ela ed bu dens
and needs, as well as i s endencies on he cu en s a e o job au onomy.
In many ways, he analysis o he ela ionship be ween job au onomy
and AI builds on hese p elimina y conside a ions. A e all, no all se ‐
ices a e he same; he con en , equi emen s, and wo king condi ions
a e so di e en ha common ea u es need o be iden i ied, such as he
high in ensi y o in e ac ion wo k ha all se ices ha e in common o
he ollowing dis inc ion be ween pa icula ly au onomous and less au‐
onomous se ice b anches.
A b ie de ini ion o se ice wo k
The simples app oach o a de ini ion o se ice wo k is o no e ha i
is no p oduc ion wo k in he p ima y (ex ac ion o aw ma e ials) o
seconda y (manu ac u ing o goods) sec o (Pong a z, 2012, p. 17). The
social science pe spec i e usually e eals hei di e ence based on h ee
dis inc i e ea u es, which se e as a de ini ional basis (Halle & Wissing,
2020, pp. 9–15):
– A se ice is in angible a i s co e and ha dly measu able o objec i ely
compa able.
– A se ice ollows he uno-ac u p inciple, i.e., p oduc ion and con‐
sump ion o he se ice a e ha dly sepa a ed. The se ice is consumed
du ing he p oduc ion p ocess.
– A se ice in ol es he se ice ecipien s and includes hem in he
wo k p ocess. The se ice is dependen on he se ice ecipien .
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1. In oduc ion 39
While his ideal- ypical de ini ion clea ly poin s o an essen ial ea u e
o se ice wo k, which is a high deg ee o in e ac ion wo k, i is ce ‐
ainly no applicable o all asks ha a e ul illed in he e ia y sec o .
The uno-ac u p inciple, o example, is no iable o e e y se ice. The
p ocesses o se ice p oduc ion and consump ion a e sepa a e in he
case o secu i y se ices o cleaning ac i i ies, o ins ance. The deg ee
o in ol emen o se ice ecipien s a ies g ea ly, om passi e pa ici‐
pan s o ac i e coope a ion pa ne s (Pong a z, 2012, p. 19). The se ice
cha ac e o a ask is pa icula ly high when he logic o p oduc ion and
consump ion is closely in e wined (Pong a z, 2012, p. 18). In e ac ion
wo k hus akes on he clea es o m o a se ice. A dis inc i e ea u e
o se ice wo k ega ding job au onomy is he dependence on he se ice
ecipien .
Ini ially, in e ac ion wo k is no limi ed o he se ice sec o . How‐
e e , he p opo ion o in e ac ion wo k is gene ally highe in bo h quan‐
i a i e and quali a i e e ms han in he p ima y o seconda y sec o , i.e.,
in e ac ion wo k is pe o med mo e equen ly and mo e in ensi ely due
o he close ies o se ice ecipien s. I is p ecisely he dependence on se ‐
ice ecipien s ha makes in e ac ion wo k so complex and demanding
(Böhle & Weih ich, 2020, p. 9).
On a e age, se ice wo ke s spend almos h ee-qua e s o hei
wo king ime on in e ac ion wo k (manu ac u ing sec o : 43 % , Holle
& Dö linge , 2021, p. 2). The di icul y o se ice wo ke s a ises om
no wo king wi h inanima e objec s bu wi h li ing beings. Thus, he
se ice p ocess is o en cha ac e ized by a con inuous in e play o ac‐
ion and eac ion. The wo pa ies mus cla i y wha he se ice consis s
o , ensu e ha he con ac ual pa ne s also p o ide hei se ice, and
mas e possible con lic s (Böhle & Weih ich, 2020, p. 11). In e ac ion
wo k is he e o e ha dly plannable, le alone en i ely educible o ce ain
ecu ing pa e ns.
Al hough he e is no uni o m de ini ion o in e ac ion wo k (Holle
& Dö linge , 2021, pp. 1–2), he concep o Böhle and Weih ich (2020,
pp. 15–19) has become es ablished, which o esees ou asks o se ice
wo ke s: es ablishing a coope a i e ela ionship wi h he se ice ecipien
(coope a ion wo k), in luencing and wo king wi h he eelings o he se ‐
ice ecipien (sen imen al wo k), coping wi h one’s own eelings (emo‐
ional wo k 10
), coping wi h imponde abili ies and non-plannable ac ions
10 The concep o emo ional labo goes back o he Ame ican sociologis A lie Hochschild
(1983, p. 7), who asc ibes he necessi y o “ he managemen o eeling o c ea e a
publicly obse able acial and bodily display [ . . . ] o a wage” o se ice p o essions.
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40 1. In oduc ion
(subjec i ying ac ion). The concep o in e ac ion wo k emphasizes he
na u al subjec i i y o bo h he se ice ecipien and he se ice wo ke
and p esen s i as a c i e ion o he success o he se ice. Subjec i i y is
no decla ed a dis up i e ac o in he wo k p ocess bu is ega ded as a
p e equisi e (Böhle & Weih ich, 2020, p. 15).
Wi hin he se ice sec o , he e is a high deg ee o homogenei y e‐
ga ding he equency o in e ac ion wo k. In mos b anches, wo- hi ds
o employees s a e ha hey equen ly o o en wo k wi h cus ome s o
clien s, o example, in inance and insu ance (63 % ). Only heal hca e
alls ou side hese s a is ics, wi h jus unde 90 % wo king wi h pa ien s
o hose in need o ca e (DGB-Index, 2018b, p. 6). The incidence o
in e ac ion wo k possibly ela es o poo e job quali y. This applies in
pa icula o he ac o s o wo king hou s, emo ional demands, and wo k
in ensi y.
Exempla y, wo king ou side o adi ional wo king hou s pa icu‐
la ly a ec s b anches ha p o ide pe sonal se ices o ha se e basic
social needs (DGB-Index, 2022a, pp. 40–43). E ening wo k is he mos
widesp ead. Conside ing he equency o nigh wo k, i becomes clea
which b anches a e pa icula ly ele an : logis ics and heal hca e. They
do no only su e om li le in luence on he quan i y o wo k and
scheduling o wo king ime (DGB-Index, 2022a, pp. 24–27), bu also e‐
quen ly wo k a a iance wi h adi ional wo king hou s, which o e all
sugges s pa icula ly in ensi e wo k. Wha is addi ionally e lec ed is he
low planning secu i y ega ding wo king ime (e.g., on-call du y, wo k
on demand).
Wi h ega d o emo ional demands and in ensi y, one- i h o mo e
employees in heal hca e and inancial se ices epo ha hey a e e y
o en o o en con on ed wi h nega i e, psychologically s ess ul si u‐
a ions when dealing wi h he pe sons conce ned (DGB-Index, 2018b,
pp. 9–10). Howe e , i is p ecisely he in e ac ion- ypical o ms o s ess
ha a e s ill inadequa ely eco ded and o which oo li le impo ance
has been a ached in esea ch and co po a e p ac ice o da e.
Wo ke s delibe a ely use hei own emo ional exp essions o elici a desi ed eac ion
om hei coun e pa s. I is assumed ha hese emo ionally demanding ac i i ies ha e
a pa icula ly psychologically s ess ul e ec on employees due o he possible disc ep‐
ancy be ween he emo ions hey eally eel and he emo ions hey display (Schöllgen
and Schulz, 2016, p. 10).
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1. In oduc ion 47
Educa ional demand
Helpe s / semi-skilled wo ke s 66 % 61 % 45 % 55 % 31 % 26 % 17 % 20 % 7 %
P o essional asks 66 % 55 % 40 % 36 % 48 % 50 % 21 % 20 % 12 %
Complex specialized asks 63 % 35 % 22 % 25 % 55 % 65 % 24 % 25 % 16 %
Highly complex asks 55 % 30 % 16 % 14 % 61 % 62 % 28 % 34 % 17 %
Sex
Men 61 % 49 % 33 % 29 % 56 % 56 % 25 % 25 % 11 %
Women 65 % 46 % 32 % 34 % 41 % 48 % 18 % 21 % 16 %
No es: Mean alues om 2019 o 2022 o all b anches. Rela i e equency o employees whose answe s o a pa icula ques ion can
be in e p e ed as es ic ing au onomy, e.g., ha ing no / only li le in luence on he amoun o wo k (le side) o being e y o en / o en
ushed o wo king unde ime p essu e ( igh side).
Sou ce: DGB-Index (2022a), Table 4, 5, 8, 9, 11.
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2. Resea ch objec i e and s uc u e
This hesis is dedica ed o he iden i ica ion o links be ween using ADM
sys ems, as a mo e accu a e label o cu en AI applica ions, and job
au onomy in he se ice sec o , as well as he condi ions and e ec s o
he exis ence o hese connec ions. The eby, his hesis aims a adding
signi ican insigh o he cu en scien i ic discou se on changing wo king
en i onmen s in he Ge man se ice sec o on an empi ical basis. The
analysis o whe he and o wha ex en a ious dimensions o job au‐
onomy a he wo k p ocess le el a e in luenced by using ADM sys ems
is a he co e o his objec i e. The cen al ques ion o his esea ch is
he e o e: Wha impac does using ADM sys ems ha e on he job au on‐
omy o employees in he se ice sec o ? The e m “ADM sys ems” e e s
o algo i hmic decision-making and is he e e ence p ima ily applied in
his hesis o he gene ic concep o AI.
While his hesis deals wi h he in luence o ADM sys ems on wo k‐
e s, he esea ch ocus lies no exclusi ely on possible posi i e o nega i e
e ec s on job au onomy bu on desc ibing he condi ions and en i on‐
men s in which hese impac s come o ui ion and how o deal wi h
unce ain ies ha may accompany using hese no el echnologies. Thus,
his hesis seeks o combine and u ilize bo h c i ical and hope ul s ances
on ADM and wo k. Howe e , i unde s ands he po en ial ela ionship
no as swinging be ween hese wo ex emes bu as he eme gence o new
unce ain ies and complexi ies o wo k.
This hesis ini ially d aws on insigh s om sociology, psychology,
and he economics o wo k. Since his is ul ima ely a sociological hesis,
la ge pa s o he li e a u e and he heo e ical amewo k, as well as he
linking o heo y, concep ual conside a ions, and empi ics, d aw om
sociological app oaches. Resea ch om psychology is u ilized ega ding
he concep and in e p e a ion o job au onomy, because e y ea ly in
his wo k i became appa en ha he pe cep ion o job au onomy is a
deeply subjec i e one, which mus be conside ed i he e ec s o ADM
on job au onomy a e o be g asped wi h he b oades possible scope o
dep h. Resea ch om he ield o economics is e e ed o wi h espec
o he in e en ion dep h o ADM sys ems in wo k p ocesses, since basic
ideas abou he e ec s o ADM on job au onomy a e de i ed om he
complemen a y o subs i u i e cha ac e is ics o echnology.
Wi hin such conside a ions, he se ice sec o o en ecei es only li ‐
le o pa ial a en ion in wo k and indus ial sociology esea ch, espe‐
cially in he con ex o in eg a ing echnology in o wo k p ocesses. I is
only in ecen yea s ha a e i al o he in e play be ween digi aliza ion
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2. Resea ch objec i e and s uc u e 49
and se ice wo k has been obse ed in esea ch as pa o he ans o ‐
ma ion o e ail and logis ics (e.g., Ba hel, 2023; Bu ollo, Engel, e al.,
2018; Del an i, 2021; Gilbe e al., 2021) o he eme gence o he pla ‐
o m economy (e.g., Eye e al., 2020; Ge old e al., 2022; Sch eye &
Sch ape, 2021). Howe e , i is s ill as onishing ha many (sociological)
s udies ocus only on he manu ac u ing sec o and he ans o ma ion
o wo k in indus y. Al hough indus y accoun s o a conside able sha e
o alue c ea ion and employmen in Ge many, mos employees wo k
in he se ice sec o (o e 70 % , Table 15 ), whose wo king condi ions
a e so he e ogeneous ha g ea e knowledge on his opic is desi able.
The ocus o his hesis is on he esea ch gap in he Ge man 13 e ia y
sec o . The empi ical analysis o he p ima y and seconda y sec o s, as
well as sel -employed pe sons 14 is la gely omi ed. Howe e , he a emp
is necessa ily made o ans e selec ed indings, especially om he man‐
u ac u ing indus y, o he se ice sec o .
The he e ogenei y o he se ice sec o makes his ield o esea ch
bo h exci ing and challenging. I b ings oge he a a ie y o di e en
jobs (objec -, pe son-, o in o ma ion- ela ed) in a wide ange o oc‐
cupa ions ha encompass a b oad spec um o skill equi emen s. A
high sha e o in e ac ion wo k is pa icula ly dis inc i e, which en ails
a highe deg ee o unce ain y and unp edic abili y o wo k si ua ions
due o he in e ac ion subjec (Jung äubl, 2021, p. 30). As a esul , his
si ua ion is much mo e di icul o o malize han, o example, objec -
ela ed asks. I equi es lexibili y and adap abili y (Jung äubl, 2021,
p. 30). The e o e, i is essen ial o explo e he ex en o which lea ning
ADM applica ions can also in e ene in he complexi y o se ice wo k
and wha he consequences a e o he job au onomy o employees who
al eady mo e wi hin he cons ain s o ma ke iza ion and subjec i ica‐
ion (Senghaas-Knobloch, 2011, p. 30).
Mo eo e , he se ice sec o ’s he e ogenei y makes pu ely quan i a‐
i e esea ch app oaches ac oss all sec o segmen s appea supe icial
13 The ocus on he Ge man se ice sec o is mainly due o accessibili y. Due o he g ow‐
ing impo ance o he se ice economy in mos wes e n indus ialized coun ies, he
esea ch esul s a e ans e able as he con lic s and challenges a e compa able. This
applies o he la e ocus b anches o he company case s udies (Pa III).
14 The sel -employed a e ini ially excluded om he analysis because hei job au onomy
cons ella ion is e en mo e complex han ha o dependen employees (e.g., wo k s a us,
legal condi ions, see Pichaul and McKeown, 2019). Howe e , selec ed changes in job
au onomy a he wo k p ocess le el a e ce ainly ans e able om dependen employ‐
ees o he sel -employed. The al e na ing use o he e ms wo ke s o employees is hus
linguis ically accep able.
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50 2. Resea ch objec i e and s uc u e
and s ic ly quali a i e app oaches di icul o apply o he en i e sec‐
o 15
. Fo his eason, a mul i-me hod app oach comp ising bo h semi-
quan i a i e elemen s and a quali a i e app oach is applied in his hesis.
The ein lies he hope o ob aining as holis ic a pic u e as possible o he
au onomy si ua ion o se ice wo ke s. Wi hin hese empi ical analyses,
job au onomy is consis en ly add essed om a subjec pe spec i e. This
is in ended o ake in o accoun he “ ole o wo ke s as ac i e app op i‐
a o s and agen s [ . . . ] bu also hei speci ic ac ion s a egies, ele ance
se ings, and wo k and li e o ien a ions” 16 (M. F ey, 2009, p. 15).
Sichle (2006, p. 246) p oposes a adically subjec i e concep ion o
job au onomy o mee he equi emen s o sel -o ganiza ion and sel -
con ol in se ice wo k. Ce ainly, i is no always possible o dis inguish
be ween objec i ely gi en and subjec i ely pe cei ed job au onomy based
on seconda y li e a u e and empi ics. Howe e , he empi ical analyses in
his hesis always ake he subjec i e pe spec i e as he basis o in e ‐
p e a ion – eely e o mula ed along he lines o Thomas’ Theo em, i is
assumed ha au onomous wo k may only be claimed i i is pe cei ed as
such by wo ke s.
Pa I o his hesis lays he heo e ical ounda ion o all u he
analyses and essen ially e lec s he cu en s a e o esea ch on job au‐
onomy and ADM. I se es as a concep ual and heo e ical ancho poin
o embedding he ollowing empi ical indings in he scien i ic discou se:
Chap. 3 ini ially deals wi h he e ms AI and ADM. ADM sys ems e e o
bo h ule-based and lea ning sys ems, i.e., hey may belong o cu en ly
discussed machine lea ning sys ems bu can also desc ibe simple digi al
sys ems. The eby, i becomes clea ha “AI ools a e poin solu ions”
(Ag awal e al., 2018, p. 130), whose scope o applica ion is mos ly lim‐
i ed o e y speci ic ields, bu also ha he pe o mance o lea ning sys‐
ems in decision-making si ua ions depends on he in e ac ion o eliable
echnology and i s o ganiza ional embedding (Luong e al., 2020, pp. 41–
42). This hesis, he e o e, does no a emp o o mula e a speci ic ADM
de ini ion bu a he a ca ego ized embedding o ADM sys ems acco d‐
ing o hei dep h o in e en ion in wo k p ocesses.
Chap. 4 e o mula es exis ing concep s o job au onomy o e lec
he mul idimensionali y o he e m and he complexi y o mode n se ‐
15 The se ice sec o is ou lined along he de ini ion o he S a is isches Bundesam
(Des a is) (n.d.), which coun s 13 sec ions o he e ia y sec o (WZ 2008, Table 14 |
Appendix).
16 Own ansla ion o “Rolle de A bei enden als ak i Aneignende und Handelnde [ . . . ]
abe auch ih e jeweils spezi ischen Handlungss a egien, Rele anzse zungen sowie A ‐
bei s- und Lebenso ien ie ungen” (M. F ey, 2009, p. 15).
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2. Resea ch objec i e and s uc u e 51
ice wo k. Pe e s (2001, p. 20) makes clea ha he concep has di e en
meanings and ha when au onomy in wo k is men ioned, o en e y di ‐
e en hings can be implied. The e o e, inding a common unde s anding
o job au onomy appea s o be essen ial. This e e s o he unde s anding
o job au onomy as au onomy a wo k, i.e., he possibili y o de e mining
he cou ses o ac ion in ela ion o an indi idual’s own wo k p ocesses.
The esul ing se o se en job au onomy dimensions also o ms he
basis o he semi-quan i a i e and quali a i e analysis in Pa II and Pa
III. The e m “job au onomy” is delibe a ely chosen o poin ou ha
he unde lying unde s anding o au onomy in his hesis is always based
on he assump ion ha wi hin a speci ic employmen ela ionship he e
a e also speci ic o ms o job au onomy o employees. Job au onomy
he e o e al eady implies a ce ain es ic ion because i deals wi h he
scope o ac ion wi hin a dis inc job.
Chap. 5 concludes Pa I wi h an a emp o heo e ically embed he
in e play be ween ADM and job au onomy in exis ing con ol logics in
companies. The cen al aim o he chap e is o iden i y possible in e ‐
p e a ions o he occu ence o a ious exp essions o job au onomy
and he ole ha he applica ion o echnology plays in his con ex . A
cen al dis inc ion is made be ween se ice b anches in which employees
a e g an ed li le job au onomy and hose in which employees ha e many
deg ees o eedom in he execu ion o hei wo k. Wi h bo h ideas, job
au onomy ul ills di e en o ganiza ional pu poses wi hin he concep s
o di ec and indi ec con ol mechanisms. As a i s esul o his hesis,
Pa I p esen s a heo e ically sound concep and an en anglemen o job
au onomy and ADM in companies, which se e as a s a ing poin o
u he quan i a i e and quali a i e analyses.
Pa II akes up hese heo e ical-concep ual indings, a emp s o
quan i y job au onomy in he se ice sec o , and es ablishes compa a‐
bili y ac oss b anches. A de ailed desc ip ion o he objec i es o Pa
II is gi en in Chap. 6 . The measu emen o changes in he subjec i e
deg ees o job au onomy p o ides ini ial indica ions o he impac o
o ganiza ional and echnical changes o cons ain s on employees. Using
he BIBB/BAuA-ETB, a ep esen a i e c oss-sec ional employmen su ‐
ey, job au onomy is mapped wi hin a Job Au onomy Index. This is no
limi ed o indings a he b anch le el bu also conside s selec ed socio-
economic cha ac e is ics o he esponden s as well as ADM aspec s o
wo k. Pa II hus se es o iden i y se ice b anches wi h pa icula ly
dis inc i e cha ac e is ics o job au onomy and ajec o ies o change.
The selec ed b anches se e as objec s o an in-dep h analysis ou lining
he e ec s o ADM on job au onomy in Pa III.
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52 2. Resea ch objec i e and s uc u e
Pa III o ms he co e o he empi ical analyses in his hesis and
includes wo in-dep h company case s udies om ou pa ien ca e and
banking se ices. A de ailed desc ip ion o he objec i es o Pa III is
gi en in Chap. 11 . The empi ical basis o hese case s udies is o med
by p oblem-cen e ed, semi-s uc u ed in e iews wi h se ice employees
who use ADM sys ems in hei daily wo k ou ines. In addi ion, in e ‐
iews wi h company and employee ep esen a i es, as well as he ech‐
nology p o ide o IT manage s o he companies, a e conduc ed, which
p o ide an o e iew o he co po a e objec i es o echnology use, i s
implemen a ion, and i s embedding. Concluding expe in e iews om
ela ed scien i ic and public ields, such as labo law o AI s anda diza‐
ion, complemen he sociological pe spec i e on he case s udy compa‐
nies and he handling o ADM.
The in e iew e alua ion is ca ied ou along he se en p e iously
de ined job au onomy dimensions and ollows a quali a i e con en anal‐
ysis acco ding o May ing (2010), consis ing o induc i e and deduc i e
elemen s. A company case consis s o a b anch p o ile ha e eals gene al
employmen ends, s ain si ua ions, echnology use, he desc ip ion o
he company, he ADM sys em, and speci ic deploymen si ua ions, as
well as a p esen a ion o he changed job au onomy se ings om he
employees’ pe spec i e. The case s udies a e comple ed wi h a discussion
o echnical hu dles as well as he impac and condi ions o c ea ing
posi i e job au onomy expe iences. A c oss-case analysis and he embed‐
ding o he case s udy esul s in he heo e ical amewo k conclude he
empi ical wo k o his hesis.
The inal Pa IV combines all heo e ical, concep ual, and empi ical
indings and o mula es answe s o he ini ial ques ion abou he in lu‐
ence o using ADM sys ems on he job au onomy o employees in he
se ice sec o . I a emp s o ans e selec ed indings om he empi ical
analyses o he se ice sec o o gene a e possible cou ses o ac ion and
new implica ions o poli ical, social, and legal ac o s. Ul ima ely, he
complex ela ionship be ween ADM and job au onomy has ha dly been
analyzed. This hesis aims a adding meaning ul indings o he ongoing
scien i ic deba e on he sho - e m e olu ion and he long- e m e olu‐
ion o job quali y by emphasizing he socie al signi icance o he e ec s
ha ADM has on job au onomy.
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PART I
Linking ADM, job au onomy &
se ice wo k: an a emp a
concep ual embedding
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3. AI in he wo k p ocess
Wha a e he dis inc i e echnological ea u es behind he widely used
e m AI? Wha a e he peculia i ies o looking a AI om he pe spec i e
o wo k o ganiza ion? How o deal sys ema ically wi h AI and i s in lu‐
ence on wo k p ocesses? These in oduc o y ques ions a e add essed in
Chap. 3 . The i s s ep is o sha pen he e minology, mo ing away om
he uzzy e m AI o algo i hmic decision-making (Chap. 3.1 ). In addi‐
ion, an o e iew o p e ious app oaches o unde s anding which asks
a wo k a e in luenced by ADM allows o insigh s in o he unc ional
spec a o such echnical sys ems ha a e cu en ly assumed (Chap. 3.2 ).
These conside a ions lead o he ou line o h ee ADM ca ego ies, which
illus a e he possible in e en ion dep h o ADM sys ems in wo k p o‐
cesses (Chap. 3.3 ). A inal excu sion in o he ac ual p e alence and use o
ADM sys ems helps o assess he ex en o which ADM-suppo ed wo k
is (o is no ) impac ing wo ke s oday (Chap. 3.4 ).
3.1. F om AI o algo i hmic decision-making
While esea ch in o AI da es back o he 1950s, he deba e abou AI ools
in he wo kplace has eached new heigh s in ecen yea s. Mo e han 60
yea s ago, compu e s did no show he pe o mance equi ed o p ocess
complex ope a ions. The ea ly 1980s became known as AI win e as he
de elopmen o unc ional AI sys ems was s ill oo cos ly (Ag awal e
al., 2018, p. 32). The quali a i e and quan i a i e expansion o a ailable
da a and compu e pe o mance enabled a enaissance o esea ch and
he applica ion o AI ha has g own conside ably since 1990 (Cockbu n
e al., 2018, pp. 34–37).
Ag awal e al. (2018, p. 9) explain why AI has expe ienced such an
upswing in ecen yea s wi h he simples o economic connec ions: When
he p ice o a good alls, mo e o i is consumed. And indeed, powe ul
p ocesso s and access o subs an ial amoun s o da a ha e become much
mo e accessible o e he pas 15 yea s. Howe e , declining e u ns on
in es men in da a and machines a e al eady e iden oday (Ag awal e
al., 2018, p. 51). Addi ionally, his p oclaimed enaissance is o en limi ed
o esea ch de elopmen s (and hei scope o inancing) and less o he
ac ual di usion and use o AI sys ems in economic ac i i ies.
Based on he in luen ial essay “Minds, b ains, and p og ams” by
he U.S. philosophe John R. Sea le (1980), Nilsson (2010, pp. 388–389)
names s ong and weak AI as he cu en ly domina ing scien i ic dis inc‐
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56 3. AI in he wo k p ocess
ions. S ong AI de ines he a he heo e ical exis ence o human-like
abili ies, including conscious hinking. Rega ding weak AI, he echnical
sys em can ul ill selec ed wo k asks, bu in elligence is only simula ed.
Since his hesis in ends o ocus on AI applica ions ha a e al eady
being used in he wo kplace, he ope a ional de ini ion o AI is based
on ha o weak AI. Nilsson’s (2010, p. 13) de ini ion o AI explici ly
e e s o he abili y o hose sys ems o unc ion in hei espec i e en i‐
onmen s: “A i icial in elligence is ha ac i i y de o ed o making ma‐
chines in elligen , and in elligence is ha quali y ha enables an en i y o
unc ion app op ia ely and wi h o esigh in i s en i onmen ”. Wi h his
app oach, he classi ica ion as AI depends on he ex en o which one is
willing o a ibu e app op ia eness and o esigh o a sys em (S one e
al., 2016, p. 12).
Howe e , he e is no uni e sal de ini ion o AI, bu a ple ho a o
o e lapping de ini ions by p i a e, scien i ic, o public ac o s, such as
he Eu opean Commission (2018, p. 1):
A i icial in elligence (AI) e e s o sys ems ha display in elligen beha iou
by analysing hei en i onmen and aking ac ions – wi h some deg ee o
au onomy – o achie e speci ic goals. AI-based sys ems can be pu ely so ‐
wa e-based, ac ing in he i ual wo ld (e.g. oice assis an s, image analysis
so wa e, sea ch engines, speech and ace ecogni ion sys ems) o AI can
be embedded in ha dwa e de ices (e.g. ad anced obo s, au onomous ca s,
d ones o In e ne o Things applica ions).
The Ge man Bundes ag (2020, p. 51) adds i s pe spec i e on AI:
AI sys ems a e in elligen sys ems designed by humans, consis ing o ha d‐
wa e and / o so wa e componen s, which aim o sol e complex p oblems
and asks in in e ac ion wi h and o he digi al o physical wo ld. To his
end, AI sys ems collec , p ocess, and analyze da a and exhibi sui able beha ‐
io o sol e and ul ill he espec i e p oblems and asks. I he AI in e ac s
physically wi h i s en i onmen h ough a echnical body, e.g., as a obo ,
his is e e ed o as embodied AI. 17
17 Own ansla ion o “KI-Sys eme sind on Menschen konzipie e, aus Ha dwa e- und /
ode So wa ekomponen en bes ehende in elligen e Sys eme, die zum Ziel haben, kom‐
plexe P obleme und Au gaben in In e ak ion mi de und ü die digi ale ode ph‐
ysische Wel zu lösen. Dazu e assen, e a bei en und analysie en KI-Sys eme Da en
und zeigen ein geeigne es Ve hal en zu Lösung und E üllung de jeweiligen P obleme
und Au gaben. In e agie die KI du ch einen echnischen Kö pe physisch mi ih e
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3. AI in he wo k p ocess 63
ing he au oma ion o ce ain asks (Papsdo , 2019, p. 108): Fi s ly, i
is he execu ion o asks in complex, uns uc u ed en i onmen s and he
eac ions in hese si ua ions ha a e di icul o implemen by machines.
Second, machines ha e so a been denied he abili y o ac inno a i ely
and c ea i ely, i.e., o c ea e some hing new and gene a e ideas. Thi dly,
machines a e no capable o socially in elligen beha io , i.e., o ac ing
app op ia ely and si ua ionally when in e ac ing wi h people.
Today’s esea ch on ADM sys ems pa ly a emp s o in alida e his
assump ion by gi ing machines he abili y o adap and lea n by ecogniz‐
ing pa e ns and issuing eedback based on big da a and highe compu e
pe o mance (also “Polanyi’s Pa adox” in Au o , 2014). Recen s udies
e u e p e ious assump ions ha lowe - and medium-skilled employees
in pa icula may be a ec ed by subs i u ional ends in au oma ion and
lea ning ADM.
As M. Lane and Sain -Ma in (2021, pp. 22–24) summa ize s udies by
B ynjol sson e al. (2018), Fel en e al. (2019), and Webb (2019), he occu‐
pa ions mos exposed o AI, including lea ning ADM, now comp ise whi e
colla occupa ions such as chemical enginee s, accoun an s, o cle ks,
while physical occupa ions, e.g., cleane s, i ness aine s, o massage he ‐
apis s, a e less exposed. M. Lane and Sain -Ma in (2021, p. 22) conclude
ha high-skilled occupa ions a e among hose mos a ec ed by ML. These
indings a e in ma ked con as o he p e ious scien i ic consensus.
Ag awal e al. (2018, p. 28) a ibu e his change in pa icula o
he no el p edic ion capabili ies o lea ning sys ems. P edic ion is un‐
de s ood by he au ho s as a p ocess o illing in o ma ion gaps (wi h
da a). Ag awal e al. (2018, p. 81) speci ically assume ha hese p edic‐
ion machines a e al eady able o p oduce quali a i ely be e and as e
esul s han humans in ce ain si ua ions and ha hese p edic ions a e an
essen ial componen o decision-making in unce ain y. The abili y o in‐
luence decision-making hus seems o be, as he name sugges s, he mos
c i ical componen o new AI sys ems, i.e., ADM. Howe e , Ag awal e
al. (2018, p. 81) do no igno e he ac ha p edic ion is only one pa
o he decision-making p ocess: “The o he componen s a e judgmen ,
ac ion, ou come, and h ee ypes o da a (inpu , aining, and eedback)”.
This also sugges s an inc easing impo ance o he complemen a y a he
han he subs i u i e ela ionship be ween wo ke s and echnology.
M. Lane and Sain -Ma in (2021, p. 19) ag ee ha AI, also e e ing
o lea ning ADM, is capable o in e ening in some non- ou ine cogni i e
asks and emphasizing he p oblem-sol ing, easoning, and pe cep ual
abili ies o hese sys ems bu s ill gi es wo ke s clea ad an ages in he a ‐
eas o c ea i i y and social in elligence. M. Lane and Sain -Ma in (2021,
p. 35) u he assume ha he p ima y impac o hose applica ions will
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64 3. AI in he wo k p ocess
be isible in he eo ganiza ion o asks. This eo ganiza ion may be
conside ed in connec ion wi h job au onomy in many espec s, bu wha
e ec he use o ADM will ha e in he u u e emains unclea . Mo eo e ,
s udies on he speci ic impac o lea ning ADM on job au onomy in
he se ice sec o a e sca ce. Mo e indi ec ly, he g owing impo ance o
se ice asks is highligh ed, emphasizing he social-emo ional skills ha
echnical sys ems ha e so a been unable o eplica e.
In o al, M. Lane and Sain -Ma in (2021, pp. 20–21) accu a ely
summa ize he economic discou se speci ically a ound ML: I is oo o ‐
en educed o an au oma ing echnology. The ela ed discussion on he
dis inc ion be ween complemen a y and subs i u i e ela ionships in he
di ision o labo be ween humans and machines may be use ul, bu i
unde es ima es he e sa ili y o wo k.
Especially he alua ion o ou ine and non- ou ine asks has been
c i icized in many o he social sciences. Acco ding o P ei e and Suphan
(2015a, pp. 4–7, 2015b, pp. 23–24), his app oach does no do jus ice
o he complexi y o wo k asks and hei o ganiza ion. The e o e, i
sys ema ically o e es ima es he po en ial o subs i u ion. The impo ‐
ance and scope o in o mal wo k s eps and expe ien ial knowledge as
a coun e pa o o mally eco dable and hus subs i u able asks mus
be emphasized. Since he pe o mance o ou ine asks may also ha e a
elie ing e ec and, mo eo e , can only become a eal ou ine by means
o he accumula ion o expe ience, he objec i e o elimina ing all ou ine
asks om wo k p ocesses mus be ques ioned (Huchle , 2019, p. 163).
P ei e and Suphan (2015a, pp. 11–12) u he c i icize he dis inc‐
ion be ween ou ine and non- ou ine asks o he lack o a deepe exam‐
ina ion o he concep o ou ine. Acco ding o he au ho s, he canonical
TBA ocuses on ou ine as a kind o epe i i e, mono onous wo k ha
is only ela ed o he ans e abili y o machines. Dengle e al. (2014,
p. 17) s a e ha he dis inc ion be ween ou ine and non- ou ine, which
is p edominan ly used in he Anglo-Ame ican a ea, does no co espond
o he unde s anding o ou ine in he Ge man-speaking a ea, namely
habi ual subconscious ac ions, bu he dissolu ion o a wo k p ocess in o
o malizable and au oma able asks.
This is whe e he ques ion a ises as o wha ex en new me hods o
ADM, especially i s ML capabili ies, can also eplace asks ha equi e
expe ience. An al e na i e is no o e e o ou ine and non- ou ine
asks, bu o dis inguish be ween o malizabili y and non- o malizabili y
(e.g., Huchle , 2019, p. 155). This app oach conside s he non- o maliz‐
abili y o subjec i ying ac ion, i.e., ope a ing in a c ea i e o inno a i e
way, in e ac ing wi h o he people, in unknown en i onmen s, o in con‐
adic o y si ua ions (Huchle , 2019, pp. 163–164). The genesis a ound
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3. AI in he wo k p ocess 65
he unde s anding o ou ine and non- ou ine asks helps o assess he au‐
oma abili y o asks. Fo malizable asks can be pe o med in he amilia
logic o ule-based ADM sys ems. A conside able inno a ion o expe i‐
ence-based lea ning ADM sys ems, howe e , is he po en ial o include
p e iously less o malizable asks in he se o au oma ion possibili ies.
The p edominan ly Anglo-Ame ican economic discou se and i s c i ‐
ics make clea ha i mus always be asked anew which asks a e o be
assessed as au oma able and which in ui i e, expe ience-based, o sub‐
conscious asks canno be ep esen ed by his concep . This is especially
ue o he se ice sec o , which is based on in e ac ion wo k ha is, o
a la ge deg ee, unp edic able.
The au oma ion cha ac e is ics o ADM sys ems a e isible. How‐
e e , Daughe y and Wilson (2018, p. 2), among o he s, also emphasize
he augmen a i e cha ac e is ics o hose sys ems by s a ing ha “AI
sys ems a e no jus au oma ing many p ocesses, making hem mo e
e icien ; hey a e now enabling people and machines o wo k collab‐
o a i ely in no el ways”. Fu he mo e, Zubo ’s (1988, pp. 10–11) con‐
cep ualiza ion o digi alized wo k d aws a dis inc ion be ween he unc‐
ional cha ac e is ics o mode n in o ma ion echnology acco ding o he
e ms “au oma e” and “in o ma e”. The au oma ing cha ac e o hese
echnologies hus adi ionally en ails a subs i u ing e ec in ela ion o
wo k, while he in o ming unc ion is o be ega ded as he esul o
a highe quan i y and a ailabili y o in o ma ion. The e ec s o using
ADM a he wo kplace seem o ha e h ee pa allel ea u es on a ask
le el: au oma ion, augmen a ion, and assis ance o asks. The app oaches
p esen ed o di e en ia ing au oma ing sys ems acco ding o he asks
hey may a ec a e adop ed below o ca ego ize ADM sys ems acco ding
o he dep h o in e en ion in wo k p ocesses.
3.3. Towa ds a ca ego iza ion o ADM sys ems
Focusing on he in e e ence o ADM in he wo king sphe e o humans
and i s embedding in wo k p ocesses, he ollowing conside a ions lead
o an app oach o ca ego izing ADM sys ems ha is in ended o p o‐
ide a simple desc ip ion o hei in e en ion dep h in wo k p ocesses.
These ca ego ies o ADM sys ems e lec bo h g ada ions acco ding o
he deg ee o decision suppo , i.e., also he le el o au oma ion, and a
dis inc ion acco ding o hei in luence on he wo k o employees a he
ask le el (au oma ion, augmen a ion, and assis ance o asks).
The aim o his exe cise is o make he ac ual unc ions and possibil‐
i ies angible beyond he di use de ini ions o AI. The ADM ca ego iza‐
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66 3. AI in he wo k p ocess
ion ollows he di e en ia ion o asks in luenced by ADM (Chap. 3.2 )
and d aws on selec ed models and concep s o human-compu e in e ‐
ac ion and au oma ion le els, acco ding o Pa asu aman e al. (2000),
She idan (1991), and Bi kom (2017).
In sho , Pa asu aman e al. (2000, pp. 288–289) dis inguish be ween
ou di e en classes o unc ions in he in e play o bo h humans and
compu e s:
– In o ma ion acquisi ion au oma ion: The sys ems can collec and
display in o ma ion. This in o ma ion can be emphasized o il e ed
acco ding o he use ’s p e e ences.
– In o ma ion analysis au oma ion: The sys ems can p ocess and p e‐
pa e da a and use i o pe o m analyses o p edic ions.
– Decision au oma ion: The sys em can show decision al e na i es, il‐
e hem acco ding o p e e ence, o make a p eselec ion.
– Ac ion au oma ion: The sys em can pe o m ac ions. Depending on
he le el o au oma ion, con ol emains wi h he use o is ans‐
e ed en i ely o he machine.
The au ho s hus d aw a cen al dis inc ion be ween he less in asi e
unc ion o compu e suppo in e ms o wo k p ocesses such as da a
collec ion o analysis and he decision-making suppo ha builds on
his in a complemen a y ela ionship. The app oach cumula es in ac ion
au oma ion, in which con ol 24 o e a wo k p ocess can ul ima ely be
handed o e o he echnical sys em.
She idan (1991) and Bi kom (2017) p o ide addi ional app oaches
owa ds a ca ego iza ion o ADM. She idan (1991, p. 5) desc ibes en
di e en le els o au oma ion, om he i s s age, in which no au oma‐
24 When wo ke s hand o e esponsibili y o p ocesses en i ely o machines and ail o
de ec aul y sys ems, he so-called con ol p oblem is assumed. Ze illi e al. (2019,
p. 557) a gue ha especially isky and sa e y-c i ical decisions should no be made by
ADM sys ems unless he eliabili y o he sys em is p o en o be be e han ha o
humans. The eason lies in he ailu e o de ec aul y sys ems when wo ke s hand o e
esponsibili y o p ocesses en i ely o machines, ei he because hey us he machine
oo much o because hey a e negligen (Ze illi e al., 2019, p. 556). Wi h e e ence
o Bainb idge (1983), Ze illi e al. (2019, pp. 560–562) desc ibe ou p oblems ha
can be ega ded as causal o he con ol p oblem in human-machine in e ac ion: he
capaci y p oblem (cogni i e limi a ions in he comp ehensibili y o machine decisions),
he a en ional p oblem (dec eases in a en ion wi h passi e moni o ing o sys ems), he
cu ency p oblem (g adual decay o human skill), and he a i udinal p oblem (assump‐
ion and eliance on he e o - ee unc ioning o he machine).
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3. AI in he wo k p ocess 67
ion akes place, o he en h, in which a ully au onomous machine
ac s ( Table 2 ). Pa icula ly aluable o he ollowing analysis a e he
in e media e le els, which desc ibe di e en o ms o p o ision o ac ion
al e na i es o humans. F om le els i e and six, i becomes clea ha
he esponsibili y o ac ion is la gely ans e ed om he human o
he machine. Though he au ho gene ally desc ibes au oma ion and no
decision-making.
Table 2: Le els o au oma ion in She idan (1991)
Le el Desc ip ion
1 Compu e o e s no help, he human mus do i all.
2 Compu e o e s ull se o ac ion al e na i es, and
3 na ows he selec ion o a ew al e na i es, o
4 sugges s one, and
5 execu es sugges ion when human app o es, o
6 allows he human a es ic ed ime o e o be o e au oma ic execu ion, o
7 immedia ely execu es au oma ically, hen necessa ily in o ms he human, o
8 in o ms human a e execu ion only i human asks, o
9 in o ms human a e execu ion i i , he compu e , decides o.
10 Compu e decides e e y hing au onomously, igno es human.
Sou ce: She idan (1991, p. 5), o mo e de ailed in She idan (1992).
An app oach wi h e e ence o decision-making a he wo kplace is p o‐
ided by Bi kom (2017, pp. 21–23). The au ho s p esen a model o de‐
cision-making au oma ion ha desc ibes echnical sys ems acco ding o
he deg ee o in e en ion in human decision-making p ocesses ( Table 3 ).
In addi ion o he ini ial s age, in which no au oma ion akes place, a
o al o i e s ages o decision suppo a e assumed, whe eby, in he
ansi ion om s age h ee o s age ou , he ac i e ole o he human
decision-make is changed o a passi e one. The au ho s desc ibe ha
he ansi ions be ween he espec i e le els a e luid, and bounda ies
can be di icul o iden i y. Ne e heless, his model p o ides a aluable
s a ing poin o he o mula ion o a ca ego iza ion o ADM sys ems
in he wo k con ex . Such ca ego ies help o sys ema ically analyze he
in e en ion o ADM a he ask le el o employees.
The ollowing ca ego iza ion o ADM sys ems is in ended o desc ibe
how deeply ADM sys ems can in e ene in employees’ wo k p ocesses,
i.e., wha kind o suppo hey may p o ide. In la e chap e s, his ca e‐
go iza ion allows o a supplemen a y desc ip ion o possible changes in
job au onomy and is hus in ended o do jus ice o he di e en deg ees
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68 3. AI in he wo k p ocess
Table 3: Le els o au oma ion in decision-making in Bi kom (2017)
Le el Desc ip ion
0 Human decides No au oma ed suppo
1 Assis ed decision-making P epa a ion and be e p ocessing o in o ma ion
2 Pa ial decision-making Decisions dependen on human p e e ences; ac i a ion
incumben on humans
3 Audi ed decision-making Selec ion and p io i iza ion o decision-making al e na i es;
ac i a ion is incumben on humans
4 Delega ed decision-making Takeo e o con ol o a p ede ined si ua ion; human can
in e ene o lea e con ol o he sys em
5 Au onomous decision-making Pe manen akeo e o complex applica ion si ua ions;
manual ope a ion by humans possible
Sou ce: Bi kom (2017, pp. 21–23).
o au oma ion ha a e used in p ac ice. Based on hese p elimina y con‐
side a ions and app oaches o he au oma ion o unc ions, p ocesses,
and, inally, decision-making, h ee ca ego ies o ADM sys ems a e iso‐
la ed: assis ing-in o ming ADM, augmen ing-complemen ing ADM, and
au oma ing-subs i u ing ADM. As i is an ideal- ypical di e en ia ion,
i is likely ha in p ac ice he unc ions o ADM sys ems all in o se ‐
e al o e en all ca ego ies. The ollowing a emp o ca ego ize ADM is
he e o e less echnical and mo e o ganiza ional in na u e, which should
acili a e wo k p ocess analysis o ADM. A ule-based ADM can in o m,
complemen , and au oma e. A lea ning ADM can in o m, complemen ,
and au oma e. This pe spec i e on ADM should explici ly ocus on he
wo ke s and hei wo k p ocesses.
Assis ing-In o ming ADM
The ADM sys em assis s wo ke s in decision-making and
execu ing wo k asks essen ially h ough i s in o ma i e
cha ac e . I suppo s da a p ocessing, displays hem ac‐
co ding o p e e ences, o p o ides in o ma ion on eques .
This in o ma ion enables employees o weigh up al e na‐
i es independen ly. These can be so wa e solu ions ha
so , isualize, and analyze da a based on ma hema ical
ules o cha bo s ha p esen speci ic in o ma ion on
demand. The p ocessing o his in o ma ion is en i ely he
esponsibili y o he wo ke s. Decision suppo depends
on he quan i y and quali y o he a ailable in o ma ion. The suppo i e
cha ac e o assis ing-in o ming ADM sys ems may also ex end o he
selec ion o wo king me hods o ools. In his way, a highe o e all in o ‐
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3. AI in he wo k p ocess 69
ma ion densi y helps in he ul illmen o wo k asks, especially i sea ch
p ocesses o his in o ma ion a e minimized. Inco ec in o ma ion o
he p epa a ion o his in o ma ion can lead o an imp ope choice o
me hod o he alse execu ion o a ask. Assis ing-in o ming ADM may
be classi ied as lea ning ADM by p o iding eedback (e.g., manual se‐
lec ion o speci ic in o ma ion) o he sys em om which i s in o ma i e
capabili ies imp o e. The ques ion o assis ing-in o ming ADM sys ems
in luencing a ious dimensions o job au onomy p obably o e laps in
many aspec s wi h he e ec s o digi al ools in he wo kplace in gene al.
Augmen ing-Complemen ing ADM
The ADM sys em augmen s he decision-making p ocess o
wo ke s and hus has a complemen a y e ec on he pe o ‐
mance o wo k asks. A dis inc ion can be made be ween
pa ial and e i ied decision-making. In he case o pa ‐
ial decision-making, he decision is made based on p ede‐
ined ac ion chains ha mus be ac i ely ini ia ed. Thus, he
machine only execu es some hing i he wo ke con i ms
he command be o ehand. Howe e , he ul ima e decision-
making powe and, hus, esponsibili y o wo k esul s e‐
main wi h he wo ke . In he case o e i ied decisions, he
sys em independen ly de elops decision sugges ions om a p ede ined
si ua ion, which can be selec ed by he employee. The sys em ecognizes
pa e ns in gi en da a ames and uses hem as he basis o decision
scena ios. The employee makes he inal decision. The complemen a y
e ec a ask le el may depend on he deg ee o o maliza ion o he
wo k p ocess ha he sys em equi es. Likewise, depending on he sys‐
em in ques ion, he pa h ha he sys em akes o he decision p oposal
can be (in) anspa en and co espondingly (less) comp ehensible o he
wo ke . The use o augmen ing-complemen ing ADM sys ems may ha e
ambi alen consequences o di e en dimensions o job au onomy as
hey a e s ongly dependen on o ganiza ional embedding. I he sys em
can modi y wo k p ocesses and ake o e pa s o hem, e ec s on a ‐
ious au onomy dimensions can be expec ed. They speci ically pose isks
due o hei moni o ing and non- anspa en endencies while in e ac ing
wi h wo ke s.
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70 3. AI in he wo k p ocess
Au oma ing-Subs i u ing ADM
The ADM sys em au oma es comple e wo k s eps and hus
has a subs i u ing e ec on wo k asks. In his sense, au‐
oma ion is de ined as he machine execu ion o (pa ial)
wo k p ocesses wi h li le o no human in e en ion. A
dis inc ion can be made be ween delega ed decision-mak‐
ing and comple ely au onomous decision-making. In he
i s case, wo ke s gi e he sys em con ol o e a p ede‐
ined si ua ion. Deploying hese sys ems usually equi es a
high deg ee o o maliza ion and s anda diza ion o wo k
p ocesses. When he adap abili y o he sys em o i s en‐
i onmen eaches i s limi s, wo ke s may again ha e o p o e hei
adap abili y o he sys em. Failu es and imponde ables o au oma ing-
subs i u ing ADM, be hey o a echnical o o ganiza ional na u e, can
ha dly be excluded. Acco ding o his unde s anding, wo ke s’ in e en‐
ion does no become obsole e. I is less dispensable han necessa y in
he case o mal unc ions and ailu es, as well as he execu ion o w ong
decisions. The necessi y o his si ua ion- ela ed ac ion depends la gely
on he decision quali y o he espec i e ADM sys em, which can cu ‐
en ly s ill a y g ea ly. In sys ems wi h high decision quali y, he ADM
sys em should gene ally eques he wo ke ’s con i ma ion o in o m i
he wo ke explici ly eques s i s in ol emen . The di e ence o pu ely
au onomous decision-making is ha e en in he case o unexpec ed si u‐
a ions, adequa e decisions can be made by he sys em, making wo ke s’
in e en ion comple ely obsole e. In his con ex , machines can pe o m
he same asks as hem, bu in a di e en way (Huchle , 2019, pp. 161–
162). The decisi e ac o is he ul illmen o he common wo k objec i e.
3.4. Excu sus: Digi aliza ion, ADM, and AI in igu es
The ele ance o ADM, bo h economically and socially, mus be assessed
in ligh o he cu en and u u e dissemina ion o hese sys ems. I
eme ges quickly ha he p esence o he opic in scien i ic and public dis‐
cou se is ha dly compa ible wi h he cu en di usion o ADM sys ems.
This does no imply ha he po en ial use o mode n echnologies will
no ha e a conside able, some would say dis up i e, impac on wo k and
socie y. Ne e heless, i emains o be poin ed ou ha ADM sys ems a e
o en used in speci ic cases o by speci ic wo ke s and do no ye a ec
he b oad mass o employees.
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3. AI in he wo k p ocess 71
The di usion and po en ial use o ADM in he Ge man se ice sec‐
o a e pa ly e lec ed in he deg ee o digi aliza ion among companies,
which se es as a benchma k o he undamen al abili y o use ADM
sys ems. Compa ed o he p ima y and seconda y sec o s, selec ed se ice
b anches gene ally lead he s a is ics on he deg ee o digi aliza ion (e.g.,
Bundesminis e ium ü Wi scha und Ene gie [BMWi], 2018, p. 21).
The widesp ead assump ion ha he se ices sec o is lagging a behind
in e ms o digi aliza ion can only be pa ially subs an ia ed, as will be
shown in he ollowing ema ks: The mos digi ized sec o s in Ge many
p ima ily include ICT, knowledge-in ensi e se ice p o ide s, inance,
and insu ance. In con as , anspo and logis ics and he heal hca e
sec o ha e he lowes le el o digi aliza ion (BMWi, 2018, p. 13).
The ela i e on unne s in he use o in o ma ion p ocessing ech‐
nology o he independen sol ing o p oblems wi h compu e s, as a
p oxy o ADM, a e in se ices (BMWi, 2020, pp. 2–3), namely ICT
(18 % o companies), inancial se ices (12 % ), and business- ela ed se ‐
ices (e.g., media, consul ing, R & D, 11 % ). Howe e , hese echnologies
a e used less equen ly in o he se ices (e.g., secu i y se ices, cleaning,
o he business se ices, 3 % ), anspo and logis ics (2 % ), and whole‐
sale (1 % ). O e all, only a ac ion o o he se ice companies a e al eady
using hose applica ions (BMWi, 2020, p. 3). The s a us o lea ning sys‐
ems is s ill in i s in ancy in Ge many. Al hough companies expec hem
o play a signi ican ole in he u u e, only 9 % o hem use AI, p obably
e e ing o ML, hemsel es in 2022 (Bi kom, 2022). O e all, s udies on
he usage a es o AI in Ge man companies di e g ea ly. They ange
om a ew pe cen o 25 % o la ge companies (o e iew in Gie ing,
2022, pp. 57–58).
A close look a indi idual sec o s e eals a clea di ide in he se ices
sec o in e ms o he sp ead and dep h o digi aliza ion and using digi al
de ices (BMWi, 2018, pp. 21–33): This digi al di ide is mos e iden
in e ms o he p opo ion o highly digi alized in e nal business p o‐
cesses and digi al se ices. T anspo a ion, logis ics, and heal hca e lag
a behind o he b anches. Howe e , he a o emen ioned di e ences in
he deg ee o digi aliza ion a e much less p onounced when conside ing
he numbe o companies in which all employees use mobile o s a ion‐
a y de ices (BMWi, 2018, pp. 32–33). Al hough ICT (65 % and 80 % ,
espec i ely), inancial and insu ance se ices (66 % and 88 % , espec‐
i ely), and knowledge-in ensi e se ices (46 % and 85 % , espec i ely)
a e also in he lead he e, he di e ences a e no as se e e as, o example,
in he deg ee o digi aliza ion o in e nal p ocesses. I companies ha
only pa ially equip hei employees wi h mobile o s a iona y de ices
we e included, he sec o s conside ed would con e ge u he . Fo ex‐
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72 3. AI in he wo k p ocess
ample, a ound 70 % o heal hca e wo ke s use s a iona y digi al de ices
and 37 % use mobile de ices – which pu s hem in he middle o he pack
in pu ely s a is ical e ms.
These ema ks on he deg ee o digi aliza ion in companies make
some poin s clea : On a e age, some se ice b anches a e ahead o he
manu ac u ing sec o when i comes o digi alized wo k p ocesses o he
di usion o digi al de ices in he wo kplace. Howe e , a digi al di ide
wi hin he se ice sec o becomes appa en , which plays ou be ween
ypical whi e colla , i.e., knowledge and in o ma ion-in ensi e b anches
ha a e usually linked o o ice ac i i ies, and pe sonal o objec - ela ed
se ices. I is equally clea ha he digi aliza ion o p ocesses and he use
o digi al ools ha e no ye eached all companies and, he e o e, no all
employees, ega dless o he b anch. This ac mus be cons an ly kep
in mind when dealing wi h he cu en use o ADM applica ions in he
se ice sec o .
Wha emains is he ealiza ion ha speci ically lea ning ADM sim‐
ply does no ye play a ole in a la ge numbe o companies, which
seems qui e deba able in iew o he p esence o he opic in he media
and science (Gie ing, 2022, p. 59). As wi h digi aliza ion, his a gues o
an inc emen al sp ead o lea ning sys ems in companies a he han a
dis up i e one (Hi sch-K einsen, 2018, p. 6). Howe e , i is also possible
ha he ac ual use o AI applica ions, including ADM, is unde es ima ed.
Exempla y, Gie ing e al. (2021, p. 786) ind ha 20 % o he employed
epo using ML hemsel es, bu i hese sys ems a e only desc ibed in
e ms o hei unc ions, wice as many a i m. Again, uzzy de ini ions
o AI, ML, and ADM complica e he discussion o he opic.
S.-C. Meye e al. (2022, p. 319) con i m ha almos h ee qua e s
o all employees ne e use AI, whe eby he de ini ion e e s mo e o
lea ning ADM sys ems and adds he aspec s o ask complexi y, occu‐
pa ional ield, age, and sex o he pe spec i e on he sp ead o hose
applica ions: Acco dingly, he use o hose sys ems gene ally inc eases
wi h he complexi y o he asks. Unsu p isingly, IT and scien i ic se ice
p o essions show he highes usage a es (al hough 61 % s ill ne e use
AI). In pe son- ela ed se ices, abou one i h a e use s (S.-C. Meye e
al., 2022, p. 324). The e is a mino di e ence ega ding sex and age (S.-C.
Meye e al., 2022, p. 323).
Supplemen a y da a is p o ided by he DGB-Index (2022b, p. 16):
This su ey con i ms ha mos employees, whe he in he se ice sec‐
o o ou side i , ne e use independen lea ning p og ams in hei day-
o-day wo k. Howe e , a spli is al eady appa en be ween mo e ac i e
indus ies and mo e es ained b anches. Fo example, hose lea ning
sys ems a e used pa icula ly li le in public adminis a ion, educa ion,
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4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 79
Figu e 3: Dimensions o job au onomy
Task
Au onomy
Me hod
Au onomy
C i e ia
Au onomy
Scheduling
Au onomy
Wo king Time
Au onomy
Loca ional
Au onomy
Job Au onomy
In e ac ional
Au onomy
This esea ch s a e (ma ked as in con ex ) is in ended o show a he
b oad con ou s and endencies in indi idual dimensions o job au on‐
omy. Howe e , i will once again become appa en ha a sys ema ic
quan i a i e and quali a i e examina ion o he ela ionship be ween job
au onomy and ADM, as aimed a in his hesis, is necessa y. S udies on
he analysis o possible changes in wo king condi ions in companies ha
a e al eady wo king wi h ADM a e sca ce – no leas because he de‐
ploymen a e is s ill e y low in many b anches. Unsu p isingly, some
s udies assume ha au oma ed language, image o ex p ocessing, o
he e ie al o expe knowledge, as he mos common applica ion o
ML, does no ha e a undamen al impac on wo king condi ions and link
he majo le e s o i s embedding in gi en echnical and o ganiza ional
s uc u es (e.g., Gie ing & Ki chne , 2021, p. 574).
Mo e di e en ia ed esul s ega ding he e ec s o AI on job au on‐
omy a e o en exp essed in he o m o ambi alen expec a ions. In a su ‐
ey by Meinungsmoni o Küns liche In elligenz (2020, p. 6), one qua e
o esponden s ei he expec o ha e less au onomy a wo k o a e unde‐
cided. Almos hal do no expec less job au onomy. In con as , almos
60 % o esponden s in Zanke e al. (2019, p. 28) belie e ha he use
o lea ning sys ems will educe hei scope o ac ion. This ambi alence
possibly e lec s a u u e pola iza ion scena io. Some employees lose job
au onomy using ADM, while o he s gain. In his case, i is impo an o
iden i y which asks, occupa ional g oups, o e en b anches a e a ec ed
by one o he o he .
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80 4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k
4.2.1. Task Au onomy
De ini ion
The majo i y o esea ch app oaches o he concep o Task Au onomy
e e o he eedom o wo ke s o choose how a wo k ask is pe o med
(e.g., Ba is elli e al., 2013, p. 29; Lang ed & Moye, 2004, p. 934;
Wielenga-Meije e al., 2012, p. 6). I is he e o e e e ed o as job au‐
onomy wi h espec o he me hod o ask execu ion. In he ollowing,
om his pa ial concep ual blu ing is de ia ed as a as a dis inc ion
be ween Task and Me hod Au onomy o employees is conduc ed. This
sepa a ion ollows he assump ion o Lang ed and Moye (2004, p. 935),
who s a ed ha a job consis s o a numbe o asks o which di e en
deg ees o au onomy can be a ibu ed.
Acco ding o Sichle (2006, p. 247), he possibili y o shaping wo k
asks con ibu es subs an ially o he unde s anding o au onomy. Task
Au onomy e e s o he possibili y o wo ke s o selec (o ejec ) wo k
asks om a se o asks and hus cons uc an indi idual composi ion o
asks. Wo ke s would he e o e also ha e a say in he quan i y o wo k
hey do and he ask a iabili y h ough his app oach. Task a iabili y
comp ises he a ie y o asks ha need o be comple ed a wo k, which
con as s wi h mono onous and epe i i e wo k p ocesses. Likewise, he
comple eness o a wo k ask is coun ed as Task Au onomy, which spec‐
i ies ha asks can be ca ied ou and accompanied om s a o inish.
Thus, he execu ion o indi idual asks ha a e de ached om he o e ‐
all wo k goal o missing in o ma ion wi hin he wo k p ocess disag ees
wi h he po en ial o Task Au onomy. Task Au onomy hus explici ly
asks which asks a e comple ed and in wha way he ask ange can be
in luenced, no how he asks a e ul ima ely comple ed.
Cha ac e is ics o Task Au onomy: possibili y o choose wo k asks
om ask se ; ask a iabili y; composi ion o wo k quan i y; com‐
ple eness o asks and in o ma ion.
In con ex
Wi hin he con ex o using digi al wo k ools and ADM, job au on‐
omy, o mo e p ecisely, Task Au onomy, is equen ly associa ed wi h a
change in he amoun o wo k and he impac on ask a ie y, al hough
he di ec ion o impac is assessed qui e di e en ly. Kohl ausch (2019,
p. 25), o example, desc ibes how digi aliza ion esul s in a ound one-
hi d o employees ha ing o pe o m mo e asks in less ime. In addi‐
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4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 81
ion o he undamen al end owa ds in ensi ica ion ha goes hand in
hand wi h he use o digi al means, he e is also less in luence on he
amoun o wo k. In ac , a conside able inc ease in he amoun o wo k
pe o med by wo ke s is desc ibed in all se ice b anches in he wake
o digi aliza ion. In some cases, well o e hal o he wo ke s desc ibe
ha hei wo kload has inc eased, o example, in inance and insu ance,
educa ion, and heal hca e. Only a ac ion o people belie e ha hei
wo kload ac ually dec eased ( Table 17 | Appendix).
Whe he hese de elopmen s a e cu bed o e e sed using ADM e‐
mains ques ionable o he ime being. A leas S.-C. Meye e al. (2022,
p. 328) sugges ha he p obabili y ha employees can in luence he
amoun o wo k inc eases wi h lea ning AI sys ems, which includes lea n‐
ing ADM. How migh his addi ional amoun o wo k a ise in he i s
place? The i onies o au oma ion (Bainb idge, 1983, pp. 775–776) as‐
sume ha echnical a ionaliza ion p ocesses a e always associa ed wi h
unin ended addi ional cos s and e o s, such as he main enance and op‐
imiza ion o echnical sys ems. Unsu p isingly, he e is also e idence o a
highe p obabili y o comple ing new asks when using lea ning sys ems
(S.-C. Meye e al., 2022, p. 328).
This is in con as o Fleming e al. (2019, p. 3), whose s udies assume
ewe wo k asks in combina ion wi h ML sys ems. The au ho s in es‐
iga ed asks ha a e pa icula ly sui able o ML, such as scheduling
appoin men s, and ound ha occupa ions ha mee his de ini ion ha e
ewe asks o pe o m, i.e., hei ask a iabili y is es ic ed.
I ADM sys ems a e deployed and wo k p ocesses a e hus o mal‐
ized o a ce ain ex en so ha hey can be pe o med by such sys ems
a all, he ask a iabili y o employees is, in essence, es ic ed. A e
all, he pu pose o he applica ion is usually o ake o e ce ain wo k
s eps en i ely, o a leas o suppo employees in ca ying hem ou . I
many asks om he ask ange o employees a e omi ed, he numbe
o epe i i e, mono onous wo k s eps can inc ease. In ac , he e is some
e idence ha wo k wi h lea ning sys ems is in e spe sed wi h a highe
p obabili y o epe i ion, i.e., a highe deg ee o mono ony, especially o
pe sonal se ices (S.-C. Meye e al., 2022, p. 328, 337). Thus, he dange
o inc easing mono ony comes wi h highly subs i u i e echnical sys ems.
Wi h inc easing mono ony, he ques ion o con adic o y wo k equi e‐
men s also a ises, which is oo ed in an al e na ion be ween unde chal‐
lenge (mono ony) and o e challenge (dealing wi h ad hoc dis u bances)
(Hi sch-K einsen, 2020, p. 146).
P esumably, all hese e ec s exis in di e en wo k scena ios: in‐
c eased wo kload and dec eased wo kload, as well as highe ask a i‐
abili y and mo e mono onous wo k. The di ec ion o e ec p obably
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82 4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k
depends on he in e en ion dep h o he ADM sys em in wo k p ocesses
and a ec s p o essions e y di e en ly depending on ask con en , qual‐
i ica ion, and o m o o ganiza ion.
The issue o quali ica ion in pa icula will emain exci ing in he
u u e, since augmen ing sys ems migh be capable o enabling less quali‐
ied employees o pe o m ce ain asks in he sense o a guidance sys em,
i.e., o expand hei ange o asks (Beuschel, 1995, p. 323). Howe e , i
he use o ecen echnologies enables less quali ied pe sonnel o ca y
ou ce ain asks, his de elopmen o en ha bo s he isk o pola iza ion
o quali ica ions.
Whe he wo ke s eel es ic ed in hei ac ions by he changed ask
condi ions ul ima ely depends on hei need o ask a ie y and he
deg ee o which hei wo kload is manageable. Thus, ega ding Task
Au onomy, whe he he subs i u ion o asks is bene icial o job au on‐
omy depends on whe he hey eally wan o be elie ed o hese asks
o no . I is likely ha some wo ke s pe cei e he elie om ce ain
simple decision-making asks as elie ing, while o he s will eel dep i ed
o hei ask a iabili y. Thus, he e ec s o changing Task Au onomy
also depend on he ex en o which he use o he sys em is linked o
cons ain s o is a ailable as an op ional suppo ool.
The holis ic na u e o he in o ma ion p o ided by an ADM esul
mus be conside ed ques ionable. I is ce ainly plausible ha hese sys‐
ems could, o example, suppo he selec ion o one’s own ask po olio
by p o iding he igh da a in he igh quan i y. Howe e , Papsdo
(2019, p. 150) poses he isk o a misma ch be ween he quali y and
quan i y o in o ma ion in digi al sys ems. I employees a e p o ided
wi h oo much o oo li le usable da a, he possible suppo i e unc‐
ion o he sys em is quickly e e sed, which ini ially leads o a highe
wo k quan i y. The usabili y o a sys em in he sense o Task Au onomy
he e o e depends on i s unc ional quali y.
4.2.2. Me hod Au onomy
De ini ion
The e is a b oad consensus ha Me hod Au onomy se es as a co e di‐
mension o job au onomy. Ea ly app oaches o job edesign usually use
some o m o wo ke s’ eedom o choose he p ocedu es and me hods
wi hin hei wo k (e.g., B eaugh, 1985, p. 556; Hackman & Oldham,
1975, p. 162; Sims e al., 1976, p. 197; mo e ecen ly, Mo geson &
Humph ey, 2006, p. 1323). Exempla y, B eaugh (1985, p. 556) de ines
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4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 83
his dimension as “The deg ee o disc e ion / choice indi iduals ha e e‐
ga ding he p ocedu es (me hods) hey u ilize in going abou hei wo k”.
Mo e ecen esea ch con ibu ions ely on simila de ini ions o
Me hod Au onomy, such as Spiegelae e e al. (2016, p. 517), o which
Me hod Au onomy “ e e s o he disc e ion o employees on how o pe ‐
o m he wo k asks in e ms o p ocedu es and wo k me hods”. In his
de ini ion, he selec ion o me hods o pe o m a wo k ask includes no
only he cogni i e means o suppo he execu ion bu also physical aids
in he sense o (digi al) ools. In he b oades sense, building compe encies
(Pichaul & McKeown, 2019, p. 63) and ha ing ce ain deg ees o ee‐
dom o app oach asks expe imen ally (Spiegelae e e al., 2016, p. 518)
can also be conside ed pa o he Me hod Au onomy dimension. Me hod
Au onomy he e o e essen ially ques ions he ex en o which employees
can decide o hemsel es he way in which hey comple e a wo k ask.
Cha ac e is ics o Me hod Au onomy: selec ion o p ocedu es, me h‐
ods, and ools o pe o m wo k asks; possibili y o build up compe‐
encies.
In con ex
Speci ic empi ical indings ela ing Me hod Au onomy and ADM a e
a e, p esumably also because many s udies equa e job au onomy wi h
Me hod Au onomy wi hou o mula ing i in conc e e e ms. Funda‐
men ally, Me hod Au onomy is nega i ely ela ed o wo k p essu e
( Schieman, 2013, pp. 277–278), so he p omo ion o his dimension is
undamen ally desi able.
As he demand o decision-making skills inc eases (Deming, 2021,
p. 31), he ques ion a ises as o who will make he decisions abou p o‐
cesses, me hods, and ools in he u u e. I Me hod Au onomy is explici ly
conce ned wi h he abili y o de e mine how a wo k ask is execu ed,
hen ADM sys ems cen ally challenge hese decision-making eedoms.
Ce ainly, he use o ADM sys ems undamen ally o e s an al e na i e
cou se o ac ion o hei p e ious me hodical speci ica ion. The decisi e
ac o seems o be no necessa ily wha decision is a ec ed, bu who e‐
ains o ecei es con ol o e he decision-making p ocess in he cou se o
delega ing asks o ADM sys ems (Koeszegi, 2021, p. 69). Depending on
he sys em in ques ion, i is likely ha some o e en all decision-making
p ocesses a e ans e ed o he sys em in he case o ull au oma ion,
which would minimize Me hod Au onomy.
Up un il now, wo ke s in he se ice sec o ha e assumed ha digi‐
aliza ion has di e en e ec s on he scope o decision-making. Al hough
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84 4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k
mos o hem do no expec any change, hei pe cep ions o inc eased o
dec eased eedom o decision-making in he se ice sec o do di e ge.
The e a e some b anches in which up o a qua e o employees epo
inc eased eedom o make decisions (e.g., ade, in o ma ion and com‐
munica ions se ices, o educa ion). Bu in he inancial and insu ance
sec o and he heal hca e segmen in pa icula , hese igu es a e o se
by conside able dec eases in decision-making oppo uni ies o some ( Ta‐
ble 17 | Appendix).
In addi ion, Ki chne e al. (2020, p. 16) show ha he e ec o using
digi al ools on Me hod Au onomy clea ly depends on he con en o he
ask. Knowledge wo ke s bene i om he use o digi al ools, while mo e
pe son- ela ed asks, especially i hey ha e no p e ious expe ience wi h
digi ali y, a e mo e likely o su e momen s o au onomy es ic ion. In
he case o Me hod Au onomy, he elemen s o quali ica ion and ask
con en clea ly come in o play in he ela ionship be ween echnology use
and job au onomy. Fo example, Logg e al. (2019, pp. 31–32) desc ibe
ha employees wi h less compe ence in a ce ain a ea p e e o ely on he
decisions o he algo i hm. This ends no o be he case o mo e highly
quali ied employees. Me hod Au onomy, howe e , is e en dispensed wi h
unde ce ain ci cums ances as speci ic cha ac e is ics a e a ibu ed o
an ADM sys em. The non-use o compe ence migh be e lec ed in a
educ ion o Me hod Au onomy. In he las consequence, he use o ADM
sys ems could educe he buildup o compe ences.
In his con ex , an essen ial ques ion a ises ega ding ADM, namely
he anspa ency o he decision-making p ocesses and esul s. I is well
known ha anspa ency is ha dly gi en in complex sys ems ha use
ANN (K aus e al., 2021, pp. 18–20), o example. Wi hou his unde ‐
s anding o he esul s, which ul ima ely dep i e employees o con ol
o e he wo k p ocess, hey may lack a basis o decision-making. Fu ‐
he mo e, he lack o in o ma ion o in o ma ion asymme ies may imply
a ce ain de alua ion o wo k.
I using an ADM sys em is linked o a ce ain deg ee o o maliza ion
o p ocesses o make he sys em usable in he wo king en i onmen ,
he e is a dange o Me hod Au onomy. Papsdo (2019, p. 53) e e s
o his p ocess as he disciplining o wo k. I enables sys em planning
and con ol, as well as anspa ency and ep oducibili y (Huchle , 2019,
p. 148). I he adap abili y and con ollabili y o sys ems each hei lim‐
i s, s anda diza ion is o en elied upon, i.e., he en i onmen is adap ed
o sys ems and no ice e sa. This s anda diza ion can be in e p e ed
a he expense o indi idual job au onomy, especially in he me hodical
sense (Huchle , 2019, p. 165).
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4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 85
4.2.3. C i e ia Au onomy
De ini ion
C i e ia Au onomy essen ially desc ibes o wha ex en wo ke s can
choose and in luence he c i e ia o e alua ing hei wo k esul s and
how wo k pe o mance is assessed. B eaugh (1985, p. 556) desc ibes his
au onomy dimension as “The deg ee o which wo ke s ha e he abili y
o modi y o choose he c i e ia used o e alua ing hei pe o mance”.
Thus, he dimension e ol es no only a ound whe he in luence is ex‐
e ed on he exac wo k goals, bu o iginally on he e alua ion o pe ‐
o mance and he abili y o assess wo k achie emen s. The c i e ia could
he e o e be in e p e ed as a ype o e alua ion c i e ia. F om he cu en
pe spec i e, hese e alua ions may, o cou se, also in ol e digi al o e en
algo i hmic p ocesses.
The idea o C i e ia Au onomy is only included in a ew s udies
on o e all job au onomy. Besides B eaugh (1985), he Maas ich Au‐
onomy Ques ionnai e (Jonge & Schau eli, 1998, p. 393) and DeCo ils
and Koys (1980, p. 173) e e o sel -de e mina ion in ela ion o wo k
goals. Nicholson (1984, p. 178) ex ends his unde s anding o C i e ia
Au onomy o include he possibili y o choosing wo k goals and ways
o achie ing hem. C i e ia Au onomy hus implici ly includes aking
esponsibili y o wo k esul s and assumes ha wo k goals a e pu sued
consciously and in en ionally.
Cha ac e is ics o C i e ia Au onomy: abili y o modi y o choose he
c i e ia used o e alua ing wo k pe o mance; aking esponsibili y
o wo k pe o mance; possibili y o se wo k goals and o pu sue
hem consciously and in en ionally.
In con ex
Al hough he con en s o C i e ia Au onomy a e no o en associa ed
wi h au onomy in e ms o de ini ion, i is p ecisely in ligh o digi al
and algo i hm-d i en means o measu ing wo k pe o mance and se ing
wo k objec i es ha he dimension akes on conside able signi icance
o employees. Pa icula ly p esen and equen a e conside a ions o in‐
c eased moni o ing and con ol endencies in he cou se o digi aliza ion
and ADM applica ion a wo k, which imply a diame al unde s anding
o C i e ia Au onomy.
A couple o yea s ago, i was al eady no ed in he se ice sec o ha
con ol mechanisms in he wo kplace a e changing d as ically (K a ze &
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86 4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k
Dunkel, 2013). I is likely ha hese ends ha e inc eased due o he new
possibili ies o digi aliza ion and he use o ADM, and ha hey will in en‐
si y e en u he . This is indica ed by Ahle s (2018, p. 8, 14), who analyzes
a ious o ms o con ol mechanisms by indus y: Wo k and pe o mance
con ol as a esul o echnological p og ess appea o be pa icula ly high
in he al eady highly digi alized inancial and insu ance sec o . Many wo k
councils su eyed in logis ics, accommoda ion and ood se ices, in o ‐
ma ion and communica ion, ade, and business- ela ed se ices epo
he same end. The equency o au oma ic eco ding o wo k s eps by
a compu e p og am shows simila le els by b anch. These mechanisms
a e less p onounced in public se ices and educa ion, which in u n a e
p esumably subjec o less ma ke iza ion and a ionaliza ion p essu e.
In addi ion, Kohl ausch (2019, p. 25) no es ha almos hal o all
wo ke s belie e ha new echnologies enable hem o achie e be e
wo k esul s. A he same ime, howe e , mo e han 40 % epo ha
digi aliza ion is inc easing he moni o ing and con ol o hei own wo k
pe o mance. Recen su eys con i m hese imp essions: Depending on
he b anch in ques ion, well o e a hi d o employees o en pe cei e
inc eased moni o ing and con ol mechanisms as a esul o digi aliza‐
ion. This is pa icula ly ue o logis ics, heal hca e, and social se ices.
Ha dly anyone pe cei es a dec ease in moni o ing and con ol ( Table 17 |
Appendix).
Acco ding o a su ey by MeMo:KI (2020, p. 6), 40 % o employees
associa e he use o AI in he wo kplace wi h inc eased moni o ing by
hei employe . S.-C. Meye e al. (2022, p. 327) also p o ide ala m‐
ing e idence ha he likelihood o deadline p essu e a wo k inc eases
sha ply wi h cons an use o lea ning sys ems. The esul s a e pa icula ly
s iking o pe son- ela ed (as well as o he ) se ices, whose likelihood
o su e ing om deadline and pe o mance p essu e inc eases by mo e
han 20 % when hey wo k wi h hese sys ems (S.-C. Meye e al., 2022,
p. 337). In his case, ADM use seems ex emely nega i ely ela ed o C i‐
e ia Au onomy.
This ple ho a o moni o ing and con ol endencies gi es eason o
belie e ha con ol possibili ies a e inhe en in all digi al and ADM
sys ems. Whe he and how hese a e exploi ed mus be assessed on a
case-by-case basis. Beyond he pu e moni o ing and con ol capabili ies
o ADM sys ems, C i e ia Au onomy may be iewed in he con ex o
algo i hmic managemen . Algo i hmic managemen in luences manage‐
men asks. Pa en -Rocheleau and Pa ke (2022) p o ide an o e iew
o he unc ions ha algo i hms a e al eady capable o . In connec ion
wi h pe o mance e alua ion, goal se ing, o planning asks, possibili‐
ies o (nega i ely) in luencing he au onomy o managemen pe sonnel
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4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 87
a e isible. Lange e al. (2021, pp. 760–761) no e ha sa is ac ion wi h
algo i hmic esul s is highes when supe io s can s ill in luence hem and
assess decision chains hemsel es.
The unc ions o algo i hmic managemen sys ems a e mul i ace ed
(Gilbe e al., 2021, p. 15): They subs i u e o managemen posi ions, en‐
able emo e moni o ing o employees, and gi e hem ins uc ions, he eby
in luencing no only he se ing o wo k objec i es bu also hei execu ion
(Me hod Au onomy). This e e s o sys ems in which ADM p o ides a
leas pa ial o comple e con ol o wo k by means o wo k ins uc ions
and in which wo k objec i es a e also p ecisely calcula ed and speci ied.
Gensle and Abend o h (2021, p. 532) ind ha wo ke s who ecei e daily
algo i hm-based wo k ins uc ions ha e signi ican ly less au onomy han
hei coun e pa s. The au ho s explain his esul by s a ing ha he in‐
luence o algo i hmic wo k con ol is pe cei ed as e ec i e when i is also
equen ly used (Gensle & Abend o h, 2021, p. 537).
P esumably, i is no only he me e wo k objec i es ha a e se ha
ha e an ad e se e ec on he au onomy o wo ke s, bu also, as al eady
indica ed unde Me hod Au onomy, he delega ion o esponsibili y, his
ime o he wo k esul s. Complemen a y sys ems ha main ain his
sense o esponsibili y o wo k esul s and, a he same ime, ha e a
suppo ing e ec could be in e p e ed as qui e conduci e o C i e ia Au‐
onomy. The ex en o which esponsibili y o wo k esul s is handed
o e o a echnical sys em by employees ul ima ely depends on he con‐
c e e wo k objec i es, o , in he case o se ice employees, also on he
se ice ecipien s, om whose judgmen and jus i ica ion wo ke s can
ha dly escape.
In any case, he use o ADM sys ems a wo k, as soon as hey in‐
e ene in he con ol and goal-se ing o employees, poses a conside ‐
able h ea o C i e ia Au onomy, he comple e, echnically suppo ed
elimina ion o which is a leas heo e ically possible. Thus, he ques ion
a ises: I he e is no in luence a all on he wo k objec i es and c i e ia o
e alua ing one’s own wo k, how is au onomous and independen wo k
supposed o unc ion?
4.2.4. Scheduling Au onomy
De ini ion
Scheduling Au onomy, simila o Me hod Au onomy, is p esen in a la ge
numbe o s udies and discussions o job au onomy. B eaugh (1985,
p. 556) is quo ed ye again as he unde s ands Scheduling Au onomy
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88 4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k
as ollows: “The ex en o which wo ke s eel hey can con ol he
scheduling / sequencing / iming o hei wo k ac i i ies”. Mo e ecen ly,
Spiegelae e e al. (2016, p. 517) name a simila de ini ion by s a ing
ha “wo k scheduling au onomy e e s o he disc e ion o employees
on when o pe o m which wo k ask”. Thus, he wo dimensions o
Scheduling Au onomy and Me hod Au onomy a e closely ela ed o each
o he in ha hey ha e he closes ela ions o wo k asks and hei execu‐
ion. In ea ly esea ch app oaches (e.g., Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Sims
e al., 1976), bo h dimensions we e he e o e o en conside ed oge he
o no di e en ia ed a all.
The de ini ion o Scheduling Au onomy in e e ence o B eaugh
(1985) and Spiegelae e e al. (2016) is ex ended by pace o wo k (e.g.,
Pichaul & McKeown, 2019, p. 67) and b eak de e mina ion. They can
be conside ed as supplemen ing aspec s o he analysis o ime- ela ed
job au onomy in he execu ion o wo k asks by gi ing u he insigh s
in o he in ensi y o he wo k, e e ing o he numbe o wo k asks
execu ed in a p ede ined amoun o ime.
Addi ionally, he de ini ion o Scheduling Au onomy is ex ended o
he aspec s o handling in e up ions and unce ain ies a wo k. These
in e up ions and unce ain ies may ha e a ious igge s (e.g., hi d pa ‐
ies o mal unc ions o echnologies) as well as conside able in luence
on employees’ ime managemen . As a coun e pa o he independen
scheduling o wo k (Spiegelae e e al., 2016, p. 519), his aspec is explic‐
i ly included because in e up ions a wo k occu pa icula ly equen ly
in se ice b anches and in dealings wi h cus ome s, clien s, o pa ien s
(DGB-Index, 2021b, pp. 88–89). Scheduling Au onomy hus add esses
he ques ion o he ex en o which wo k is planned independen ly and
whe he his planning is subjec o ex e nal in luence. Scheduling Au on‐
omy he eby co e s, in pa icula , he ime-in ensi ying aspec s o wo k.
Cha ac e is ics o Scheduling Au onomy: abili y o decide on se‐
quence, p io i iza ion, iming, and speed o ask comple ion; b eak
de e mina ion; independen handling o dis up ions and unce ain ies.
In con ex
Simila o Me hod Au onomy, Scheduling Au onomy has he po en ial o
exe a posi i e e ec on employees’ pe cei ed wo k p essu e (Schieman,
2013, pp. 277–278), indica ing ha he impo ance o his dimension and
he po en ial in luence o ADM sys ems should no be unde es ima ed.
Empi ical indings on he in e play be ween Scheduling Au onomy
and digi al echnologies, o e en ADM, ha e a ely been conclusi e. S.-C.
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4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 95
employees play when wo k can be pe o med away om he usual wo k‐
place? Fi s o all, i is well known ha many employees would like o
wo k om home. O hose employees whose jobs gene ally allow hem
o wo k om home, almos wo- hi ds would like o be able o wo k
om home ac oss all sec o s (B enke, 2016, p. 99).
Howe e , he e a e also employees who clea ly ejec wo king om
home. Acco ding o G unau e al. (2019, p. 1), a ound wo- hi ds o em‐
ployees who do no wo k om home also ejec i in p inciple. In addi‐
ion o he ob ious a gumen ha he p o essional occupa ion does no
pe mi wo k om home, he easons o ejec ing i in he p e-COVID-19
pe iod we e mainly in he p o essional ield (G unau e al., 2019, pp. 6–
8): The e is a cul u e o p esence ha is app ecia ed by supe io s, collabo‐
a ion wi h colleagues is conside ed mo e di icul , o he basic echnical
equi emen s a e no me . In he p i a e sphe e, many employees s a e
ha hey wan o sepa a e hei p o essional and p i a e li es spa ially.
Al hough home o ice use s o en epo ha his expe ience is posi i e,
hey also s a e ha he wo a e becoming inc easingly in e mingled.
I becomes appa en ha i is p ima ily indi idual p e e ences and o ‐
ganiza ional equi emen s ha de e mine employees’ Loca ional Au on‐
omy. Can ADM sys ems also in luence and, i necessa y, suppo employ‐
ees’ sel -de e mina ion ega ding he place o wo k? Acco ding o Geo g
and Guhlemann (2020, p. 20), ne wo ked sys ems a e a leas capable o
de aching employees’ wo k om a speci ic wo k loca ion. This would
appea o be a suppo i e unc ion in he sense ha he echnical op ion
is p o ided in ce ain si ua ions. Howe e , i is di icul o make gene ‐
aliza ions abou he in e ac ion be ween ADM sys ems and he mac o-
locali y o employees.
The e a e ce ainly sys ems ha coo dina e he wo k loca ion, es‐
pecially in he sense o mic o-locali y, as a kind o con ol sys em. One
migh hink o logis ics, o example, bu also o ou e planning in he
ca e sec o o in ood se ices. Howe e , i is also possible ha ADM
could p o ide suppo in making in o ma ion a ailable in he igh place.
I is possible ha using ADM sys ems will ha e less o an impac on he
deg ee o eedom in he choice o mobile wo k op ions (mac o-locali y)
and mo e o an in luence on he Loca ional Au onomy o se ice employ‐
ees a hei usual place o wo k o wi hin hei usual adius o ac i i y
(mic o-locali y).
In e es ingly, spillo e e ec s on o he au onomy dimensions om
Loca ional Au onomy mus no be unde es ima ed. I is e iden , o ex‐
ample, ha employees who wo k on he mo e no only ha e g ea e
Loca ional Au onomy (o Wo king Time Au onomy), bu also g ea e
au onomy ega ding he con en and app oach o wo k asks. Fo exam‐
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96 4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k
ple, mo e mobile employees can de e mine he sequence o hei wo k
hemsel es (77 % ), make many decisions hemsel es (80 % ), and plan
and schedule hei wo k hemsel es (75 % ) han in-house employees
(66 % , 61 % , and 60 % , espec i ely) (Wal e sbache e al., 2019, p. 94).
They a e mo e o en able o plan wo k independen ly and ha e g ea e
in luence o e wo king hou s. Howe e , hese new eedoms a e also
accompanied by mo e paid and unpaid wo k o he expec a ion o being
a ailable ou side adi ional wo king hou s (DGB-Index, 2021a, pp. 2–
6). Loca ional Au onomy is, he e o e, inhe en ly cha ac e ized by ambi‐
gui y.
4.2.7. In e ac ional Au onomy
De ini ion
In e ac ional Au onomy ma ks a compa a i ely mo e complex and
newe job au onomy dimension. The idea o In e ac ional Au onomy is
in ended o ep esen he in luence o in e ac ions wi h hi d pa ies (e.g.,
colleagues, supe io s, se ice ecipien s) on job he au onomy o wo ke s.
In e ac ional Au onomy explici ly asks whe e he e a e dependencies on
o he people inside o ou side he o ganiza ion and o wha ex en hese
dependencies in luence he sense o au onomy in he execu ion o wo k.
Ea lie concep s ela ing o he scope o ac ion we e c i icized o
neglec ing he social con ex o wo k ac ion (Vie h, 1995, p. 119). Alio h
(1980, pp. 19–20) he e o e supplemen ed he scope o in e ac ion wi h
he concep o job au onomy a an ea ly s age. Howe e , his addi ion
ha dly appea s o ha e gained accep ance because in e ac ions a e ha dly
ound in oday’s conside a ions o job au onomy. Theo e ical conside a‐
ions on his subjec a e di icul o iden i y. As a as in a-o ganiza ional
dependencies a e conce ned, he ela ionship be ween he eam and he
indi idual is o en he subjec o deba e: Habe s oh and Wol (2005,
pp. 20–23) ini ially s a e ha se e al eam cha ac e is ics in luence indi‐
idual au onomy: eam size, unce ain y and di icul y o he eam ask,
p o essional compe ence o he eam membe s, and he u gency and im‐
po ance o he eam ask. Fu he esea ch app oaches poin o pa ly
con adic o y ela ionships be ween indi idual au onomy and eam au‐
onomy. Jønsson and Jeppesen (2013, p. 78) w i e ha eam au onomy is
posi i ely ela ed o indi idual au onomy.
In con as , Lang ed (2000, p. 581) no es ha job au onomy is in
con lic a he indi idual and eam le el when he o ganiza ion ies o
gi e mo e au onomy o bo h he indi idual and he eam. Howe e , in
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4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 97
a la e s udy Lang ed (2005, p. 524), concluded ha “ he op imal com‐
bina ion o indi idual and eam au onomy depends on he le el o ask
in e dependence in a eam”. Van Mie lo e al. (2006, p. 294) add ha
especially social suppo as a mode a ing a iable can media e be ween
eam and indi idual au onomy in a posi i e sense. E en i he e ec di‐
ec ion is no en i ely clea , i is easonable o assume ha he in eg a ion
in o an o ganiza ion, o mo e p ecisely, a eam, and he coope a ion o
his eam a e componen s ha in luence job au onomy.
Rega ding he collabo a ion wi h ex a-o ganiza ional ac o s, he
concep o in e ac ion wo k acco ding o Böhle and Weih ich (2020)
comes o he o e (also Chap. 1.5 ). Gi en scope o ac ion is conside ed a
cen al p e equisi e o in e ac ion wo k, especially i s si ua ional and in‐
o mal elemen s (Böhle & Weih ich, 2020, pp. 18–19; Tisch e al., 2020,
p. 49). The dis inc i e ea u e o in e ac ion wo k is ha wo k is ca ied
ou on a li ing subjec whose subjec i i y is o en indispensable o he
success o he se ice (Böhle & Weih ich, 2020, p. 15). He e, a con lic
line eme ges ega ding job au onomy: In he pe o mance o in e ac ion
wo k, he e is a ela ionship o dependency be ween se ice wo ke and
ecipien , whe eby he co e idea behind In e ac ional Au onomy is o
examine o wha ex en his ela ion can be de e mined by wo ke s hem‐
sel es.
In e ac ional Au onomy asks abou he dependence o wo ke s on
o he people, be hey colleagues, supe io s, o se ice ecipien s. O pa ‐
icula impo ance is he ex en o which employees hemsel es can in‐
luence he deg ee o dependency, i.e., he deg ee o coope a ion.
Cha ac e is ics o In e ac ional Au onomy: dependency on hi d pa ‐
ies; ela ion o eam au onomy; possibili y o de e mine ex en o col‐
labo a ion wi h hi d pa ies.
In con ex
While he e is mo e empi ical e idence on o he job au onomy dimen‐
sions, only isola ed indings exis on In e ac ional Au onomy. When s ud‐
ies do co e in e ac ion wo k and i s condi ions, hey o en ela e o
con lic s and he esul ing s esses and s ains o wo ke s (e.g., Holle
& Dö linge , 2022; DGB-Index, 2018b). The possible deg ees o ee‐
dom in he pe o mance o in e ac ion wo k a e a ely conside ed – e en
mo e seldom in conjunc ion wi h he use o echnology. The subsequen
empi ical analyses in Pa II and III a e hus also in ended o de elop
and explica e his dimension. The e o e, he discussion o In e ac ional
Au onomy also has an explo a o y cha ac e .
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98 4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k
Pe haps esea ch on he ela ionship be ween job au onomy and
ADM in in e ac ion si ua ions is s ill so limi ed because he e is cu ‐
en ly a b oad consensus ha hese sys ems a e less able o in luence he
emo ional-coope a i e skills o employees’ in e ac ion wo k. Tolan e al.
(2021, p. 209) con i m ha AI sys ems cu en ly in luence he abili ies
o sea ching, pe cei ing, and p ocessing in o ma ion a he han in e ‐
ac ion- ela ed abili ies. O he au ho s (e.g., Fel en e al., 2019; Webb,
2019) conside he ield o ac ion ega ding no el sys ems o be in di e ‐
en a eas as well. Howe e , especially in iew o he apid de elopmen
o la ge language models, he ele ance o his a gumen mus a leas be
ques ioned.
Rega ding spa iali y and digi al wo k, some exci ing insigh s ha e
been gained in ecen yea s abou he changing ela ionship be ween
eamwo k and digi al en i onmen s. Fo example, wi h he pe cep ion o
mo e mobile wo k, collabo a ion and eam ac i i ies a e becoming mo e
di icul due o less spa ial p oximi y. Gibbs e al. (2021, p. 21) desc ibe
his de elopmen as highe cos s o communica ion and coo dina ion.
Thus, i ADM sys ems we e o in luence he loca ion o employees’ wo k
in his way, i is possible ha he cos o collabo a ion may inc ease.
P esumably, job au onomy would also su e . Howe e , he way and
place in which employees wan o collabo a e wi h o he s depends on
he p e ious wo king a mosphe e (Me gene & T übne , 2022, p. 477).
In he case o echnically induced g ea e spa ial independence o em‐
ployees, i is likewise concei able ha he indi idual wo ke can ac mo e
independen ly o eam s uc u es o o he hi d pa ies due o a highe
and quali a i ely be e p o ision o in o ma ion by he ADM sys em.
In cases o doub , in o ma ion no longe mus be eques ed om o he
pa ies bu can be accessed as needed and acco ding o he si ua ion.
This would allow concen a ion on he coope a i e elemen s o wo k
ha a e necessa y in he sense o p oduc i e collabo a ion, and possibly
unnecessa y in e up ions o he wo k o o he s could be a oided.
The ac ha a high deg ee o mobile wo k can ha e a nega i e im‐
pac on he ela ionship be ween colleagues is also shown by Gajend an
and Ha ison (2007, p. 1537). The au ho s a gue ha in his case, em‐
ployees ha e ewe in e ac ions wi h colleagues and he e o e ecei e
less suppo . Supe iso s also need o be app oached mo e ac i ely o
ecei e suppo . A posi i e ela ionship wi h one’s supe iso , especially
when he supe iso in e enes suppo i ely in employees’ wo k, has
been shown o ha e a posi i e impac on job au onomy and e en educe
u no e in en ions (Dys ik & Ku aas, 2013, p. 15). The ole o he su‐
pe iso is he eby eminiscen o p e ious conside a ions ega ding he
in luence o algo i hmic managemen on job au onomy. In he con ex o
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4. Face s o job au onomy in se ice wo k 99
algo i hmic managemen o wo k, Gilbe e al. (2021, p. 41) e en assume
an aliena ion o employees om wo k and eam, in which hey a e le
o hei own sel -managemen . Communica ion would hus become less
impo an . Howe e , ega ding In e ac ional Au onomy, he di ec ion o
he e ec emains ambi alen and depends on whe he wo ke s a e le
o o ganize hemsel es o ecei e speci ic wo k ins uc ions.
The ex a-o ganiza ional componen o In e ac ional Au onomy, i.e.,
assessing changed in e ac ion wo k wi h se ice ecipien s h ough ADM
use, is ca ied ou in pa icula wi hin he ollowing empi ical wo k in
Pa III. Fundamen ally, i is e iden ha he s anda dizing and o maliz‐
ing endencies o echnology use in he wo kplace impede he peculia i‐
ies and necessi ies o in e ac ional wo k (Böhle & Weih ich, 2020, p. 20;
Hielsche , 2014, pp. 9–14; Hielsche e al., 2015, pp. 7–8). In his cons el‐
la ion, in e ac ion wo k may adap o he igidi y o echnical condi ions
and p esen wo ke s wi h new challenges. The example o ca e wo k
shows ha in he applica ion o new echnologies, hey no only ace
he obs acle o amilia izing hemsel es wi h he echnology bu also o
ac i ely in eg a ing i in o he ca e p ocess and in hei in e ac ions wi h
pa ien s (Hielsche , 2020, p. 41). They a e he e o e aced wi h a new
wo k challenge in wo senses.
In e ac ion wo k aces a o maliza ion p oblem (Jung äubl, 2021) –
a leas i he quali y o he in e ac ion is no o su e . I is impo an o
emphasize ha al hough o maliza ion is a he conside ed o es ic job
au onomy, i does no necessa ily ha e o go hand in hand wi h poo e
wo king condi ions. Jung äubl (2021, p. 36) desc ibes ha o maliza ion
can also se e he o ganiza ion o p ocesses, quali y assu ance, o he
c ea ion o measu abili y, which may well lead o a educ ion in wo k
equi emen s, especially wi h ega d o he challenge o in e ac ion wo k.
This a gumen is suppo ed by empi ical e idence ha wo ke s who pe ‐
o m a lo o in e ac ion wo k ha e less job au onomy on a e age and
a e exposed o highe emo ional demands (DGB-Index, 2018b, p. 18).
Fo a numbe o employees, he e seems o be a nega i e ela ionship
be ween in e ac ional wo k and sel -de e mina ion a wo k. As a as he
impac o ADM sys ems on In e ac ional Au onomy is conce ned, i is
easonable o assume ha he di ec ion o e ec depends on he conse‐
quences o using he sys em on he quan i y, quali y, o indi idualiza ion
o in e ac ional se ices. Pe haps he e is no se ious connec ion be ween
ADM and In e ac ional Au onomy a all because wo ke s a e s ill able
o do be e in e ac ion wo k and hus e ain so e eign y o e his ield
o wo k.
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5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol
The consequences o job au onomy o wo ke s, i.e., he p o en connec‐
ions be ween job au onomy and o he wo kplace- ela ed ac o s, ha e
al eady been discussed (Chap. 1.4 and 4 ): As a mo i a ional o s ess- e‐
ducing wo k esou ce, g an ing job au onomy may help o shape pe son‐
nel o co po a e aspec s such as job sa is ac ion, heal h, o p oduc i i y
in a posi i e way. The absence o job au onomy may ha e co esponding
diame ic e ec s. Howe e , i has also been a gued ha he e is a sa u‐
a ion poin ega ding job au onomy, i.e., ha once a ce ain ex en is
eached, he posi i e consequences o g an ing deg ees o eedom can
diminish o e en be e e sed. Thus, he analysis o empi ical s udies on
he ex en o job au onomy has al eady poin ed o i s ambi alence.
While hese ambi alen consequences o di e en job au onomy le ‐
els ha e been discussed so a , he easons o and a emp s o explain
a ying job au onomy emain unexplained. The p e ious conside a ions
ha e indica ed wha is deal wi h in g ea e dep h in his chap e : The e
a e wo ke s who ha e o cope wi h wo k demands wi h li le job au‐
onomy, and he e a e hose who ha e g ea e scope o ac ion bu who
a e also subjec o s ong cons ain s wi h ega d o hei wo k esul s.
Vie h (1995, p. 94) desc ibes bo h s a es o job au onomy as a esul o
execu ion con ol in he i s case and o ou come con ol in he second
case. In bo h cases, job au onomy se es an o ganiza ional pu pose. The
di e ences a e suppo ed by nume ous heo e ical app oaches. A he
co e o hese conside a ions is usually he co po a e need o exe cise
con ol 32 o sol e he ans o ma ion p oblem o labo and o make he
complexi y o o ganiza ions con ollable.
Howe e , con ol is no (exclusi ely) an agonis ic o job au onomy.
Job au onomy inds applica ion in dis inc oles in he con ol logics o
companies. The way in which echnology in e enes in he u iliza ion and
exploi a ion o job au onomy is no comple ely mapped by heo e ical
app oaches. Especially ega ding new ypes o lea ning ADM, known
app oaches ha e so a ha dly been su icien o co e he implica ions
o job au onomy and o ganiza ional embedding.
32 In he English-speaking deba e, he e m con ol is much b oade han in Ge man.
Nies (2021, p. 480) s a es ha in English-speaking discou se, con ol e e s o all o ms
o pe o mance managemen , i espec i e o whe he di ec moni o ing o beha io
is in ol ed. M. F ey (2009, p. 44) dis inguishes be ween wo ke s’ con ol and man‐
agemen con ol in he Ge man-speaking deba e. Chap. 5 gene ally e e s o a b oad
unde s anding o managemen con ol.
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5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol 101
Essen ially, wo schools o hough on he in e play be ween digi‐
aliza ion, ADM, and job au onomy a e dominan so a (Ki chne e
al., 2020, pp. 3–5): Digi al Taylo ism suppo s he heo y o a sys em‐
a ic decline in job au onomy and he e i al o Taylo is ic p inciples,
especially by exploi ing he moni o ing capaci ies o digi al and ADM
ools. The opposi e pole e e s o inc easing sel -de e mina ion, i.e.,
mo e job au onomy using mode n echnology, which ees wo ke s om
mono onous and bu densome asks.
Bo h app oaches assume di e en o ganiza ional pa adigms o wo k:
Conside a ions on he sp ead o digi al Taylo ism emphasize he classical
mechanisms o echnology as a con olling, p oduc i i y-inc easing ele‐
men in he wo k p ocess, which sys ema ically es ic s job au onomy.
Comp ehensi e con ol mechanisms h ough digi al ools enable almos
comple e aceabili y o indi idual wo k s eps, which e ases he las bi s
o he possibili y o shape wo k p ocesses (S aab & Nach wey, 2016,
p. 28).
Suppo e s o he libe a ing na u e o digi ali y and ADM, g an ing
indi idual wo ke s mo e job au onomy, expec be e condi ions inside
and ou side o he wo kplace, no only in e ms o con en bu also
de ached om he cons ain s o non-digi al imes ega ding wo king
hou s and loca ion. The possibili ies o e ed by using digi al means c ea e
new spaces o c ea i i y and collabo a ion (e.g., Ki chne e al., 2020,
pp. 4–5). In bo h cases, echnology in he wo k p ocess is undamen ally
associa ed wi h he objec i es o educing he amoun o human labo ,
gaining con ol o e emaining human labo , and imp o ing e iciency
(P ei e , 2018, p. 321).
Beyond hese o en pola izing iews on new, some imes dis up i e
echnologies, he cen al ques ion is wha signi icance and unc ion job
au onomy assumes in di e en o ganiza ional pa e ns, wha ole is en‐
isaged o wo ke s in hese espec i e cons ella ions, and wha in luence
using ule-based and lea ning echnologies has on he u iliza ion and
exploi a ion o job au onomy. Hence, he objec i e o he ollowing e‐
ma ks is o gene a e in e p e a ions o he occu ence o di e en o ms
o job au onomy and hei changes. Low le els o job au onomy a e no
mo e synonymous wi h nega i e consequences o employees han high
le els, which a e in a iably desc ibed as pa icula ly good condi ions a
he wo kplace. Ra he , i is he o ganiza ional u iliza ion o job au on‐
omy ha de e mines i s appea ance and consequences.
These e lec ions mus be elabo a ed and made applicable o he em‐
pi ical analyses in Pa II and Pa III. A ce ain deg ee o abs ac ion
is essen ial since he de elopmen o heo y on he in luence o lea ning
ADM on wo k has no ye been comple ed and concluding indings a e
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102 5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol
a e, mo e so ega ding he se ice sec o . The in e play o (lea ning)
echnological sys ems and in e ac ion wo k, o example, is seldom in‐
cluded in sociological s udies.
Thus, Chap. 5 i s p o ides an o e iew o exis ing concep s o
u ilizing job au onomy in companies, especially hose ela ed o di ec
(Chap. 5.1 ) and indi ec (Chap. 5.2 ) con ol logics. The applica ion o
echnology does no always play a leading ole in hese concep s, which
is why mo e ecen heo e ical de elopmen s, such as he p oclama ion
o a new Digi al Taylo ism, a e discussed subsequen ly o assess he cu ‐
en s a e o esea ch on he in eg a ion o digi al ools and ADM in
he wo k p ocess (Chap. 5.3 ). I is impo an o emphasize ha hese
echnologies can ake he o m o classic ule-based sys ems as well as
newe ML-based lea ning sys ems. Whe e e idence is a ailable, sepa a e
e e ence is made o he possibili ies o lea ning sys ems. Howe e , i
also becomes clea ha basic con ol ins ances in companies can be pe ‐
o med by bo h ypes. These app oaches a e con ex ualized in ligh o
he ole speci ic co po a e s a egies play in he in eg a ion o echnolo‐
gies in companies (Chap. 5.4 ). Chap. 5.5 concludes by summa izing he
heo e ical amewo k on which he ollowing empi ical conside a ions
a e based and s a ing some expec a ions ega ding he ela ion be ween
job au onomy and ADM.
5.1. Ra ionaliza ion a i s co e: minimizing job au onomy and
di ec con ol
The ea men o job au onomy in he logic o classical Taylo ism has
ha dly los any o i s signi icance, e en om oday’s pe spec i e, a leas
o ce ain b anches and occupa ions. Especially wi h ega d o ule-
based echnological sys ems ha p o ide la gely anspa en p ocesses
o managemen , he analogy wi h F ede ick W. Taylo ’s (1911) p inci‐
ples is ob ious since he minimiza ion o job au onomy and maximiza‐
ion o con ol is a he co e o he Taylo is idea. Taylo desc ibed he
undamen als o an o ganiza ional pa adigm ha seeks p ecise con ol o
wo k p ocesses. Ra ionaliza ion and con ol a e simul aneous objec i es
and p e equisi es o his o ganiza ional app oach. Indi idual s eps o he
wo k p ocess a e p ecisely de ined o op imize hei sequence. In his
sense, i is ha dly su p ising ha au oma ion was implemen ed so well in
Taylo is ic wo k sys ems. Ideally, ule-based, mechanized wo k s eps a e
pe o med jus as well by machines.
The ideal- ypical cha ac e is ics o classic Taylo ism open a cons an
ield o ension be ween job au onomy and company p oduc i i y de‐
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5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol 103
mands. The ea u es o Taylo is wo k sys ems lie no only in he clea
sepa a ion o simple and complex asks bu also in he di ision o he
planning and execu ion o wo k p ocesses. The Taylo is o m o wo k
o ganiza ion sys ema ically dep i es wo ke s o he possibili y o inde‐
penden ly o ganize wo k s eps, o example, de e mining he me hodi‐
cal p ocedu e o comple ing a wo k ask o deciding on he sequence
and speed o comple ion. The ealiza ion o pe o mance goals is hus
achie ed by minimizing job au onomy. The echniciza ion o wo k p o‐
cesses plays a decisi e ole – a e all, he use o echnology is he pace‐
se e o daily wo k. In he pas , his applied o mechanical au oma ion
jus as i does oday o digi al and lea ning sys ems, which, o example,
speci y he s uc u e and scheduling o wo k p ocesses in he o m o
algo i hmic managemen sys ems.
Ha y B a e man’s (1974) Labo P ocess Theo y (LPT) is s ill e‐
ga ded as he cen al sou ce o c i icism o Taylo is wo k and asc ibes
job au onomy a undamen al ole in i s a ionaliza ion logic. Acco d‐
ing o LPT (o e iew in Thompson, 2010), he echniciza ion p ocess o
wo k is ega ded as an in ensi ica ion and op imiza ion o managemen
con ol, dequali ica ion, and deg ada ion o wo ke s unde he impe ‐
a i e o maximizing he u iliza ion o labo powe . The collec i e e m
o he a o emen ioned con ol mechanisms is di ec con ol (F iedman,
1977a, 1977b). Di ec o ms o con ol a e ela i ely clea ly iden i iable
by wo ke s. Fo he mos pa , hey a e aimed a es ic ing job au onomy
and decision-making (Ge s , 2002, p. 105). In his cons ella ion, using
ADM sys ems would be conside ed a con ol ins umen as i undamen‐
ally impac s job au onomy.
The need o con ol in he wo kplace is due o he incomple eness o
employmen con ac s, which gene ally do no spell ou he p ac ical im‐
plemen a ion o wo k p ocesses and he disposal o labo , i.e., he ans‐
o ma ion p oblem o labo . In his con ex , M. F ey (2009, p. 35) names
job au onomy as he cen al desc ip o o he possibili ies o con ol in
he wo kplace: “F om a con ol- heo e ical pe spec i e, he ela ionship
be ween au onomy and he e onomy in wo k add esses he cen al p ob‐
lem o he capi alis labo p ocess: he ans o ma ion o inde e mina e
labo capaci y in o de e mina e labo pe o mance” 33
.
Speci ically, he a ea o unce ain y in he wo k p ocess mus be min‐
imized. Acco ding o Ge s (2019, p. 111), he aim on he company side
33 Own ansla ion o “Aus kon oll heo e ische Pe spek i e wi d mi dem Ve häl nis on
Au onomie und He e onomie in de A bei das zen ale P oblem des kapi alis ischen
A bei sp ozesses angesp ochen: die T ans o ma ion des unbes imm en A bei s e mö‐
gens in bes imm e A bei sleis ung” (M. F ey, 2009, p. 35).
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104 5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol
is o in eg a e he pe o mance o wo ke s ega dless o hei pe sonal
in e es s, as well as o make echnology choices ha bes b ing ou hei
con ol po en ial o domina e wo ke s. Thus, a he co e o LPT is also
he minimiza ion o oppo unis ic employee beha io . In he Taylo is
p inciple, he goal o minimizing subjec i i y in wo k p e ails. Ideally, he
dis up i e ac o o human labo mus be minimized as a as possible,
i.e., emo ed om wo k p ocesses.
In he Taylo is o ganiza ion o wo k, i was o iginally assumed
ha wage incen i es su iced o gua an eeing obedience o company
equi emen s (Senghaas-Knobloch, 2008, p. 71). In his logic, e en wo k‐
ing condi ions ha educe job au onomy o a minimum would be ac‐
cep ed – a e all, wo kload is compensa ed by a co esponding wage.
Implici in his assump ion o Taylo ism is ha wo ke s con ibu e hei
labo powe o wo k p ocesses wi hou any a achmen o subjec i i y
( Senghaas-Knobloch, 2008, p. 72).
Today’s esea ch consensus, howe e , s a es ha e en unde such au‐
onomy- es ic ing condi ions, wo ke s a emp o inco po a e subjec‐
i i y in o hei wo k. Senghaas-Knobloch (2008, p. 71) w i es ha he
“limi s o no malizabili y become clea in he ace o subjec i i y and
sociali y,” 34 meaning ha employees ine i ably b ing subjec i i y in o
e e y wo k si ua ion – also independen o he applica ion o echnology,
i no maliza ion in his sense (i.e., o maliza ion) is seen as a p e equisi e
o using echnical sys ems. Acco dingly, subjec i i y ela es p ima ily o
ce ain coping s a egies wi h which one eac s o gi en wo k equi e‐
men s, conside ing pe sonal demands on one’s own wo k. The con ol
p oblem o labo could hus ne e be comple ely sol ed by Taylo ism.
Viewing subjec i i y as a dis up i e ac o , as in Taylo ism, e en con‐
adic s he p emises o success ul se ice wo k. Se ice wo k h i es on
he con ibu ion o a subjec i e pa wi hin he amewo k o in e ac‐
ion wo k. In his sense, subjec i i y and se ice wo k a e in e wo en. I
o ganiza ional o echnical possibili ies a e exploi ed o u he educe
he subjec i e sha e o wo k, he co e o se ice wo k is e oded, and
he app op ia ion o wo k becomes mo e di icul , i no impossible. The
consequences o such an in e en ion a e po en ially no only new bu ‐
dens bu also a massi e cu in he mo i a ing ac o s ha cons i u e se ‐
ice wo k. Wha is up o discussion wi h ADM sys ems is whe he hei
lea ning p ope ies esul in new possibili ies o accessing o p e en ing
subjec i e engagemen a wo k.
34 Own ansla ion o “G enzen de No mie ba kei we den angesich s on Subjek i i ä
und Soziali ä deu lich” (Senghaas-Knobloch, 2008, p. 71).
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5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol 111
idea. Acco ding o B own (2011, p. 72), he special quali y o Digi al
Taylo ism also lies in i s digi al in e connec edness and global na u e.
Acco dingly, moni o ing and con ol op ions a e a ailable ega dless o
loca ion (B own, 2011, p. 74).
Howe e , classical Taylo ism had li le, i any, access o he se ice
sec o . Tha appea s o be changing. In he ligh o low union and social
pa ne ship co e age as well as many p eca ious employmen condi ions
in se ices (Haipe e , 2020, p. 48), his de elopmen is all he mo e wo ‐
isome. Unde he umb ella e m o Digi al Capi alism, Nach wey and
S aab (2015, p. 76) explain Digi al Taylo ism as he echno-digi ally sup‐
po ed a ionaliza ion wa e ha now also a ec s he se ice sec o and
pushes wo ke s back in o he supposedly o e come labo s uggles o he
1970s and 1980s. The con ol impe a i e and capi al alo iza ion again
ake cen e s age. In he sys em o Digi al Capi alism, as Nach wey and
S aab (2015, p. 78) con inue, he company as an ins i u ion and social
space is inc easingly dissol ing – e y much in line wi h he de ini ion
o delimi a ion acco ding o M. F ey (2004, p. 63). The end owa d
delimi a ion ex ends o dimensions o labo law, o example, in ha a
small co e o ixed employees is con on ed wi h many who a e lexibly
employed. Digi al Taylo ism assumes ha companies ely on classical
con ol mechanisms o minimize unce ain y and subjec i i y (Menz e
al., 2019, p. 188). The unsol able con ol gap o Taylo ism is being e‐
wo ked by means o digi al echnologies, especially ML-based sys ems.
Schaupp (2020, p. 202) summa izes he cha ac e is ics o Digi al Tay‐
lo ism as ollows: In Digi al Taylo ism, digi al sys ems p o ide wo k in‐
s uc ions and lead o amilia simpli ica ion and segmen a ion o wo k
(Nach wey & S aab, 2015, p. 76), while he wo k ac ions o employ‐
ees a e eco ded digi ally and a e eco ded down o he smalles de ail
(B own, 2011, pp. 72–74). In con as o classic Taylo ism, howe e , his
makes he en i e y o wo k p ocesses mo e opaque in e ms o he black
box cha ac e , no only o wo ke s bu also o managemen , whose
asks a e also subjec o pa ial au oma ion (Nyckel e al., 2017, p. 238).
I is p ecisely his black box p ope y ha is cha ac e is ic o lea ning
ADM. Managemen eedback is eplaced by pe manen digi al eedback
om he echnical sys em, which calls o sel -op imiza ion and sel -
moni o ing by employees (Nyckel e al., 2017, pp. 230–236). In his
p ocess, companies become mo e sel -o ganized, bu wo ke s also dis‐
connec mo e om he o ganiza ion, which ul ima ely goes hand in hand
wi h he dissocia ion om he o me ly s able ins i u ion o he company
(Nach wey & S aab, 2015, p. 78).
Howe e , as his summa y by Schaupp (2020) indica es, he suppo ‐
e s o Digi al Taylo ism ha e al eady been con on ed wi h c i ical oices
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112 5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol
ha ei he do no conside he concep su icien o desc ibing cu en
de elopmen s o e en disco e inconsis encies wi h Taylo is ideas: Wi h
e e ence o he indus ial sec o , Nies (2021, p. 482) desc ibes ha highly
lexible p oduc ion sys ems, lowe plannabili y and quan i ies, as well as
he lexible use o labo , can ha dly be econciled wi h he equi emen s
o o maliza ion, as some digi al ools equi e. The heo y o Digi al Tay‐
lo ism has no ye ound an answe o his p oblem. As wi h he i onies
o au oma ion, Taylo ism eaches he limi s o con ollabili y.
In addi ion, he e a e well-known limi s o he o malizabili y o hu‐
man labo . Bu ollo, Engel, e al. (2018, p. 144) ask whe he Digi al Tay‐
lo ism ails because o he same obs acles as classic Taylo ism, and hus
ocus in pa icula on he in ol emen o wo ke s in he wo k p ocess
wi h all hei skills and expe ience. Bu ollo, Engel, e al. (2018, p. 146)
u he pose he ques ion o he alidi y o Digi al Taylo ism, namely o
wha ex en digi al wo k p ocesses con inue o depend on he subjec i i y
o wo ke s and how dis up ions and impasses can be deal wi h. Digi al
Taylo ism, including he possible use o lea ning ADM sys ems and hus
he minimiza ion o subjec i ying wo k, is in con adic ion o compen‐
sa o y subjec i ica ion (Voß & Weiß, 2005, p. 141) and he impo ance
o labo capaci y and expe ien ial knowledge (P ei e , 2004).
Menz e al. (2019, p. 197) ag ee and ecognize no he co po a e ideal
o Taylo ism in cu en de elopmen s bu , a he , he c ea ion o e en
mo e anspa ency wi h ongoing ma ke iza ion. No does i ocus on
cu ailing job au onomy. Taylo ism, howe e , pu sues di e en s a egies
a he han new o ms o con ol. I is he answe o he p oblem o ans‐
o ming wo k by o he means. Ideally, Digi al Taylo ism is accompanied
by o maliza ion and s anda diza ion o u ilize digi al echnologies and
c ea e anspa ency in wo k p ocesses: “Digi aliza ion is he d eam o
con olling he en i e alue c ea ion p ocess while a he same ime being
able o espond lexibly o he ma ke ” 42 (Menz e al., 2019, p. 196).
This means ha he isibili y o he wo k p ocess has been massi ely
inc eased, while he goal o using echnology emains he ope a ional
exploi a ion p inciple (Menz e al., 2019, p. 197). Howe e , hese ob‐
se a ions seem o ela e less o lea ning sys ems due o hei lack o
anspa ency.
Possibly, he p oclama ion o Digi al Taylo ism only e e s o he
se ice ac o ies (Nach wey & S aab, 2015, p. 76) o he BigTech and
42 Own ansla ion o “Die Digi alisie ung is de T aum on eine Du chs eue ung des
gesam en We schöp ungsp ozesses, die gleichzei ig lexibel au den Ma k eagie en
kann” (Menz e al., 2019, p. 196).
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5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol 113
pla o m companies. Nies (2021, p. 481) con i ms ha he goals o Digi‐
al Taylo ism a e simila o hose o classical Taylo ism, and ha digi al
means a e used o minimize job au onomy h ough anspa ency, eal-
ime con ol, and quan i iabili y. Howe e , he mos adical o ms o his
con ol egime ha e so a been obse ed p ima ily in logis ics and he
pla o m economy.
Hence o h, o Schaupp (2020), he heo e ical app oach o Digi al
Taylo ism does no go a enough o explain cu en echnological de el‐
opmen s a he wo kplace and he e o e b ings Cybe ne ic Con ol Theo y
(Bee , 1963; Wiene , 1948, as ci ed in Schaupp, 2020) in o play as a u he
explana ion. Nyckel e al. (2017, p. 229) also in e p e he new popula i y
o algo i hmic con ol sys ems as e u ning o es ablished ideas o cybe ‐
ne ic con ol, which combines he p inciple o sel -con ol wi h eedback
mechanisms. Schaupp (2020, p. 204) explains ha , ollowing Bee (1963,
p. 61), managemen cybe ne ics desc ibes sys ems o con olled sel -o ga‐
niza ion ha a e cha ac e ized by complex demands on con ol abili ies.
These dynamic o ganiza ions a e ha dly anspa en , which is why Bee
(1963, p. 22) poin s o he black box cha ac e o hese sys ems.
This also shows why managemen unc ions a e becoming obsole e
in managemen cybe ne ics (also Nyckel e al., 2017). The o ganiza‐
ion is supposed o egula e i sel a he lowes possible hie a chical
le el (Schaupp, 2020, pp. 205–206). Wha Bee (1963, p. 146, as ci ed
in Schaupp, 2020) lacked a ha ime o success in his concep ion o
con olled sel -o ganiza ion was he cen al ne ous sys em, which di‐
ec s he desi ed eedback mechanisms. A his poin , a he la es , he
pa allels o mode n ML-based managemen sys ems become clea . The
p esence o cybe ne ic con ol elemen s is suppo ed in pa icula by he
in anspa ency o algo i hmic p ocess con ol o bo h employees and
managemen (Nyckel e al., 2017, p. 238).
The peculia i ies o cybe ne ic con ol clea ly sugges ha he con ol
gap o Taylo ism a wo k is u he closed. Cybe ne ic p ocess con ol
mechanisms no longe only aim o di ec ly con ol employees – as as‐
sumed in he sense o adi ional LPT – bu a e also in ended o minimize
he planning leeway o middle managemen (Nyckel e al., 2017, p. 230).
Lea ning eedback sys ems, which a e supposed o coo dina e speci ic
ac ions ia a di ec coupling o con ol goals, play a suppo ing ole
in hese con ol sys ems (Nyckel e al., 2017, p. 232). This means ha
hese algo i hmic con ol sys ems in e ene in he execu ion o indi idual
p ocess s eps, adjus hem o he con ol goals in eal ime i necessa y,
and gi e eedback di ec ly o employees. This ques ions he necessi y o
he planning and coo dina ing asks o middle managemen (Nyckel e
al., 2017, p. 233).
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114 5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol
O e all, he cybe ne ic con ol sys em is mo e dynamic han Digi‐
al Taylo ism, especially ega ding ime egimes. Pe manen and holis ic
moni o ing and anspa ency o wo k a e linked o au oma ed manage‐
men and eedback mechanisms ha lea e wo ke s o ake esponsibili y
o hei own wo k. In his sense, only a ew employees o e all ha e
he imp ession ha digi al echnology is o cing p ede e mined wo k be‐
ha io o a g ea e ex en han was p e iously he case (Schaupp, 2020,
p. 206). In compa ison o Taylo ism, echnical (lea ning algo i hms) and
o ganiza ional ( eedback ins ead o managemen ) inno a ions a e mo e
s ongly in e wined (Schaupp, 2020, p. 207).
5.4. Co po a e s a egies as d i e s be ween echnology and
job au onomy
C i icism o he es ic ion o Digi al Taylo ism as an explana o y model
o he echnical and o ganiza ional change cu en ly being obse ed
poin s no only o concep ual weaknesses bu also o he ac ha he
p inciples apply only selec i ely o speci ic b anches. Se e al au ho s,
meanwhile, ques ion he na ow co po a e a ge co ido associa ed
wi h he use o echnology om he company’s poin o iew: o e coming
he ans o ma ion p oblem o labo h ough a ionaliza ion. Gau ié e
al. (2020, p. 777) w i e in his ega d ha he use o digi al echnologies is
no he cause o a possible e i aliza ion o Taylo ism bu enables i . The
cause is a change in co po a e s a egies. The goal behind using a pa ‐
icula echnology, i is a gued, ollows a pa icula co po a e s a egy,
which can be unde s ood in di e se ways in ela ion o job au onomy.
As desc ibed ea lie , con ol mechanisms ha e dis inc in luences on
job au onomy (Nies, 2021, p. 479). Nies (2021, p. 480) names h ee un‐
damen al unc ions o con ol mechanisms: i s , o deal wi h he ans‐
o ma ion p oblem o labo . Second, managemen con ol mus always
be conside ed an ins umen o powe ha is in ended o keep oppo une
employees in check. Thi d, con ol (whe he di ec ly o indi ec ly) aims
a o ien ing pe o mance o ma ke equi emen s.
In pa icula , his s eng hens he a gumen ha no echnology by
design is in ended solely o a ionaliza ion in he sense o labo powe
(including minimiza ion o job au onomy), bu a he ha he ac ual e ‐
ec o using echnology is de e mined by i s o ganiza ional embedding in
he company, which in u n ollows a speci ic co po a e s a egy. Menz
e al. (2019, p. 190) ap ly poin ou ha , in he con ex o he cu en
digi aliza ion mo emen , he use o echnology as a con ol ins umen is
no longe p ima ily designed o a ionaliza ion (as in classic Taylo ism)
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5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol 115
bu o p ocess op imiza ion. Menz e al. (2019, p. 191) sugges ha i
wo ke s do no pe cei e his digi al anspa ency as an inc ease in su‐
pe ision and a es ic ion o job au onomy, i is because he goal o
echnology use is no a ionaliza ion bu he op imized a emp o mee
pe o mance a ge s.
Nies (2021, p. 478) likewise c i icizes he one-sided e e ence in he
discussion o Digi al Taylo ism o con ol in he execu ion o wo k and
he minimiza ion o subjec i e in luence by employees and expands he
pe spec i e o include he sys ema ic co po a e u iliza ion o job au on‐
omy. Howe e , Nies does no limi he sel o a ionaliza ion as he sole
objec i e o echnology deploymen . Acco dingly, he implemen a ion o
echnology is no necessa ily aimed di ec ly a he con ol in e es s o
companies and, in his sense, does no ha e a dis inc impac on job
au onomy. Ra he , he ocus shi s o he en i e y o possible co po a e
s a egies o dealing wi h digi aliza ion.
Based on he so-called Co po a e App oach (Be iebsansa z,
Al mann, 1978, pp. 153–167), Nies (2021, p. 486) desc ibes ou co ‐
po a e s a egies, e e ing o Al mann e al. (1982, p. 19), each o which
desc ibes di e en ways o companies o ealize capi al u iliza ion.
Wi h his idea, “no he mani es a ion o digi al echnology, bu he
iden i ica ion o he co po a e in e es s o u iliza ion behind i ” 43 (Nies,
2021, p. 487) mo es in o he ocus o analysis:
– The labo powe - ela ed s a egy (Nies, 2021, pp. 489–490), also
known as labo powe a ionaliza ion, is mos compa ible wi h he
p inciples o Digi al Taylo ism in ha i a emp s o deal wi h he
ans o ma ion p oblem o labo while maximizing con ol logics
and minimizing job au onomy. Unde his s a egy, howe e , he e
may equally be an expansion o job au onomy unde he ma ke iza‐
ion mechanisms. The ocus lies on u ilizing labo powe .
– The s a egies o p ocess a ionaliza ion o sys emic a ionaliza ion
s a egies (Nies, 2021, p. 490) desc ibe logics in which echnical sys‐
ems a e no designed o con ol bu o he op imiza ion o p o‐
cesses, which has a conc e e e ec on he o ganiza ion o wo k and
hus on job au onomy. Howe e , hei di ec ion o e ec is no p ede‐
ined and mus be de e mined based on speci ic examples. While his
s a egy ollows a ionaliza ion p inciples, he a ious mechanisms
o u ilizing labo powe a e seconda y.
43 Own ansla ion o “nich die E scheinungs o m digi ale Technik, sonde n die
Iden i izie ung de dahin e s ehenden be ieblichen Nu zungsin e essen” (Nies, 2021,
p. 487).
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116 5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol
– Wi h ma ke and business s a egies, Nies (2021, p. 491) e e s o
pu pose ul echnology use o imp o ing ma ke posi ions. This
s a egy ela es, o example, o he acking o p oduc s o end
cus ome s and, in his sense, has less o do wi h he con ol ideas
o companies.
– The ou h s a egy is mo e o a non-s a egy because echnology use
ollows inno a ion and discou se-d i en digi aliza ion (Nies, 2021,
p. 492). This in ol es eac ing o compe i o s and ex e nal e ec s,
no necessa ily a speci ic objec i e associa ed wi h he echnology.
These co po a e s a egies may e e o bo h ule-based and lea ning
ADM. Nies (2021, p. 492) concludes ha he in luence o echnology
on job au onomy does no necessa ily esul om he p e ailing con‐
ol mechanisms. I , as in mos cases, he e is a connec ion be ween job
au onomy and con ol, hen he speci ic di ec ion o he impac on job
au onomy and he in e es in exploi ing his changed au onomy depends
on he speci ic co po a e s a egy behind using a echnology.
While Nies (2021) and Menz e al. (2019) deal wi h he use o digi al
ools, which can include bo h ule-based and lea ning ADM in his gen‐
e al sense, Huchle (2023, p. 366), as one o he ew au ho s who does
no limi himsel o he moni o ing and con ol p ope ies o echnical
sys ems, adds ano he pe spec i e on he unc ions o echnology in he
wo k p ocess. In pa icula , Huchle emphasizes he assis ing cha ac e
o subsymbolic, i.e., lea ning, sys ems. The au ho adds o he di ec o
indi ec con ol p ope ies o hese sys ems and in oduces he con ol‐
ling e ec o he echnical sys ems as con ol by design as a kind o la en
con ol ins umen . Huchle (2023, p. 367) e e s o con ol by means o
wo k equipmen , which in u n has an indi ec in luence on wo k, o
example, on job au onomy. This idea migh co espond o he s a egies
o p ocess a ionaliza ion.
Huchle (2023, p. 368) speci ically poin s ou he simila i y be ween
subsymbolic sys ems and indi ec con ol. Acco dingly, echnical sys ems
wi h lea ning elemen s enable he complexi y o wo k o be kep open
o a long ime, in con as o pu ely ule-based sys ems. The need o
mas e wo k p ocesses is hus suspended since only unc ions and goals
a e gi en o he sys em and no p ecise calcula ion s eps (Huchle , 2023,
p. 369). This is whe e he black box p ope ies o lea ning sys ems come
in o play, which a e compa able o indi ec con ol in ha hey aim a a
speci ic con ollable esul and no he pa h o i . The linea i y o hese
sys ems can be suspended he eby.
Howe e , acco ding o Huchle (2023, p. 369), he logic o indi ec
con ol, especially he ocus on lexibili y and adap abili y, is ans e ed
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5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol 117
o echnical sys ems a he han o employees. Acco dingly, lea ning sys‐
ems igge a “new phase o echnology-cen e ed handling o complex‐
i y and unce ain y in wo k p ocesses” 44 (Huchle , 2023, p. 369), which
no only ep esen s a u he s ep in he di ec ion o au oma ion. I also
demands highe le els o compensa ion and supplemen a ion (Huchle ,
2022, p. 164) om employees in o de o in eg a e he sys ems in o he
socio- echnical sys em. Acco ding o Huchle ’s assump ions, some pa al‐
lels o cybe ne ic con ol heo y may be d awn.
In summa y, as aluable as hese app oaches o de e mining he spe‐
ci ic co po a e s a egy o assessing he impac o echnology use on
job au onomy a e, he ex en o which hese conside a ions can also be
applied o he se ice sec o emains an open ques ion. Fo a long ime,
he pa adigm o Baumol’s cos disease (Baumol, 1967) p edominan ly
excluded he a ionaliza ion possibili ies o se ice wo k. Acco dingly,
se ice wo k can ha dly be a ionalized wi hou lowe ing he quali y
o he se ice because wages always ise, and hus o al cos s also ise.
Fo his eason, i is pa icula ly desi able om a co po a e pe spec i e
o inc easingly ancho a ionaliza ion p inciples, o he disad an age o
se ice quali y, in he se ice sec o : pe sonnel cos s a e high and capi al
in ensi y is oo low (Ahle s e al., 2018, p. 10).
Howe e , i is ai ly ob ious ha he ideas o Baumol’s cos disease,
which a ibu ed special esilience o a ionaliza ion in he se ice sec o ,
ha e long since los hei alidi y. On he one hand, he echniciza ion o
se ice asks has long since aken o e hose b anches, whose con en s
a e pa icula ly suscep ible o au oma ion e o s. A e all, wha is being
wi nessed is a some imes dis up i e change in he o ganiza ion o wo k
on he basis o echnical inno a ions – o example, in e ail and logis‐
ics, whose online segmen is keeping he en i e indus y unde cons an
p essu e o change (S aab & Nach wey, 2016, p. 25).
This con as s wi h se ice asks ha a e supposedly s ill di icul o
au oma e, i.e., especially pe son- ela ed se ices. Howe e , a ionaliza‐
ion mechanisms a e clea ly isible in hese b anches as well, e en i hey
a e less echnology-suppo ed in some a eas. In his con ex , Baumol’s
cos disease mus be elimina ed by isible cu s in se ice quali y ( Table 1 ).
Al hough he di usion o ecen echnologies in he se ice sec o a ies
conside ably, i is easonable o assume ha he a ionaliza ion p inci‐
ples and s ong ma ke iza ion endencies ha ha e been p o en o he
indus ial sec o also apply o he se ice sec o . The bes example o
44 Own ansla ion o “neue Phase des echnikzen ie en Umgangs mi Komplexi ä und
Ungewisshei in A bei sp ozessen” (Huchle , 2023, p. 369).
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118 5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol
his is he heal hca e sec o , whose supposedly high social impo ance as
a public good has been e oded o he co e by excessi e economiza ion
(o e all in Dowling, 2021).
5.5. Expec a ions o ADM in se ice wo k and missing pieces
The ini ial challenge o Chap. 5 was o iden i y in e p e a i e guidelines
o he occu ence o a ious o ms o job au onomy, ela e hese o ech‐
nology use, in pa icula he ea u es o ule-based and lea ning ADM,
and apply exis ing heo e ical app oaches o he empi ical analyses en i‐
sioned. Fo his pu pose, a cen al dis inc ion is d awn be ween less au‐
onomous se ices (LAS) and highly au onomous se ices (HAS) as ideal
ypes. Bo h exp essions o job au onomy a e assumed o employ di e en
con ol logics and u iliza ions o echnology, which will be illus a ed in
he ollowing ( Table 4 ). They a e uni ed in he achie emen o co po a e
objec i es o p o i maximiza ion, capi al u iliza ion, esou ce e iciency,
and ma ke o ien a ion. Job au onomy ul ills di e en o ganiza ional
oles o achie e hese objec i es.
Ideal- ypical LAS desc ibe b anches in which a ionaliza ion e o s
a e exp essed in a low deg ee o job au onomy. P ime examples a e ade,
logis ics, accommoda ion and ood se ices, o heal hca e and social se ‐
ices. These se ices end o pe o m pe son- and objec - ela ed asks and
accoun o he la ges sha e o employmen in he se ice sec o . A he
same ime, hese b anches a e pa icula ly ele an o socie y, as hey a e
o en in ol ed in he day- o-day ca e o people – be i he p o ision o
goods o he ca e o people. Acco dingly, many wo ke s in LAS pe o m
in e ac ion wo k o a high deg ee and in ensi y.
The heo e ical links o igina e in classic Taylo ism, he wa e o c i ‐
icism in he con ex o LPT, and he de elopmen o Digi al Taylo ism.
Behind hese app oaches lies a di ec con ol logic, which is aimed a
con olling he execu ion o wo k. No only is job au onomy o be mini‐
mized o ensu e p ocess con ol and p e en oppo une wo ke beha io .
The dis up i e ac o o subjec i e in ol emen in wo k is also a ge ed.
Con ol gaps a e o be closed as a as possible, hus minimizing unce ‐
ain ies. Wha , in i s o iginal o m, was assigned o indus y is in many
a eas also leading o he indus ializa ion o se ices – which ca ies a
ce ain e minological inconsis ency.
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5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol 119
Table 4: O e iew on heo e ical embedding o job au onomy and
ADM sys ems
Less au onomous se ices Highly au onomous se ices
P ime examples
T ade, logis ics, accommoda ion, ood se ices,
heal hca e, social se ices In o ma ion, communica ion, inance, insu ance,
scien i ic and echnical se ices
Pe son and objec - ela ed asks Da a and knowledge- ela ed asks
Theo e ical link
Classic Taylo ism, LPT, Digi al Taylo ism Ma ke iza ion, Subjec i ica ion, Cybe ne ic
Con ol
Con ol logics
Di ec con ol / execu ion con ol Indi ec con ol / ou come con ol
ŽMinimizing job au onomy
ŽMinimizing subjec i i y
ŽMinimizing unce ain y / isks
ŽU iliza ion o selec i ely g an ed job au on‐
omy
ŽU iliza ion o subjec i i y
ŽIndi idualiza ion o unce ain y / isk
 
Indus ializa ion o se ices
(dequali ica ion, de alua ion, aliena ion) In e naliza ion o ma ke
(sel -con ol, sel -op imiza ion, sel - esponsibili y)
P esumed job au onomy cha ac e is ics
– Task Au onomy (–)
– Me hod Au onomy (–)
– C i e ia Au onomy (–)
– Scheduling Au onomy (–)
– Wo king Time Au onomy (–)
– Loca ional Au onomy (–)
– In e ac ional Au onomy (?)
– Task Au onomy (+)
– Me hod Au onomy (+)
– C i e ia Au onomy (–)
– Scheduling Au onomy (+)
– Wo king Time Au onomy (+)
– Loca ional Au onomy (+)
– In e ac ional Au onomy (?)
Co po a e s a egies
1) Labo powe a ionaliza ion 2) P ocess a ionaliza ion and op imiza ion
Role o digi al echnology and ADM
1) In ensi ica ion, au oma ion, con ol 2) E ec i e p ocesses, eo ganiza ion
1 & 2) C ea ing anspa ency in wo k p ocesses (con en , ime, loca ion)


Con lic wi h non- anspa ency o lea ning ADM sys ems (black box)
Di ec algo i hm-d i en wo k Indi ec algo i hm-d i en wo k
ŽPacese e
ŽReal ime con ol
ŽQuan i iabili y
ŽADM as cen al ne ous sys em
ŽCon ol by design
ŽAu oma ed eedback / managemen
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120 5. Job au onomy as ambi alen elemen o con ol
Condi ion: o maliza ion, s anda diza ion


Limi s o o maliza ion, s anda diza ion
– Con lic wi h lexibili y demands o he
ma ke
– Necessi y o compensa o y subjec i ica ion
– Con lic wi h u iliza ion o job au onomy /
subjec i i y
– Necessi y o compensa o y subjec i ica ion
 
E ec s on job au onomy
1) Job au onomy losses (–) 2) unclea (?) 1) Job au onomy gains (+) 2) unclea (?)
Rela ion o concep s o ac ion in se ice wo k
– Au oma ion o objec i ying ac ions
– Minimiza ion o subjec i ying ac ion – In ensi ica ion / suppo o objec i ying ac ions
– E osion o subjec i ying ac ion
Expe iences o delimi a ion
– Limi a ion wi hin he company
– Delimi a ion om he company – Delimi a ion o o ganiza ional / indi idual
objec i es
– Delimi a ion o wo king ime / loca ion
The ac ha LAS canno exe much in luence on he wo king ime and
loca ion- ela ed aspec s o hei wo k (Wo king Time, Loca ional Au on‐
omy) appea s ob ious in iew o hei pe sonal and objec - ela ed na u e.
Gi en he cha ac e is ics o Taylo ism, he exis ence o di ec con ol
also sugges s ha job au onomy is kep as low as possible ega ding he
selec ion, execu ion, and scheduling o asks (Task, Me hod, Scheduling
Au onomy). This p inciple also lea es li le scope o in luencing wo k
objec i es and hei e alua ion (C i e ia Au onomy).
A ques ionable aspec is he deg ee o In e ac ional Au onomy, i.e.,
he dependence on hi d pa ies and eedom in shaping coope a ion.
This o m o job au onomy has ecei ed li le a en ion since conside ‐
a ions abou he o ganiza ion o wo k and he u iliza ion o labo ha e
adi ionally eme ged om he indus ial sec o . The ques ion a ises as
o wha ex en LAS can escape, a leas in pa , om he p e ailing logics
o con ol in he con ex o in e ac i e wo k.
The ideal- ypical HAS, in con as , desc ibe b anches in which he
p inciples o a ionaliza ion and p ocess op imiza ion a e exp essed in
he g an ing o job au onomy. P ime examples include, in pa icula ,
in o ma ion and communica ions, inance and insu ance, and scien i ic
and echnical se ices. These se ice b anches end o engage in da a-
and knowledge- ela ed asks. The abo e-men ioned b anches a e cha ‐
ac e ized by a ela i ely high p opo ion o well-paid jobs and highly
quali ied employees. A he in e sec ions wi h cus ome s, clien s, and
pa ien s, he e may s ill be la ge in e ac ion sha es.
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PART II
Who ca ches he eye?
Quan i ying job au onomy in se ice wo k
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6. Objec i e
Measu ing job au onomy as pa o employmen quali y has come o
he o e in ecen esea ch a emp s (o e iew in Wa hu s e al., 2017).
Though analyzing he job au onomy o wo ke s has been explo ed in
economics, social science, o psychology long be o e (e.g., B eaugh,
1985; Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Sims e al., 1976). The aim o his
sec ion is o model and quan i y he p e iously de ined au onomy di‐
mensions o de e mine he s a us quo o he job au onomy a ailable o
wo ke s, o es ablish compa abili y ac oss di e en b anches based on
a uni o m scale, and o iden i y changes in job au onomy o e he pas
yea s. The unde lying assump ion is ha ADM sys ems ha e inc easingly
ound hei way in o he wo ld o wo k. Al hough no causali ies be‐
ween using ADM sys ems and changes in job au onomy a e es ablished,
he aim is o iden i y b anches in which job au onomy is pa icula ly
s ong (o weak) and which indi idual dimensions o job au onomy ha e
changed.
The BIBB/BAuA-Employmen Su ey (BIBB/BAuA-ETB) 45 is pa icu‐
la ly sui able as a da a basis o his analysis as i p o ides ex ensi e da a
on Ge man wo king en i onmen s om he poin o iew o wo ke s.
The cen al objec i e o he analysis is o quan i y job au onomy o
he Ge man se ice sec o , he b anches alling unde i , and selec ed
cha ac e is ics o hei employees (e.g., educa ional a ainmen o sex).
Fo his pu pose, an o e all alue o job au onomy, he Au onomy
Index, and a b eakdown o he p e iously de ined se en au onomy di‐
mensions a e p esen ed. Fu he mo e, he co esponding da a se s o he
BIBB/BAuA-ETB om 2018 and 2012 a e compa ed o iden i y changes
in job au onomy. These indings may p o ide indica ions o he pene a‐
ion o ADM sys ems in o he wo ld o wo k.
45 As a ep esen a i e c oss-sec ional su ey, he BIBB/BAuA-ETB is conduc ed e e y six
yea s. The a ge ed audience is employed pe sons aged 15 and olde who wo k a leas
10 hou s a week in a paid job. The su ey is supe ised by he Fede al Ins i u e o
Voca ional Educa ion and T aining (BIBB) and he Fede al Ins i u e o Occupa ional
Sa e y and Heal h (BAuA). The cu en wa e da es om 2018 and includes 20.012
esponden s. The co esponding da ase om 2012 includes a o al o 20.036 employed
people. Bo h da ase s a e ha monized. The da a analysis is based on he ques ionnai es
o he su eys, see Hall and Sie e (2011, 2017), and he associa ed me hod epo s, see
Gensicke and Tsche sich (2018), Gensicke e al. (2012), Roh bach-Schmid and Hall
(2013, 2020). Fo he p esen analysis, he Scien i ic Use Files o he 2018 and 2012
su eys we e acqui ed.
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130 6. Objec i e
Since he BIBB/BAuA-ETB does no con ain any explici i ems o map
he use o ADM ools, an app oxima ion o his con en is a emp ed
by means o combining selec ed skill- and ask- ela ed i ems ollowing
P ei e (2020, p. 473) (e.g., knowledge o ma hema ics and s a is ics,
ex en o compu e usage). Al hough hese wo k demands a e no equi ‐
alen o he ac ual use o ADM sys ems, hey do illus a e wo ke s’ po‐
en ial capaci ies o handling hem.
Pa II is mainly in ended o es ablish compa abili y wi hin he se ‐
ice sec o and, he eby, p o ide a comp ehensible basis o he selec ion
o b anches o he quali a i e, in-dep h analysis. Thus, his sec ion is
an in e media e s ep in his hesis, which also conside s gaps in p e ious
esea ch ega ding he exp ession o selec ed au onomy dimensions, so‐
cio-economic cha ac e is ics o wo ke s, o job- ela ed a ibu es. This
o e all p ocess concludes wi h he iden i ica ion o se ice b anches ha
a e pa icula ly s iking examples o job au onomy cases, i.e., ha show
peculia ly high o low le els, and hose mos ly a ec ed by changes in he
deg ee o job au onomy be ween 2012 and 2018. Two o he selec ed
b anches se e as objec s o an in-dep h analysis o ADM sys ems in lu‐
encing job au onomy in he quali a i e Pa III.
Pa II is hus s uc u ed as ollows: A desc ip ion o he me hod
applied (Chap. 7 ) is ollowed by he analysis chap e , which examines
he calcula ed au onomy scales acco ding o b anches and ask ypes
(Chap. 8.1 ), selec ed socio-economic cha ac e is ics o he esponden s
o hei o ganiza ions (Chap. 8.2 ), as well as o he aspec s connec ed
wi h he use o ADM (Chap. 8.3 ). This c oss-sec ional analysis o he
2018 su ey yea is ollowed by a quali a i e longi udinal compa ison
wi h he 2012 da a (Chap. 8.4 ). The conside a ion o he limi a ions in
he analysis conduc ed is essen ial o a eliable e alua ion o he esul s
(Chap. 9 ). Concluding ema ks (Chap. 10 ) close Pa II, summa ize i ,
e lec on p e ious indings, and lead in o he nex sec ion.
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7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index
The e a e ou p elimina y conside a ions o measu ing he quali y o
wo k (Leppe ho , 2011, pp. 32–33), some o which a e applied o he
ollowing analysis o job au onomy. These concep ual p elimina ies in‐
clude: (1) how wo k is de ined in he p esen case; (2) which unc ions
o wo k o dimensions a e included in he analysis and o wha ex en
hey a e hie a chically anked; (3) o wha ex en exis ing inequali ies in
quali y concep s a e ep oduced and how hese p inciples a e aken in o
accoun in he analysis and in e p e a ion o he da a; and (4) o wha
ex en he complexi y o wo k and wo k quali y a e aken in o accoun in
e ms o bo h objec i e-s uc u al and subjec i e pe cep ions o wo ke s.
These equi emen s o a measu emen concep o wo k quali y se e as
a poin o o ien a ion o he analysis o job au onomy in he ollowing:
1) The de ini ion o wo k includes he paid wo k o dependen employees
(blue-colla and whi e-colla wo ke s, ci il se an s) in he Ge man
se ice sec o (Chap. 7.3 ).
2) The analysis d aws on he heo e ical de ini ion o se en au onomy
dimensions: Task, Me hod, C i e ia, Scheduling, Wo king Time, Loca‐
ional and In e ac ional Au onomy (Chap. 4.1 ). Weigh ed equally, no
hie a chical anking is assumed be ween he dimensions.
3) Socio-economic di e ences among he esponden s a e pa ly consid‐
e ed by including educa ional a ainmen , sex, wo king hou s, o du‐
a ion o employmen .
4) The Au onomy Index includes bo h objec i e and subjec i e aspec s o
wo k, depending on he dimension conside ed. The BIBB/BAuA-ETB
mainly e lec s he subjec i e imp essions o he employees. Fo a
lack o app op ia e measu es, some i ems de ia e om his app oach
(speci ically Wo king Time and Loca ional Au onomy).
In addi ion o hese quali y equi emen s, he cons uc ion o au onomy
scales and he summa izing Au onomy Index a e ini ially based on a c i ‐
ical examina ion o p e ious a emp s o ope a ionalize job au onomy,
wi h a pa icula ocus on he use o he BIBB/BAuA-ETB (Chap. 7.1 ).
I eme ges quickly ha he exis ing concep s need o be conside ably
expanded o do jus ice o a mul idimensional concep o job au onomy,
which is he ounda ion o his hesis (Chap. 7.2 ). The calcula ion o he
au onomy scales is ollowed by a b ie desc ip ion o he sample and he
a iables used o u he analysis (Chap. 7.3 ). The ex ensi e Appendix |
Pa II b eaks down indi idual cons uc ion and analysis s eps o achie e
he highes possible ep oducibili y and anspa ency o he esul s.
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132 7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index
7.1. A ques ion o ope a ionaliza ion
The cen al ques ion in he analysis o job au onomy based on he
BIBB/BAuA-ETB is he ope a ionaliza ion o he concep , i.e., he selec‐
ion o i ems ha a e o ill job au onomy wi h subs ance and meaning. In
his ega d, i is ema kable ha cu en ope a ionaliza ion and measu e‐
men app oaches o job au onomy ha dly di e om ea ly concep s, e.g.,
job edesign esea ch in he 1970s and 1980s. Ra he , ea lie app oaches
o de e mining job au onomy show mo e mul idimensional concep s. In
pa icula , e e ence o he job edesign amewo ks o analyzing mo‐
i a ional po en ial (Hackman & Oldham, 1975; Sims e al., 1976) and
he concep ual app oach o B eaugh (1985) is use ul (Chap. 1.3 and 4.2 ):
Reconside ing he Hackman and Oldham (1975, p. 162) de ini ion o
au onomy in he JDS (“The deg ee o which he job p o ides subs an ial
eedom, independence, and disc e ion o he employee in scheduling he
wo k and in de e mining he p ocedu es o be used in ca ying i ou ”),
he au ho s use h ee i ems o ope a ionalize job au onomy (Hackman &
Oldham, 1974, pp. 72–79):
– How much au onomy is he e in he job? Tha is, o wha ex en does
he job pe mi a pe son o decide on his o he own how o go abou
doing he wo k?
– The job gi es a pe son conside able oppo uni y o independence
and eedom in how he o she does he wo k.
– The job denies a pe son any chance o use his o he pe sonal ini ia‐
i e o disc e ion in ca ying ou he wo k.
Building on he wo k o Hackman and Oldham (1975) and using a sim‐
ila de ini ion o job au onomy (“The ex en o which employees ha e a
majo say in scheduling hei wo k, selec ing he equipmen hey will use
and deciding on p ocedu es o be ollowed”, Sims e al., 1976, p. 197),
Sims e al. (1976, pp. 200–208) o mula e ano he ope a ionaliza ion a ‐
emp wi hin he JCI:
– How much a e you le on you own o do you own wo k?
– To wha ex en a e you able o do you job independen ly o o he s?
– The eedom o do p e y much wha I wan on my job.
– The oppo uni y o independen hough and ac ion.
– To wha ex en do you ecei e in o ma ion om you supe io on
you job pe o mance?
– To wha ex en a e you able o ac independen ly o you supe iso
in pe o ming you job unc ion?
– The con ol I ha e o e he pace o my wo k.
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7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index 133
Finally, B eaugh’s (1985) ope a ionaliza ion closes his i s canon o pas
analy ical app oaches o job au onomy. As al eady p ominen ly lis ed in
he se en dimensions o job au onomy, he au ho conside s h ee dimen‐
sions o au onomy, each based on h ee i ems (B eaugh, 1985, p. 570):
Wo k Me hod Au onomy
– I am allowed o decide how o go abou ge ing my job done ( he
me hods o use).
– I am able o choose he way o go abou my job ( he p ocedu es o
u ilize).
– I am ee o choose he me hod(s) o use in ca ying ou my wo k.
Wo k Scheduling Au onomy
– I ha e con ol o e he scheduling o my wo k.
– I ha e some con ol o e he sequencing o my wo k ac i i ies (when
I do wha ).
– My job is such ha I can decide when o do pa icula wo k ac i i ies.
Wo k C i e ia Au onomy
– My job allows me o modi y he no mal way we a e e alua ed so ha
I can emphasize some aspec s o my job and play down o he s.
– I am able o modi y wha my job objec i es a e (wha I am supposed
o accomplish).
– I ha e some con ol o e wha I am supposed o accomplish (wha
my supe iso sees as my job objec i es).
The app oaches o ope a ionalizing au onomy acco ding o Hackman
and Oldham (1975), Sims e al. (1976), and B eaugh (1985) ha e in
common ha hey de ine job au onomy by means o me hodical deg ees
o eedom and componen s o ime alloca ion while execu ing asks. In
addi ion, Hackman and Oldham (1975) and Sims e al. (1976) include
independence om o he people a wo k in hei app oaches. Fu he ‐
mo e, he subjec i e pa in he execu ion o wo k is emphasized (e.g.,
pe sonal ini ia i e o judgmen in Hackman & Oldham, 1975) as well as
he a ailabili y o in o ma ion (e.g., ecei ing in o ma ion om supe io s
in Sims e al., 1976). B eaugh (1985) s ands ou wi h his de ini ion o
C i e ia Au onomy, which is one o he ew app oaches ha includes he
in luence o e wo k goals and he e alua ion o pe o mance as pa o
job au onomy. Wha is missing om hese app oaches, howe e , a e job
au onomy aspec s ha explici ly deal wi h ime and place o wo k – hese
gaps a e p esumably due o hei lesse ele ance a he ime.
O he s udies ha also ope a ionalize job au onomy bu do no use
he BIBB/BAUA-ETB ha e al eady been discussed in he esea ch s a us
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134 7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index
o Pa I and a e he e o e no deal wi h again in de ail. An example
o his is S.-C. Meye e al. (2022, p. 328), who add ess lea ning sys ems
and hei connec ion wi h selec ed c i e ia o quali y o wo k. Using he
DiWaBE su ey (Digi aliza ion and Employmen in T ansi ion), hey de‐
ine job au onomy as a concep ha includes independen wo k schedul‐
ing, de e mining he pace o wo k, eedom o decision-making, wo king
onesel in o new asks, and in luencing he amoun o wo k o he e‐
quency o mono onous wo k p ocesses (S.-C. Meye e al., 2022, p. 321).
Gensle and Abend o h (2021, p. 526), on he con a y, a e guided by
B eaugh’s (1985) de ini ion o job au onomy and, using he LEEP da ase
(Linked-Employe -Employee-Panel) o an ope a ionaliza ion o job au‐
onomy, e e o he i ems o au onomous de e mina ion o when a ask is
comple ed, me hodical deg ees o eedom, and he possibili y o de ining
wo k goals hemsel es. In addi ion, Gie ing and Ki chne (2021, p. 562),
using he SOEP-IS da a se (Socio-Economic Panel Inno a ion Sample),
ake up simila ope a ionaliza ion elemen s: he possibili y o deciding
independen ly how wo k is o be ca ied ou , he pace a which i is o be
done, and he ex en o which he sequence o asks can be de e mined.
This selec ion o s udies clea ly shows ha e en in he cu en e‐
sea ch con ex , he e is ha dly any ag eemen on he de ini ion and op‐
e a ionaliza ion o job au onomy. Al hough o e laps in e ms o con en
a e ecognizable, hey do no go beyond he s anda d unde s anding o
quan i a i e app oaches o job au onomy. This may be due in pa o
he cons uc ion o he espec i e da a se s, bu he e is also a lack o
c i ical engagemen wi h he limi ed o mula ion o job au onomy. As
will become clea , his c i icism can be applied o a numbe o s udies
ha use he BIBB/BAuA-ETB o deal wi h job au onomy. This lis is in‐
ended as an exce p o he s udy landscape wi h e e ence o quan i a i e
app oaches o digi aliza ion and does no claim o be exhaus i e.
D awing on he mo e complex ope a ionaliza ion app oaches o job
edesign esea ch in he 1970s and 1980s, oday’s unde s anding o
job au onomy in a emp s based on he BIBB/BAuA-ETB has become
mo e limi ed. The s udies in he ollowing o e iew mos ly use he 2018
da ase ( Table 5 ). The ope a ionaliza ion o job au onomy is no always
an explici goal bu a componen o he espec i e esea ch app oach.
In addi ion o he e y na ow de ini ions o job au onomy wi hin hese
s udies, all o he i ems used o answe he gi en esea ch ques ion a e
lis ed. Acco ding o he de ini ion o job au onomy in his hesis, hese
i ems also include a wide ange o au onomy- ela ed aspec s: o ganiza‐
ional possibili ies (in luence on wo k quan i y, wo king ime, planning),
wo k in ensi y (pe cep ion o p essu e, con adic o y demands, in e up‐
ions, lack o in o ma ion, quali y cu s), wo king ime si ua ion (wo k
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7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index 135
ou side adi ional wo king hou s), as well as some indi idual c i e ia
(b inging in ideas, suppo om colleagues, imely in o ma ion). The
ollowing o e iew o i ems used no only p o ides an insigh in o he
di e en app oaches o he concep o job au onomy and he con en
dep h o he BIBB/BAuA-ETB bu also ma ks an impo an o ien a ion
owa ds ope a ionalizing he Au onomy Index.
I becomes clea ha ecen s udies a ibu e li le dimensionali y o
he concep and a e concen a ed on elemen s o he me hodical and
scheduling dimensions: Ki chne e al. (2020, p. 8) ope a ionalize job au‐
onomy ia he equency wi h which he execu ion o wo k is p esc ibed
down o he las de ail and he ex en o which one’s own wo k can be
planned and scheduled. S.-C. Meye e al. (2019, p. 215) e en es ic
hemsel es o he la e i em when depic ing job au onomy. In addi ion,
a se ies o s udies by he BAuA de e mine he cha ac e is ics o selec ed
job esou ces by ask ype. They subdi ide acco ding o he ask ypes o
leade ship and managemen (Ribba e al., 2021, pp. 10–11), pe son- e‐
la ed (Schlich e al., 2021, p. 11), objec - ela ed (Te hoe en, 2021, p. 7),
and in o ma ion- ela ed (Teg meie , 2021, p. 8), and e e o ask-speci ic
esou ces and job au onomy. The au ho s de ine job au onomy as he
abili y o plan and schedule one’s own wo k, o choose b eak imes, and
o in luence wo kload.
Acco dingly, he e is a consensus among he s udies examined as o
how job au onomy should be ope a ionalized. Componen s o lexibili y
in e ms o wo king ime o loca ion, o o in e ac ion wo k, a e no in‐
cluded. Simila ly, he e is no ocus on aspec s ha desc ibe he objec i es
o wo k o ask di e si y. Fo he cons uc ion o an Au onomy Index
based on he job au onomy dimensions al eady de ined, he ope a ional‐
iza ion o job au onomy is conside ably expanded. Though he s udies
lis ed help iden i y u he sui able i ems: The esou ces include suppo
om colleagues and supe io s, which is gene ally conside ed o p omo e
job au onomy. The same applies o he i ems lis ed unde in e ac ion
demands. Fac o s ela ing o wo king ime and place o wo k a e used
as guidelines o cons uc ing Wo king Time and Loca ional Au onomy.
Selec ed i ems o he ca ego ies in ensi y / demand and lea ning / p oblem
sol ing demand a e ans e able o he dimensions Task, Me hod, and
C i e ia Au onomy. The easoning o why hese i ems a e included in he
cons uc ion o he Au onomy Index ollows in he nex chap e .
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136 7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index
Table 5: Recen ope a ionaliza ion a emp s o job au onomy using
BIBB/BAuA-ETB
Desc ip ion I em
Ki chne e al. 2020
Meye e al. 2019
Ribba e al. 2021
Schlich e al. 2021
Te hoe en 2021
Teg meie 2021
Job
Au onomy
P esc ibed how o pe o m wo k down o
he las de ail* F411 _ 02 × ×
Planning and scheduling wo k indepen‐
den ly* F700 _ 02 × × × × × ×
Deciding when o ake a b eak* F700 _ 06 × × × ×
In luencing amoun o wo k* F700 _ 03 × × × ×
Resou ce
Feeling ha ask is impo an F700 _ 07 × × × ×
Pe cep ion o being pa o a collec i e F700 _ 10 × × × ×
Suppo om colleagues* F700 _ 12 × × × ×
Suppo om supe io s* F700 _ 13 × × × ×
App ecia ion by supe io s F700 _ 14 × × × ×
Time/
loca ion
Excessi e wo king ime AZ, F206 × × × ×
Taking amily and p i a e in e es s in o
accoun * F208 × × × ×
Wo k ou side 7am-7pm* F209 × × × ×
Weekend wo k* F220, F223 × × × ×
Wo k a home* F228, F229 × × × ×
In ensi y /
demand
Wo king unde in ense deadline o pe o ‐
mance p essu e* F411 _ 01 × × × ×
Repea ing wo k p ocesses down o he las
de ail* F411 _ 03 × × × ×
Expe iencing dis up ions o in e up ions* F411 _ 06 × × × ×
P esc ibed numbe o pieces, ce ain min.
ou pu , o ime* F411 _ 07 × × × ×
T acking o di e en ypes o wo k o
p ocesses* F411 _ 09 × × × ×
Reaching he limi s o pe o mance* F411 _ 12 × × × ×
Ve y as wo k equi ed F411 _ 13 × × × ×
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7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index 143
ega ding he di ec ion as well as he leng h o he esponse spec um
o he selec ed i ems. The co ec ion o he di ec ion e e s o a ecoding
o he esponse spec um o all i ems ha would en e he index neg‐
a i ely, acco ding o he abo e explana ions. Example: The i s i em in
he dimension Task Au onomy is How o en does i happen in you wo k
ha one and he same wo k p ocess is epea ed down o he las de ail?.
The answe spec um includes he possibili ies equen ly (F411 _ 03=1),
some imes (=2), a ely (=3), ne e (=4), and no s a ed (=9). The ecoding
is equen ly (=0), some imes (=1), a ely (=3), ne e (=4), and no s a ed
(=missing alue). This i em hus con ibu es posi i ely o he Au onomy
Index, p o ided ha a wo k p ocess is epea ed as a ely as possible,
down o he las de ail. The b eakdown o he ecoding can is p esen ed
in Table 18 and Table 19 | Appendix.
The p oblem o di e en leng hs o he esponse spec a (e.g., ou s.
i e esponse scales) is o e come by means o z- ans o ma ion, i.e., he
da a a e s anda dized o es ablish compa abili y (also z-s anda diza ion).
The con e sion o hese z-sco es in o he cumula i e s anda d no mal
dis ibu ion leads o he ep esen a ion o he da a spec um om 0 o
1. To inc ease eade iendliness, he alues a e mul iplied by 100, i.e.,
ans o med linea ly.
The calcula ion o he index alues o dimensions and he o al index
ollows he logic o classical sum indices, i.e., he a e age index sco e
ac oss all selec ed i ems o a dimension o ms he dimension sco e:
Au onomyDimension =100
n
n
X
i=1
I emsco ei
n – No. o i ems in dimension
All i ems a e weigh ed equally in he calcula ion o he index alue o
a dimension. In o de o ob ain indings ha a e as ep esen a i e as
possible, he p oduc o design weigh and d op-ou weigh is aken in o
accoun (Gensicke & Tsche sich, 2018, pp. 34–43; Roh bach-Schmid &
Hall, 2013, p. 18, 2020, pp. 26–27). The pu pose is o conside he selec‐
ion p obabili ies o households and esponden s caused by he sample
design (design weigh ) as well as he selec i e ailu es due o e usals
(d op-ou weigh ) in he calcula ions. In pa icula , socio-economic cha ‐
ac e is ics a e aken in o accoun in he weigh ing app oach (e.g., em‐
ploymen , occupa ional s a us, ede al s a e, educa ion, gende , ma i al
s a us). O ien a ion is p o ided by he dis ibu ion o he popula ion,
acco ding o Mik ozensus 2017 and 2011. Finally, he Au onomy Index
is calcula ed as a simple a e age o he indi idual dimensions:
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144 7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index
Au onomyIndex =1
m
m
X
j=1
Au onomyDimensionj
m – No. o dimensions
The es o eliabili y and in e nal consis ency o he Au onomy Index,
including all 26 i ems, is sa is ac o y wi h a C onbach’s alpha o 0.69.
This p ocedu e is epea ed o he 2012 wa e o he BIBB/BAuA-ETB.
Howe e , he e is a pa icula i y in he compa ison o he 2012 and 2018
obse a ion yea s: Al hough bo h su eys a e la gely ha monized, he e
a e some di e ences in he wo ding o indi idual i ems o hei ange o
esponses. Howe e , hese di e ences ha e only a mino impac on he
compa ison o he index alues o 2012 and 2018. A p oblem a ises om
he inclusion o added i ems in he 2018 ques ionnai e o hei absence in
he 2012 su ey. This applies p ima ily o i ems dealing wi h he locali y
o mobili y o employees, i.e., he dimension o Loca ional Au onomy.
The i ems assigned om he 2018 da ase a e comple ely missing om
he p e ious da ase , so he Loca ional Au onomy dimension is no cal‐
cula ed o 2012. As a esul , an Au onomy Index ha di e s om he
me hod p esen ed is p o ided wi hin Chap. 8.4 . Ins ead o he o igi‐
nally de ined se en au onomy dimensions, his index con ains only he
six calcula ed compa a i e alues. Thus, a dis inc ion is made be ween
he wo alues Au onomy Index and Au onomy Index w / o Loca ional
Au onomy.
The ollowing sample and a iable desc ip ions a e p eceded by se ‐
e al s eps o da a cleaning. In an ini ial s ep, he da a is educed by
all esponden s who a e no in dependen employmen , i.e., blue-colla
wo ke s, whi e-colla wo ke s, o ci il se an s. Thus, sel -employed pe ‐
sons 46 we e excluded om he analysis. Likewise, all esponden s no
wo king in he se ice sec o a e excluded om he analysis. Acco ding
o he Fede al S a is ical O ice (Des a is, n.d.), he se ice sec o com‐
p ises sec ions G o S acco ding o WZ 2008 ( Table 14 | Appendix).
Following he da a educ ion, he da ase s used o analysis include a
o al o 11.738 and 10.896 obse a ions o he yea s 2018 and 2012,
espec i ely ( Table 20 | Appendix).
46 The employmen s a us is mapped in he da a se ia he a iable posi ion in occupa‐
ion (S ib). The ollowing cha ac e is ics a e excluded om he analysis: sel -employed
pe sons (Selbs s ändige / ), eelance wo ke s (F eibe u lich ä ig), eelance s (F eie
Mi a bei e / F eie Mi a bei e in), con ibu ing amily membe s (Mi hel ende / Fami‐
lienangehö ige / ), and missing answe s.
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7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index 145
In line wi h he ep esen a i e cha ac e o he BIBB/BAuA-ETB, he
esponden s a e dis ibu ed p edominan ly among he sec o s o human
heal h and social se ice (Q), educa ion (P), public se ice (O), and
wholesale and e ail ade (G) in 2018. This dis ibu ion di e s only
sligh ly om ha in he 2012 su ey yea . Ne e heless, he case numbe s
o ela i ely low-employmen b anches a e qui e small. This applies o
he eal es a e (L) and a s, en e ainmen , and ec ea ion (R) sec o s.
When in e p e ing he esul s a a la e s age, i is he e o e necessa y o
ocus on he b anches ha p esen highe case numbe s.
Fo a mo e in-dep h analysis o job au onomy, gene a ed a iables
a e used o explain he socio-economic and ADM- ela ed cha ac e is ics
o he esponden s. The selec ed a iables a e a ailable o bo h yea s
unde e iew. Table 21 | Appendix gi es a b ie o e iew o he selec ed
gene a ed a iables, he sou ce a iable, he numbe o obse a ions by
yea , and he sha e o each exp ession. De ailed b eakdowns o he gen‐
e a ed a iables ask ype, ADM knowledge, and changes in wo k en i‐
onmen a e lis ed in Table 22 , Table 23 , and Table 24 | Appendix.
Acco dingly, a wide a ie y o ask ypes a e dis ibu ed ac oss he e‐
sponden s, also e lec ing he g ea ask-side he e ogenei y o he se ice
sec o . Se e al ask ypes could be assigned o one esponden . Acco d‐
ingly, 30 % o esponden s pe o m managemen asks in he o m o pe ‐
sonnel esponsibili y. In o ma ion- ela ed and people- ela ed asks a e
likewise equen ask ypes. Pu ely objec - ela ed asks a e pe o med
less o en.
Fu he mo e, he p esen sample mainly comp ises people wi h o‐
ca ional aining o a uni e si y deg ee. In he pe iod unde e iew om
2012 o 2018, he inc ease in he p opo ion o wo ke s wi h a uni e si y
deg ee (+11 pp), he dec ease in he p opo ion o employees wi hou a
oca ional quali ica ion (-2 pp), and hose wi h a oca ional quali ica ion
(-9 pp) indica e a ce ain end owa d academiza ion. Gende a ios ha e
emained ela i ely s able. Jus unde wo- hi ds o hose ep esen ed in
he sample a e women. The esponden s wo k in oughly equal numbe s
a la ge, medium, and small companies 47
. Only a small p opo ion a e
employed by mic o-en e p ises. Mos o he employees su eyed wo k
31 o 40 hou s a week. Ano he 30 % wo k pa - ime (10 o 20 hou s o
21 o 30 hou s). A ound one- hi d o he sample is made up o employees
who wo k pa icula ly long hou s, i.e., mo e han 40 hou s a week. Mo e
47 Classi ica ion o en e p ise sizes acco ding o Eu os a (2016): mic o-en e p ises (less
han 10 employees), small en e p ises (10 o 49), medium-sized en e p ises (50 o 249),
la ge en e p ises (mo e han 250).
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146 7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index
han hal o he esponden s ha e been employed by he same employe
o mo e han 10 yea s. A u he 19 % ha e wo ked o he same em‐
ploye o up o 10 yea s in 2018. This ela ionship is e y welcome in
ha p ocess- ela ed changes in he company may be pe cei ed o e a
longe pe iod o ime.
O hose esponden s who al eady ha e ADM knowledge, as an indi‐
ca o o he po en ial o dealing wi h ADM applica ions, i is p edom‐
inan ly basic knowledge ha is indica ed. Knowledge-in ensi e se ices
(KIS) 48
, al hough he a io has allen compa ed wi h 2012 (-12 pp), ac‐
coun o mos esponden s, a a ound h ee-qua e s. In addi ion, mos
esponden s wo k in en i onmen s ha ha e changed li le o e he pas
wo yea s. A ound 16 % o esponden s wo k in en i onmen s ha ha e
unde gone conside able changes in many a eas in he ecen pas . This
may also be whe e he use s and de elope s o ADM applica ions a e
likely o be. Almos hal o all esponden s equen ly mus make di icul
decisions, which may be pe cei ed as e idence o pa icula ly in ensi e
and esponsibili y-loaded wo k.
Fo he gene a ed a iables ask ype, ADM knowledge, and changes
in wo k en i onmen , de ini ional explana ions a e p o ided below: The
idea o dis inguishing be ween di e en ask ypes o igina es om e‐
sea ch conduc ed by he BAuA. A dis inc ion is made be ween leade ship
and managemen (Ribba e al., 2021), in o ma ion- ela ed (Teg meie ,
2021), objec - ela ed (Te hoe en, 2021), and pe son- ela ed (Schlich e
al., 2021) asks o desc ibe he digi al ans o ma ion o hese a eas. The
de ini ion o he ask ypes used is supe icially based on he epo s
men ioned abo e bu di e s om he o iginals ( Table 22 | Appendix): (1)
Managemen desc ibes pe sons who exe cise supe ising esponsibili y.
(2) An in o ma ion- ela ed ask desc ibes ac i i ies such as handling da a
and compu e s, sea ching o and collec ing in o ma ion, and planning
p ocesses o esea ch ac i i ies. (3) An objec - ela ed ask desc ibes he
handling o objec s in e e yday wo k. This can include he handling /
supe ision o machines, he anspo o goods, o cleaning ac i i ies.
(4) A pe son- ela ed ask places a pe son a he cen e o he ac i i y. A
pe son is he ecipien o a se ice, as in eaching, ca ing, o hos ing. A
48 Knowledge in ensi y is assigned based on he demand p o ile o a job and measu es
whe he a job is illed by an abo e-a e age p opo ion o highly quali ied employees.
The de ini ion includes no only uni e si y g adua es bu also all employees who ha e
comple ed u he aining in he o m o a echnical, mas e c a sman, o specialized
school educa ion. Knowledge-in ensi e occupa ions p o ide in o ma ion, in pa icula ,
on he ex en o which he use and p o ision o scien i ic and echnological knowledge
is pa o a job (Hall, 2007).
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7. Me hod: cons uc ing he Au onomy Index 147
job may, o cou se, consis o se e al o hese asks. Acco dingly, some
esponden s a e also assigned se e al ask ypes. The di e en ia ion ac‐
co ding o ask ype ul ima ely se es he pu pose o simpli ica ion.
Since he BIBB/BAuA-ETB does no include i ems ela ed o he spe‐
ci ic use o ADM in wo k en i onmen s, he goal o in oducing he
a iable ADM knowledge is o app oxima e he use o ADM sys ems
a wo k. I is assumed ha i is undamen ally possible o use ADM
i selec ed skills and asks a e used a wo k. These essen ially include
in o ma ion ga he ing, wo king wi h compu e s, knowledge o ma he‐
ma ics and s a is ics, and he usage o compu e applica ion p og ams.
Ad anced ADM knowledge is addi ionally assumed i he compu e use
goes beyond pu e applica ion ( Table 23 | Appendix). The app oach goes
back o P ei e (2020, p. 467), who does no ask which asks can be e‐
placed by machines, since his depends on much mo e han pu e echnical
easibili y, bu app oaches he opic o wha po en ial wo ke s b ing o
he able o shaping AI and ML in companies – a concep ha appea s
la gely applicable o ADM.
P ei e (2020, p. 472) maps hese po en ials in e ms o compe en‐
cies ha a e necessa y o u ilizing hese sys ems and d aws on he ol‐
lowing selec ion o i ems om he BIBB/BAuA-ETB: equen collec ion,
esea ch, and documen a ion o in o ma ion; p o essional knowledge o
ma hema ics, specialis a i hme ic and s a is ics; p o essional knowledge
o PC applica ion p og ams; applica ion o use o IT sys ems ha goes
beyond pu e applica ion. The la e a iable de e mines he ex en o
which basic (applica ion only) o ad anced knowledge (beyond applica‐
ion) is assumed.
The a iable changes in wo k en i onmen desc ibes changes in he
di ec wo k en i onmen wi hin wo yea s be o e he su ey. These may
include he in oduc ion o new compu e s, machines, o se ices, bu
also o ganiza ional changes and new p oduc s ( Table 24 | Appendix).
The assump ion is ha he use o ADM sys ems can ansla e in o all
hese o ms o change. High changes in wo k en i onmen , in his sense,
desc ibe changes a (almos ) all hese le els. Low is mo e likely o be
in e p e ed as a ma ginal change in he immedia e wo king en i onmen .
This a iable hus se es as an app oxima ion o he deg ee o change in
he immedia e wo k en i onmen ha may be associa ed wi h echnolog‐
ical inno a ion, e.g., he use o ADM sys ems.
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8. Resul s: Au onomy Index
The analysis o he Au onomy Index begins wi h a i s o e iew o he
sum index o he en i e se ice sec o and, a he same ime, se es
as an in e p e a ion aid and eading example o he ollowing analy‐
ses: Figu e 4 ini ially shows he box plo esul s o he Au onomy Index
on a scale o 0 o 100. Boxplo s gene ally p o ide in o ma ion abou
he dis ibu ion and s a is ical a iabili y o da a. The end o he lowe
whiske shows he minimum alue o he unde lying sample (N=11.738).
Co espondingly, he uppe whiske shows he maximum alue. Wi hin
he box a e he middle 50 % o he da a. The bounda ies o he box show
he uppe and lowe qua iles. The median is usually displayed wi hin he
box as a con inuous line, sepa a ing he en i e cha in o he lowe and
uppe 50 % o he da a.
The supplemen a y da a able lis s he mean (M) and he s anda d
de ia ion (SD). Unless o he wise explained, he ollowing conside a ions
e e p ima ily o he mean alue. Howe e , i is wo h aking a close
look a he median and he u he dis ibu ion o s a is ically assess he
quali y o his mean alue. Fo example, he mean alue o he o e all
index is 49. Howe e , he median o 50 and he posi ion o he box in‐
dica e ha he e a e some ou lie s in he lowe ield. De ailed summa y
s a is ics a e p o ided in Table 25 | Appendix.
The a e age index alue o 49 undamen ally sugges s ha employ‐
ees a e well below he maximum alue and expe ience es ic ions in
hei wo k a many le els. E en in his highly agg ega ed p esen a ion,
di e ences be ween indi idual dimensions become clea . Me hod and
Loca ional Au onomy in pa icula a e below a e age, indica ing ha
many employees expe ience cons ain s in he way hey pe o m hei
asks and a e also ied o a speci ic place o pe o mance. Wo king Time
Au onomy is he mos p onounced dimension. This esul e lec s he
ac ha only in ce ain b anches is i necessa y o wo k a weekends, on
call, o in shi s – again, his would apply mo e o low-wage b anches
o pa icula ly pe son- ela ed se ices. In e ac ional Au onomy makes a
posi i e i s imp ession. Seemingly many employees in he se ice sec o
ha e suppo a wo k and can wo k ela i ely independen ly o comp o‐
mises wi h o he s.
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8. Resul s: Au onomy Index 149
Figu e 4: Au onomy Index (To al, se ice sec o ), 2018
N=11.738 M SD
Au onomy Index 49 11
Task Au onomy 50 16
Me hod Au onomy 48 20
C i e ia Au onomy 50 23
Scheduling Au onomy 50 16
Wo king Time Au onomy 52 20
Loca ional Au onomy 42 30
In e ac ional Au onomy 52 17
Sou ce: BIBB/BAuA-ETB 2018. Own calcula ions.
Howe e , he he e ogenei y o he se ice sec o a his le el allows
only supe icial in e p e a ions. In addi ion, he concep ual di icul ies
o Wo king Time and Loca ional Au onomy become clea : In he i s
case, he op 50 % o wo ke s ha e s able and simila eedoms ega ding
wo king ime. The bo om 50 % , by con as , a e sp ead o e a wide
ange o seemingly qui e di e en deg ees o Wo king Time Au onomy.
The opposi e is he case o Loca ional Au onomy. This clea sepa a ion
o he da a si ua ions will apply h oughou he analysis.
A di e en ia ed analysis o hese agg ega ed au onomy dimensions
is he aim o he ollowing chap e s. The ques ion being cla i ied is o
which employees, in which b anches, and which asks, pa icula ly s ik‐
ing au onomy cha ac e is ics a e appa en . Fo u he in e p e a ion, wo
me hod- ela ed aspec s a e impo an : On he one hand, no he dis ance
o he maximum alue o 100 (o minimum alue o 0) o he Au onomy
Index should be used as an in e p e a ion e e ence, bu possible de ia‐
ions om he mean alue o he dimension. This shows mo e clea ly, o
example, which b anches, o socio-economic ac o s a e o be conside ed
in connec ion wi h di e en deg ees o au onomy. On he o he hand, he
composi ion o he index alues o indi idual dimensions allows o an
in e p e a ion o he esul s wi hin dimensions a he han be ween di‐
mensions, o example, which b anches de ia e pa icula ly clea ly om
he mean alue wi hin he dimension Task Au onomy.
Ul ima ely, he aim o his analysis is o unco e ela i e p opo ions
o disp opo ions in he exp ession o job au onomy acco ding o se‐
lec ed cha ac e is ics o employees, associa ed companies, wo king con‐
di ions, and b anches. This app oach does no show causal ela ionships.
Based on he heo e ical conside a ions, he ollowing also applies he e:
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150 8. Resul s: Au onomy Index
Low le els o au onomy mus be ques ioned jus as much as high le els,
because e en wo k en i onmen s ha a e conduci e o job au onomy
can c ea e in ensi e and s ess ul wo k si ua ions.
8.1. By se ice b anch and ask ype
The Au onomy Index aims o quan i y he deg ee o job au onomy in
he se ice sec o and hus ealize he compa abili y o b anches and
o he selec ed a iables. The b eakdown acco ding o he p ede ined job
au onomy dimensions is in ended o show which dimensions a e pa ic‐
ula ly s ongly o weakly p onounced: Clea ly, he b oad he e ogenei y
o he se ice sec o is e lec ed in he ange o he Au onomy Index by
b anch ( Figu e 5 ). The index alues con i m he p e ious assump ion o a
di ision in o s onge and weake exp essions o job au onomy in ce ain
b anches. In o ma ion and communica ion, inance and insu ance, eal
es a e, o he p o essional, scien i ic, and echnical se ices, as well as
educa ion, lead he ield o high-au onomy b anches (also HAS). T ade,
logis ics, accommoda ion and ood se ices, o heal hca e and social
se ices show nega i e de ia ions om he mean in he pe cei ed job
au onomy o hei employees (also LAS).
In e es ingly, howe e , his di ision can only be iden i ied in ela ion
o ce ain au onomy dimensions. As desc ibed abo e, he a e age index
alue o job au onomy in he se ice sec o is 49. Di e en ia ion by
se ice b anch al eady e eals clea de ia ions om his a e age alue
in some cases, which sugges s ha he deg ee o job au onomy can di e
depending on he con en and ype o ask. In u n, he g oup o b anches
ha employ he mos people o e all bu also ha e he highes social
ele ance, o en pe o ming di ec pe son- ela ed in e ac ion wo k, is
ound o ha e less pe cei ed job au onomy a wo k han he ew b anches
wi h many highly quali ied wo ke s ha pe o m less di ec in e ac ion
wo k.
Fu he analysis o he b anches acco ding o he indi idual au on‐
omy dimensions shows ha his dis inc ion can only be applied o se‐
lec ed au onomy dimensions: These include Task and Me hod Au onomy.
This implies ha he dis inc ion be ween LAS and HAS is ans e ed in
pa icula o he ee choice and a angemen o wo k asks, a highe
le el o in o ma ion, ask a iabili y, and in luence on he amoun o
wo k in he la e g oup. In con as , many employees wo king in LAS
end o wo k in p esc ibed wo k se ings, ha e less job au onomy in hei
wo k asks, and may ha e o pe o m mo e mono onous wo k. Howe e ,
when examining Task and Me hod Au onomy i becomes clea ha some
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8. Resul s: Au onomy Index 151
Figu e 5: Au onomy Index by se ice b anch (1/2), 2018
b anch di e ences seem o be con e ging. Fo example, inance and in‐
su ance no longe s and ou among he supposedly mo e au onomous
b anches, whe eas heal hca e and social se ices a e mo e in line wi h
he en i e se ice sec o . Fo hese examples, au onomy-es ablishing o
es ic ing ac o s mus he e o e lie elsewhe e.
B anch g oupings a e also less clea -cu in ela ion o o he job au‐
onomy dimensions. Fo example, he C i e ia Au onomy dimension is
less p onounced ac oss b anches. This sugges s ha he en i e se ice
sec o is subjec o economic pe o mance and con ol p inciples. P es‐
su e o pe o m a wo k is conside ed high, and he e a e supposedly
p ecise a ge s o he pe o mance o wo k. Many employees mus go
o he limi s o hei pe o mance o achie e hem. These indings also
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152 8. Resul s: Au onomy Index
Figu e 5 (con inuing)
Au onomy
Index Task
Au onomy Me hod
Au onomy C i e ia
Au onomy
N M SD M SD M SD M SD
To al 11.738 49 11 50 16 48 20 50 23
B anch
Wholes., e ail ade, ep. o ehic. (G) 1.242 47 9 46 15 42 19 53 24
T anspo a ion, s o age (H) 785 44 10 42 15 39 19 48 24
Accommoda ion, ood se ice (I) 323 43 8 47 15 40 17 48 24
In o ma ion, communica ion (J) 746 58 9 55 15 60 20 49 21
Finance, insu ance (K) 647 54 9 50 15 49 18 49 21
Real es a e ac i i ies (L) 113 54 9 51 14 54 18 55 23
P o ., scien i ic, echnical se ices (M) 800 56 8 54 15 58 19 49 21
Adminis a i e, suppo se ice (N) 444 48 9 46 15 40 20 56 25
Public admin., de ., social sec. (O) 1.714 50 9 48 14 50 19 52 21
Educa ion (P) 1.809 56 8 59 14 58 18 50 21
Human heal h, social wo k (Q) 2.583 45 10 49 15 47 19 45 23
A s, en e ainmen , ec ea ion (R) 181 49 10 50 16 49 20 55 23
O he se ice ac i i ies (S) 351 52 9 52 16 49 20 53 22
Sou ce: BIBB/BAuA-ETB 2018. Own calcula ions.
speak o a high deg ee o con ol o e wo k, which has become es‐
ablished ac oss he boa d in se ices, i espec i e o he con en and
ype o ask. Howe e , i is easonable o assume ha he economiza ion
and con ol mechanisms di e om b anch o b anch. Wha is no ice‐
able o e all ega ding C i e ia Au onomy is ha supposedly au onomy-
s ong b anches unde pe o m, and he ade sec o , o example, s ands
ou posi i ely. This may be due o he g ea he e ogenei y wi hin he
sec o , which co e s la ge and complex co po a e s uc u es as well as
he smalles economic uni s. Fu he mo e, while human heal h and social
se ices s ill showed s onge au onomy endencies in Task and Me hod
Au onomy, he b anch compa a i ely sags in C i e ia Au onomy, which
again speaks o s ong economiza ion endencies ha a ec heal hca e
and social wo ke s.
Rega ding Scheduling Au onomy as a p oxy o he in ensi y o wo k,
which e lec s he ex en o which one’s own wo k can be planned and
is cha ac e ized by in e up ions, he dis inc ions be ween au onomy-
es ic ed and au onomy-enhanced b anches a e again appa en . How‐
e e , i is less clea -cu ( Figu e 6 ). Appa en ly, wo k is pe cei ed as e y
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 255
– basic inancial se ices (e.g., cash and paymen ansac ions),
– lending business (e.g., g an ing o loans),
– deposi business (e.g., sa ings deposi s),
– in es men business (e.g., secu i ies ading) and
– o he inancial and in es men se ices (e.g., li e insu ance).
The bank’s assignmen is o p o ide access o unds and ansac ion oppo ‐
uni ies o he b oad popula ion in a egional con ex , o gua an ee inanc‐
ing al e na i es o companies, o p omo e housing cons uc ion, and o
p o ide municipal bodies wi h inancial esou ces. E en hough he b anch
ne wo k and hus he numbe o employees had o pay ibu e o he u bu‐
lence o he inancial ma ke in he pas 20 yea s, he bank s ill main ains a
b oad physical ne wo k o emain accessible o clien s. Compa ed o o he
banks, he company has a la ge, bu sh inking, clien base.
The bank is embedded in a mul i-le el o ganiza ional s uc u e. I is
in eg a ed in o a inancial g oup wi h a o al o app ox. 280.000 em‐
ployees in Ge many. Each bank in he g oup has a egional ocus. The
case s udy bank employs abou 1.500 people and co e s a la ge egion,
including bo h u ban and u al a eas. I is pa o a egional associa‐
ion, which is p eceded by a sup a- egional umb ella associa ion. The
umb ella associa ion ac s as an in e es ep esen a i e o he indi idual
banks in he associa ion and de ines he basic ma ke and business s a ‐
egy. This also includes he use o echnical sys ems.
In addi ion, a ious se ice p o ide s ope a e o he umb ella o ‐
ganiza ion, i.e., hey implici ly belong o he banking g oup. The mos
impo an o he case s udy a e he IT se ice p o ide , which supplies
he echnical in as uc u e, also o he ADM sys em, and he se ice
p o ide o isk managemen , which has de eloped he sys em’s algo‐
i hms. Fo he ollowing conside a ions, i is impo an o unde s and
ha he umb ella o ganiza ion, including he se ice p o ide s, is in a
supplie -clien ela ionship wi h he case s udy bank. 56 Indi idual banks
may (o mus ) pu chase p oduc s om he se ice p o ide s. Pa icula ly
56 Ano he o ganiza ional body is he wo ke s’ council, which is legally legi imized and
able o co-de e mine he in oduc ion o new echnologies in he company. F om he
council’s poin o iew, he e is a ela ionship o us be ween hem and he manage‐
men ha has been buil up o e many yea s. So a , he e is no company ag eemen on
how o deal wi h he ADM sys ems; his would ollow i he employees also exp essed
conc e e needs. This eac i e beha io on he pa o he council is also due o he ac
ha he e is simply a lack o capaci y o build up ADM skills. The legally possible
in oca ion o co-de e mina ion igh s on he use o echnology is conside ed a las
eso measu e.
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256 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
ega ding using he ADM sys em, con lic s o in e es a e e iden because
o his ela ionship, which has been e lec ed in he ime-consuming im‐
plemen a ion phase. 57
The o ganiza ional s uc u e o he bank is no less complex, so only
he immedia ely ele an aspec s o he con en s o he case s udy a e
men ioned below, in pa icula , he use s o he echnical sys em and he
s a iona y sales uni s, i.e., he wo k o bank ad iso s in he ac i e clien
business. Fo hese bank ad iso s, sales managemen (Ve iebsmanage‐
men ) is he cen al pace-se ing o ganiza ional uni . Sales managemen
is di ided in o he sales con ol uni (Ve iebss eue ung), which di ec s
he s a iona y ade in b anches, whe he p i a e o business, and he
in e ne b anch uni . The app oxima ely 20 employees manage all clien
segmen s and sales uni s. They a e esponsible o he e ail business,
i.e., p i a e clien s, wi h he majo i y o he bank’s 500.000 clien s. Thei
ask is o manage esou ces, i.e., o ask abou he mos p o i able use o
ad iso y se ices.
Sales con ol ope a es as a cen al ac o in his case s udy, as i plays
a key ole in shaping he speci ic asks o a bank ad iso . Thei analy‐
ses de e mine he a ge s o he indi idual ad iso s in a b anch. In his
way, sales con ol, as he designa ion su ely sugges s, also unc ions as
a kind o con ol ins ance ha demands ele an esul s om ad iso s.
No su p isingly, he ela ionship be ween sales con ol and ad iso s can
be desc ibed as ambi alen and con lic ual, a leas a imes.
The in e iewees in he bank also include membe s o sales con ol
and managemen , bu mainly bank ad iso s in di ec con ac wi h clien s.
All o hem a e membe s o he ADM es g oup. The in e iewees a e
mos ly be ween 40 and 53 yea s old a he ime o he in e iews and
ha e unde aken simila ca ee pa hs a he bank. S a ing wi h school-
lea ing quali ica ions and an app en iceship as a bank cle k, he ad iso s
and senio ad iso s ha e also comple ed speci ic aining as business ad‐
minis a o s, some as business economis s. In highe posi ions, a uni e ‐
57 The case s udy bank is a pilo bank o es he ecommenda ion sys em. A e success ul
es ing, he sys em was olled ou ac oss he en i e banking g oup. Wi hin a es g oup,
employees om all b anches exchange in o ma ion wi h sales managemen o adjus
he quali y o he ADM esul s. The ad iso s wi hin he es g oup ha e been wo king
wi h he ADM esul s daily o se e al mon hs. The ollou o he ADM sys em was
pos poned se e al imes in he case s udy bank because he quali y o he esul s was
unsa is ac o y. The se ice p o ide s p omo ed i as a plug-and-play solu ion, which
quickly u ned ou o be a misjudgmen . In-house ewo k and ine- uning o he sys em
we e ca ied ou o e se e al mon hs, so i was no un il mid-2023 ha he o e all
ollou was comple ed.
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 257
si y deg ee is no uncommon bu no necessa y. I is wo h no ing ha
almos all o he in e iewees ha e been wo king a he bank since hei
oca ional aining, some o well o e 30 yea s. They may ha e changed
posi ions, bu no hei employe . The unde lying a ac i eness o he
bank as an employe can ha dly be dispu ed.
A o al o eigh people we e in e iewed, ou o hem in he cou se
o he con ex in e iews: he chai pe son o he wo ke ’s council, an
execu i e boa d o ice , he head o sales con ol, as well as a da a analys
in sales con ol. The ou employee in e iews we e conduc ed wi h wo
senio ad iso s and wo ad iso s, h ee o whom had addi ional b anch
esponsibili y. The bank ad iso s all wo k in di e en b anches. The
in e iewees in he con ex in e iews we e mainly men ( h ee); in he
employee in e iews, hey we e mainly women ( h ee). Hal o he in e ‐
iewees wo k ull- ime wi h 39 hou s pe week. The o he hal wo ks
pa - ime a 32 o 35 hou s.
The o ganiza ion and di ision o labo in he bank is classically hie ‐
a chical, i.e., op-down om he boa d o di ec o s ia he sales depa ‐
men o he b anch di ec o a es, b anches, and indi idual ad iso s. The
bank in he case s udy coun s mo e han 70 b anches wi h a ound 280
(senio ) bank ad iso s in e ail business in Augus 2023. The employees
o a b anch a e made up as ollows: he head o b anch, a ew p oduc
specialis s, senio ad iso s and ad iso s, and se ice s a . The g oup o
senio ad iso s di e s om ad iso s in a ew espec s: Senio ad iso s
counsel mo e a luen clien s, i.e., hose wi h a highe business ele ance
o he bank. They spend mo e ime ad ising indi idual clien s, and hei
clien base is smalle . A ough es ima e is 300 o 500 clien s o senio
ad iso s and up o 1.000 clien s o ad iso s.
A he b anch and ad iso le el, which is depic ed he e, he e a e
a he la s uc u es be ween b anch managemen , ad iso s, and se ‐
ice s a . B anch manage s a e usually ac i e in a hyb id unc ion as
manage s and in clien business. In some examples, ad iso s also sha e
b anch esponsibili ies. The sense o accoun abili y o all employees in a
b anch is he eason o a la e o ganiza ional s uc u e. The ad iso s,
in pa icula , a e each esponsible o hei own pe sonal sales a ge
ul illmen . Fo ad iso s, andem s uc u es wi h se ice employees a e
also essen ial, i.e., hey can ans e ce ain asks o he se ice employees
in a guiding unc ion (push ela ionship).
The ypical wo king day o a senio ad iso o ad iso is cha ac e ‐
ized by clien mee ings las ing up o wo hou s each. Ad iso s usually a ‐
i e a he bank be o e 9:00 a. m. (b anch opening) o hold eam mee ings
and p epa e o indi idual clien appoin men s. F om 9:00 a. m. onwa ds,
clien appoin men s a e lined up, so ollow-up wo k and p ocessing mus
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258 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
wai . Howe e , ad iso s a e ee o o ganize hei clien appoin men s
and p ocessing ime wi hin he wo king hou s. The only de e mining
ac o s a e he opening hou s o he b anch and he s a u o y wo king
ime egula ions.
In p ac ice, he clocking componen o a wo king day, i.e., which
clien s a e app oached a a ce ain ime, is based on he indi idual e‐
submission sys ems o he ad iso s. This means ha mos ad iso s ha e
hei own sys em and p ocedu e o egula ly app oaching clien s, which
hey ha e buil up o e yea s. Expe ience-based in e ac ion wi h hei
clien s is a he co e o hei ad iso y wo k. In mos cases, hey know
many o hei clien s pe sonally. Howe e , his only applies o ac i ely a ‐
ended clien s. E e y ad iso has a ce ain numbe o una ended / passi e
clien s. As will be shown in he ollowing, he ADM sys em complemen s
he expe ience-based app oach o ac i e clien s by a emp ing o access
una ended clien s.
I espec i e o he echnology used, ad iso s wo k owa ds hei in‐
di idual sales a ge s, which a e se annually. They a e de i ed om he
calcula ed po en ial o he espec i e clien base and, in p ac ice, signi y
ha an ad iso should sell a ce ain numbe o indi idual p oduc s. The
exac a ge s o an ad iso a e se by he sales managemen , which e‐
cei es he expec a ions ega ding sales pe o mance om he boa d o di‐
ec o s. The op-down se ing o wo k a ge s is p oblema ic in ha hey
dis ibu e key pe o mance indica o s based on expec a ions o ma ke
de elopmen bu do no ask wha can ealis ically be achie ed bo om-
up. In o he wo ds, ad iso s a e in a cons an s a e o con lic be ween
con adic o y equi emen s on he pa o managemen expec a ions and
simple clien demand. Ul ima ely, i is up o each ad iso o ind a s a ‐
egy o dealing wi h his con lic .
Posi i e mone a y incen i es o ad iso s a e linked o he achie e‐
men o e en su passing o a ge s, jus as nega i e incen i es a e linked
o non-achie emen . The ask o sales con ol is o suppo ad iso s in
achie ing hei goals. In p ac ice, his ague desc ip ion is exp essed in
he ac ha i is undamen ally le up o ad iso s o decide how exac ly
hey achie e hei sales a ge s. Howe e , sales con ol in e enes in he
achie emen o a ge s, especially in he da a analysis o clien po en ial.
So, i is no he case ha ad iso s can pe o m hei wo k comple ely
ee o cons ain s. In pa , hey a e gi en ins uc ions by he sales con‐
ol depa men . 58 One in e iewee exp essed i mo e cynically wi h he
58 The weekly moni o ing o sales p og ess is ac ually done in a e y isible and imely
way, namely by means o a a ic ligh sys em. I he a ic ligh is g een, ad iso s know
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 259
wo ds, “The good employee is only he one who achie es his goals”.
Howe e , i hey achie e hei a ge s, by wha e e means, ad iso s mo e
in a ela i ely jus i ica ion- and con lic - ee space.
As a link o he socio-economic condi ions in which he ad iso s and
he bank ope a e, i is impo an o men ion ha he bank can ha dly
a o d any consequences in e ms o pe sonnel i he a ge s a e no
me . As in many egions and b anches, sho ages o skilled wo ke s a e
clea ly no iceable in he case s udy company. The cu en age s uc u e
o he wo k o ce sugges s ha his p oblem will wo sen. The ac ha
he bank can ha dly o e i s employees he same inancial condi ions as
some p i a e banks makes he si ua ion e en mo e di icul .
Bo h issues, he age s uc u e and compe i i eness, a ec no only
he employees bu also he clien s. On he one hand, om he bank’s
pe spec i e, i is ob ious ha he a e age age o i s clien base is high
and ha , in he long e m, his mus lead o a educ ion in he s ill
com o able clien base. Fo younge clien s, o he , mo e digi al banks
ha con ey a less adi ional image o inance a e o en mo e a ac i e.
On he o he hand, o he inancial ins i u ions a e also mo e a ac i e o
clien s because hey can o e cheape p oduc s h ough ewe ad iso y
se ices.
The bank is e y awa e ha i canno win he p ice wa in he in‐
dus y. I s s a egy is based on clien loyal y, which is c ea ed h ough a
s ong bond be ween ad iso and clien . The bank wan s o o e highe -
quali y ad iso y se ices and di e en ia e i sel om he compe i ion by
a aching signi ican impo ance o holis ic ad iso y se ices. This means
ha no only indi idual p oduc s a e sold o he clien , bu ha secu i y
in all a eas o li e is o be p o ided h ough app op ia e p oduc s. The
(physical) ad iso y se ice p o ided by he employees is hus also a co e
elemen in secu ing he bank’s u u e.
Howe e , he bank canno ely on me e clien loyal y. Clien s’ e‐
qui emen s a e cons an ly changing. This means ha he digi aliza ion o
p ocesses and accessibili y o clien s play a key ole. In his con ex , he
bank has some ca ching up o do compa ed o o he banks. In e es ingly,
he ad iso s do no necessa ily eel he changed clien p e e ences. The
demand o physical consul a ion emains high. The gene al ends in
ha hey ha e achie ed hei goals in he pas week. I 95 % o he a ge s ha e been
achie ed, he a ic ligh u ns yellow, and below ha , i u ns ed. In iew o hese
indica o s, i is ce ainly an ambi ious sel -assessmen ool. I seems only logical ha i
is also an ins umen o moni o ing pe o mance. Howe e , i mus also be added ha
he e a e no immedia e consequences in he sho e m i he a ge s a e no me .
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260 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
banking o e he pas 20 yea s, i.e., he educ ion o b anches and em‐
ploymen , did no s op a he case s udy bank. Howe e , i has become
inc easingly clea ha clien s s ill demand a physical p esence and he
p ese a ion o cash ansac ions.
Finally, he mac oeconomic si ua ion o he pas yea s also posed
se e al challenges o he bank. The leng hy pe iod o low in e es a es
p o ed o be pa icula ly p oblema ic, especially as he bank has a high
su plus o liabili ies, i.e., clien s ha e a lo o money on deposi . By con‐
as , he e a e only a ew companies ha need liquidi y, so he bank
is o ced o ake g ea e isks in gene a ing e u ns. Meanwhile, hese
ensions caused by low in e es a es ha e eased.
14.4. ADM usage in he wo k p ocess
The ADM sys em, he impac o which is being examined, is supplied by
he se ice p o ide o he bank’s umb ella o ganiza ion in e ms o bo h
echnical in as uc u e and con en . I is a ool o clien app oach man‐
agemen and undamen ally compa able o a ecommenda ion sys em o
clien s who a e pa icula ly likely o pu chase a ce ain p oduc .
The goals o using he echnology a e mani old. Unsu p isingly, he
p ima y objec i e is o expand he e ec i e business, i.e., o inc ease
he closing a es. Basically, he sys em is in ended o suppo ad iso s
in achie ing hei sales a ge s and o dis ibu e esou ces as sensibly as
possible, no only wi hin he g oup o ad iso s, bu also in sales con ol.
In pa icula , he aluable ad iso y ime should be used as e ec i ely as
possible. Clien pe mea ion is no only o be inc eased in e ms o con en
and ime bu also he p inciple o he holis ic na u e and quali y o se ice
o e ed o clien s is o be pu sued. Especially passi e and una ended
clien po en ials should be ac i a ed by using he sys em.
The desi ed inc ease in closing a es is no only e lec ed in he bank’s
business esul s bu also has he po en ial o posi i ely in luence he ad‐
iso ’s pe sonal expe ience o success. This can only h i e i he igh
clien s a e app oached a he igh ime. The assessmen o objec i es is
u he complica ed by he ac ha he echnology use was imposed by
he umb ella o ganiza ions and ha he company ne e sha ed a s a e‐
men wi h he s a o mula ing he sys em’s goals.
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 261
14.4.1. Basic unc ional spec um
The echnical basis o he daily wo k o each ad iso is he co e banking
sys em, which was ecen ly supplemen ed by a new sales on end. The
sales on page (also e en sys em) p o ides an o e iew o all he ad‐
iso s’ asks. The en ies unde sales asks a e pa icula ly impo an o
he ad iso ’s sales goals. All daily clien appoin men s, esubmissions,
eminde s, campaign asks, and, mos ecen ly, ADM e en s a e lis ed
( Figu e 14 ). The ADM sys em is conside ed a supplemen a y p oposal
o an ad iso ’s own esubmission and appoin men sys em. On he sales
on page, he ADM sugges ions a e lis ed alongside o he sales asks.
The a ge se by sales con ol is ha he maximum numbe o sales- e‐
la ed asks o ad iso s mus no exceed 50. 59 ADM e en s a e a ailable
o he ad iso o a o al o wo weeks, a e which hey a e dele ed, and
he a ini ies a e ecalcula ed a e a ce ain pe iod o ime. This wo-
week pe iod is o es ing pu poses and is in ended o p o ide su icien
ime o wo k on he p oposal.
Figu e 14: Cu ou s o sales on page and exempla y lis o ADM
e en s, Case II
Sou ce: P o ided by he case company, Augus 2023. Own eplica.
59 Due o he ongoing imp o emen e o s, he maximum numbe is s ill 100 o echnical
easons.
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262 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
One implici goal o implemen ing he ADM sys em is o eplace he
campaign-based clien selec ion sys em. A p esen , his app oach is s ill
being used in pa allel, bu only o a limi ed pe iod. As he campaign
sys em will be discussed in mo e de ail in compa ison o he ADM, he
app oach is only explained b ie ly: The da a analys s in sales con ol
selec clien lis s based on p ede ined pa ame e s, e.g., a ce ain age o
income s uc u e. In con as o he ADM-suppo ed selec ion, he selec‐
ion c i e ia o a clien a e usually anspa en , as i comp ises a classic
manual selec ion o clien s o ime-limi ed opics.
These expe selec ions can ha dly co e he mass o clien s, and,
abo e all, i is di icul o iden i y new s uc u es wi hin he clien base.
The selec ion o opics and clien s is a he based on he expe ience o
pas yea s. The clien lis s a e passed on by sales con ol o he ad iso s
o p ocessing. This explana ion o he campaign sys em is so impo an
because some e ec s o he ADM sys em a e pa icula ly well unde ‐
s andable in con as o his p e ious sys em.
The idea unde lying he ADM sys em is no jus o de elop a ec‐
ommenda ion sys em bu o ollow he p inciple o a clien ela ions
managemen sys em in he long e m, i.e., o p o ide a holis ic app oach
o clien managemen , including con ac channels, con en , and ecom‐
menda ions speci ically o each clien g oup. So a , he case s udy bank
has only wo ked wi h p oduc ecommenda ions. F om he ad iso ’s
pe spec i e, an ADM e en appea s as a ecommenda ion o a ma ch
be ween a pa icula clien and a speci ic p oduc a a ce ain poin in
ime. The ad iso has his in o ma ion and he in i a ion o ac , i.e.,
o con ac he clien , bu as a ule, no eason is gi en as o why his
ma ching is calcula ed. Consequen ly, ad iso s usually esea ch a eason
o he con e sa ion hemsel es be o e he clien mee ing. The con e ‐
sa ion can ha dly begin wi h he s a emen ha he pe son in ques ion
was selec ed au oma ically. This p oblem will be discussed in mo e de ail
la e .
In a nu shell, he unc ions o he ADM sys em only co e one aspec
(compa ed o ou in Case I), i.e., i p o ides p oduc ecommenda ions
o selec ed clien s o a ce ain ime pe iod. To ge mo e p ecise abou
he dep h o he sys em’s in e en ion in bank ad iso s’ wo k p ocesses, a
mo e nuanced look a he unc ions is a emp ed. Ra he , hese a e asks
ha he sys em pe o ms o ad iso s o in coope a ion wi h hem:
– au oma ion o clien selec ions,
– o e al e na i es o ac ion,
– inc ease he holis ic na u e o ad iso y ac i i ies (quali y),
– inc ease pene a ion o clien base (quan i y).
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 263
Au oma ed clien selec ion ecommends clien s who a e highly likely o
pu chase a p oduc igh now ( igh clien , igh ime, igh p oduc ). In
his way, he sys em o e s an al e na i e cou se o ac ion o bank ad i‐
so s. The emphasis mus be, howe e , on he cha ac e o he sys em as
a possibili y o ac ion, in con as o he campaign-based sys em, which
is mo e like a se o ins uc ions o ac ion. Wi h he au oma ed clien
selec ion in combina ion wi h he expe ience-based choice o clien s om
he ADM o e , i is possible o imp o e he holis ic na u e o he clien
consul a ion as well as inc ease clien pene a ion. The sys em hus en‐
ables bo h quali a i e and quan i a i e in e en ion in clien business.
The ou unc ions o he sys em a e ca ego ized di e en ly acco d‐
ing o he dep h o hei in e en ion in wo k p ocesses ( Figu e 15 and
undamen ally, Chap. 3.3 ):
Figu e 15: Classi ica ion in ADM ca ego iza ion, Case II
Au oma ed clien selec ion clea ly akes on a subs i u i e cha ac e in he
wo k o bank ad iso s. Howe e , his emains he only unc ion o he
ADM sys em ha ees use s om a speci ic ask, i.e., hei own selec ion
wi hin he clien base. All o he unc ions ake mo e o a complemen ing o
assis ing ole, especially in he ad iso y ac i i y. The o e o an al e na i e
cou se o ac ion is e lec ed in he wo k o ad iso s, wi h i s assis ing-in‐
o ming elemen s as well as he augmen ing-complemen ing aspec s. Com‐
plemen ing, o cou se, means he complemen a y cha ac e o he ADM
sys em, which supplemen s hei own ange o ac ions and can aise he
alue o he esul s o hei wo k o a highe le el. Assis ing-in o ming
e e s o he sys em desc ibing an al e na i e and no a compulsion o ac ,
i.e., he sys em gi es ad iso s an in o ma ion basis on which hey make a
decision. The inc ease in he holis ic na u e o he ad iso y app oach and
he pene a ion o he clien base a e conside ed consequences o hese new
ac ion al e na i es and a e coun ed as assis ing-in o ming unc ions o he
ADM sys em because hey p o ide in o ma ion on how hese wo poin s
can be achie ed bu do no ha e a suppo i e e ec on he implemen a ion.
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264 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
14.4.2. Elemen s o lea ning ADM
As he e y exis ence o he es g oup sugges s, he ini ial e sion o he
ecommenda ion sys em ha was b ough o he bank by he umb ella
o ganiza ions did no p o e o be ully ope a ional. Expec a ions and
eali y ha e d i ed a apa , much o he bank’s dis ess. The esul is
a g ea need o addi ional in-house wo k. As he head o sales con ol
ap ly pu i , “The a i icial in elligence jus has o be augh in elligence,
and we a e o cou se happy o assis wi h ha ”. Nei he he echnical
in as uc u e no he con en o he algo i hm a e in he hands o he
case s udy bank, which is why de ails o i s design a e no a ailable.
Apa om hese concep ual obs acles, he sys em equi es some ime
o lea n, i.e., o imp o e i s esul s. The combina ion o his lea ning
mechanism and he ewo k wi hin he es g oup allowed he sys em e‐
sul s o imp o e conside ably du ing he obse a ion pe iod. In con as
o Case I, no sepa a ion be ween p ocess digi iza ion and he lea ning
elemen s o he sys em is necessa y in his ADM example. A i s co e, he
sys em consis s o an ML-based ecommenda ion sys em.
Wha da a is used o he sys em in he i s place? The answe is
mos ly desc ip i e and ansac ion da a om bo h a ended and una ‐
ended clien s. 60 , 61 Howe e , he po en ial and dep h o in o ma ion con‐
ained in his da a should no be unde es ima ed. The bank has mo e
han jus igid socio-economic da a a i s disposal. Speci ic li e e en s
and p e e ences can be ead om he ansac ions, such as when a child
was bo n ( ia a child bene i ansac ion) o wha a pe son’s a el o
consump ion p e e ences a e. The possibili ies o d awing conclusions
abou a ini ies and isk po en ial om his weal h o in o ma ion a e
eno mous. All his in o ma ion is also ed in o he ADM sys em, al hough
i a ely p o ides a comple e pic u e since many clien s ha e accoun s
wi h se e al banks.
60 Only clien s who ha e ag eed o he Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion (GDPR) a e
included in he ADM calcula ions. The bank has no legal access o he da a o o he
clien s o p ocessing. All pa ies in ol ed a e ex emely sensi i e o compliance wi h
basic da a p o ec ion ules.
61 In e es ingly, he model was no ained wi h da a om he case s udy bank bu wi h
da a om o he banks wi hin he bank g oup. The he e ogenei y wi hin he bank g oup
hus al eady implies a ce ain law in he sys em. Fo example, a dis inc ion mus
be made no only be ween ins i u ions in u ban and u al egions bu also be ween
pa icula ly weal hy egions and co esponding changes in clien demand. The basic
model supplied is now being u he de eloped wi h in-house da a.
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 271
Wi hou echnical suppo , his sea ch is complex, leng hy, and demand‐
ing o ad iso s due o he abundance o da a, as i equi es unde s and‐
ing and he abili y o in e p e , o example, a clien ’s ansac ion beha ‐
io . Ad iso s desc ibe he change as a new ligh ness in clien selec ion
ha eplaces a mo e cumbe some campaign sys em. This ease is no only
no iceable o ad iso s bu also o hei se ice pa ne s a he on
desk. Resea ch and communica ion asks a e o en sha ed in andem,
and since he e o is now educed, collabo a ion be ween bo h pa ies
is acili a ed.
Non- anspa ency and missing in o ma ion (–)
The non- anspa ency o he ADM-suppo ed clien ecommenda ion
desc ibes one o he essen ial changes using he sys em. Why a ce ain
a ini y o a p oduc is calcula ed o a clien canno be de e mined
in de ail. Ad iso s he e o e lack he in o ma ion o ca y ou ce ain
pa s o hei wo k. F om he ad iso s’ pe spec i e, his na u ally calls
he accep ance o he sys em in o ques ion. In p ac ice, ad iso s lack a ‐
gumen s o add essing he clien , which mus i s be esea ched (gi en
da a p o ec ion consen ) and inc ease he demands on hei abili y o
in e ac . The di icul y lies in he ac ha a ca ch mus be ound as o
why he clien is ac i ely app oached in he i s place. This also means
ha he ad iso mus c ea e incen i es o he clien o engage in he
con e sa ion. The simple s a emen ha he clien has been selec ed by a
echnical sys em is ha dly accep ed by hem. In any case, his easoning
does no co espond o he ad iso y equi emen s o he employees in
e ms o quali y. The campaign-based sys em, in con as , is cha ac e ized
by g ea e anspa ency, as he selec ion c i e ia o he clien s a e known
and communica ed (e.g., e alua ion o all clien s be ween 18 and 25 wi h
a egula income o a ce ain amoun ).
The missing o inadequa e chain o a gumen a ion is a majo d i e
o addi ional e o s. F om ad iso s’ pe spec i es, he ex en o he neg‐
a i e in luence caused by he lack o anspa ency in acquisi ion e en s
depends p ima ily on he unc ional quali y o he sys em. I hese a e
p omising and p o e o be co ec , he e o equi ed o ollow-up e‐
sea ch is conside ed o be less se ious.
Highe wo kload wi h passi e / new clien s (–)
Highe wo kloads and e o s wi h passi e o new clien s a e closely
ela ed o he non- anspa ency o ADM e en s. The addi ional e o s o
add ess hese clien s do no necessa ily ha e o be leng hy (e.g., change
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272 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
in income), bu may well esul in inding a comple ely di e en p e ex
o he clien app oach (e.g., e e ence o he cu en economic si ua ion,
in e es a e si ua ion, special condi ions). In his espec , ad ising known
clien s is less demanding wo k, especially in compa ison o he ini ial
mee ings wi h newe clien s.
Howe e , he ac ual addi ional wo kload depends hea ily on he
clien base and ad iso s’ indi idualized app oach o clien mee ings and
acquisi ions. The needs o ad iso s o ei he p epa e ex emely ca e ully
o an appoin men wi h an unknown clien o o app oach he new
con e sa ion mo e si ua ionally based on expe ience di e g ea ly. In
any case, he e is a equi emen o make he added alue o a ce ain
p oduc o se ice isible o he clien . The ac ha his equi emen is
associa ed wi h addi ional wo k due o he non- anspa ency and lack o
comple eness o in o ma ion h ough he ADM is known o sales con ol
and is accep ed as a equi emen o ad iso s.
Highe wo kload o ad iso s, no senio s (–)
No only he a emp o acqui e passi e o new clien s can esul in
conside able addi ional wo k o bank ad iso s, bu also he size o
he clien base. Since egula ad iso s ha e a much la ge clien base o
look a e compa ed o senio ad iso s, some imes wice he numbe o
clien ne wo ks, he addi ional wo k using he ADM is also e lec ed
disp opo iona ely in his g oup, as a e he associa ed andem se ice
pa ne s. Howe e , i is no only he shee size o he clien base ha
is decisi e o a possible unequal dis ibu ion o he wo kload, bu also
which speci ic p oduc s a e issued ia he sys em. Po olio in es men s,
lending, o insu ance appeal o qui e di e en clien g oups.
This immedia ely aises he ques ion o he ex en o which using
he ADM sys em esul s in a downwa d shi in he wo kload o he
company. This is con adic ed by he ac ha ad iso y imes o senio s
ake longe , so he e o can be he same in he end. O e all, he e is s ill
no expe ience wi h his in e ac ion o hie a chical le els / p o essional
specializa ions and using he ADM, and he e o e he e is li le awa e‐
ness. Whe he quan i y balancing is necessa y in he long e m canno be
conclusi ely assessed. The dange clea ly exis s, bu may depend on he
exac clien base, he egional a ea o wo k, and hus, o a ce ain ex en ,
on chance.
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 273
Me hod Au onomy
Me hod Au onomy asks o he possibili y o de e mining p ocedu es,
ways, and ools o he pe o mance o asks. Me hodical deg ees o
eedom in wo k, especially hose in ol ing clien s, a e suppo ed by he
echnical sys em. This is pa icula ly due o he ac ha he op ions o
ac ion o ad iso s a e expanded, p o ided he sys em is ega ded as a
sou ce o in o ma ion and ideas. The ac ha he di ec ad iso y ac‐
i i ies, i.e., he con e sa ion wi h he clien , emain la gely una ec ed in
hei implemen a ion is also pe cei ed indi ec ly posi i ely. Some espon‐
den s expe ience sligh ly es ic i e momen s in hei wo k, in ha hey
conside he use o he sys em and compliance wi h he speci ica ions as
implici obliga ions. Fu he es ic ions can occu i echnical ba ie s
(Chap. 14.6 ) a ise.
Op ions o ac ion expanded by ecommenda ion (+)
Conside ing he echnical sys em as a sou ce o in o ma ion and ideas
shows he cen al ad an age o bank ad iso s: I o e s new op ions o
ac ion ha no only help o o e come es ic i e ou ines bu also en‐
able indi idual pe o mance goals o be achie ed. The campaign sys em
has emp ed ad iso s o p o ide mono hema ic and assembly-line ad ice
wi hou discussing o he p oduc s and opics wi h clien s. This highligh s
a undamen al con lic be ween ou ine and a holis ic app oach o clien
suppo .
The ADM sys em suppo s he eopening o his unnel ision by
showing op ions o ac ion wi hou ad iso s ha ing o eel di ec ly
bound o hem: Fo example, an ad iso epo ed a ecommenda ion o
alk o a senio clien abou secu i ies ading. This p oduc and clien ele
had no been hough o oge he be o e, bu ma hema ically, he e was a
high a ini y o he clien . To he su p ise o he ad iso , he p oduc was
signed. The clien comple ed he ade o he bene i o he g andchil‐
d en. This example shows how he sys em may unc ion as a sou ce o
ideas o ad iso s. This is especially ue o younge o newe colleagues
who ha e li le expe ience wi h hei clien base and he e o e would
a he accep sugges ions o ac ion.
Ad iso s can e alua e all ADM e en s ele an o hem on an
o e iew sc een and selec he p oduc ecommenda ions ha hey pe ‐
cei e as mos p omising. Wha equally speaks o he cha ac e as an
op ion o ac ion is ha ad iso s do no di ec ly adhe e o he p oduc
ecommenda ion, i.e., hey also exe cise he lexibili y o add ess o he
opics in he clien dialogue and o espond o he clien ’s needs ac‐
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274 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
co ding o he si ua ion. This is whe e he expe ience-based na u e o
he decisions clea ly comes in o play. The clien ecommenda ions can
ini ia e a con e sa ion o e en d aw a en ion o a pa icula clien in
he i s place, bu who is con ac ed and which p oduc s and o e s a e
discussed is up o he ad iso ’s eedom o ac ion. Ac i e de ia ion om
ecommenda ions o ac ion is cu en ly p ac iced. Howe e , bank ad i‐
so s mus make his connec ion hemsel es, which is he e o e based o a
conside able ex en on expe ience and a sense o in e ac ion.
Execu ion o ad iso y wo k una ec ed (+)
The ac ha ADM e en s a e cu en ly ea ed as an op ion o ac ion
and a ecommenda ion o add essing clien s implies ha he co e o
bank ad iso s’ wo k, i.e., ad iso y ac i i ies wi h clien s, emains una ‐
ec ed. Al hough echnical suppo can be he eason o discussions wi h
unknown clien s and co esponding addi ional wo k, he way o dealing
wi h clien s, whe he known o unknown, is s ill beyond con ol. I is
a he ad iso s’ disc e ion how o p oceed wi h he in e ac ion. This is
absolu ely necessa y, as a success ul clien con e sa ion equi es a high
deg ee o in e ac ion wo k and si ua ional esponsi eness.
The ad iso s epo ha he clien is no supposed o ha e he eeling
ha he con e sa ion is being conduc ed in a echnical manne . This does
no co espond o he ad iso y app oach o he bank and he indi idual
ad iso s, who claim o espond o he indi idual needs and in e es s o
he clien . Ad iso s a e he e o e only ex e nally con olled in he clien
discussion as a as hey ha e o eac o hese unp edic able demands o
he clien . Bank ad iso s conside his ac o be he decisi e momen um
in e ms o pe cei ed job au onomy.
Semi-p esc ip i e ollowing o sys em ins uc ions (–)
E en i he ins uc ions o he echnical sys em a e decla ed as an al‐
e na i e cou se o ac ion and he clien in e ac ion is no p esc ibed in
i s p ocedu e, he ac ions o some ad iso s a e s ill in luenced. P ecisely
because o he ime- ixed na u e o he ADM ins uc ions, some ad iso s
eel inc easingly compelled o wo k h ough hem and o add ess clien s
acco dingly. Some ad iso s expe ience a eeling o compulsion o ac sim‐
ply because o he exis ence o he sugges ed ADM ad ice. Whe he and o
wha ex en his eeling a ises also depends on he b anch, he associa ed
leade ship and communica ion, as well as he ad iso s’ pe o mance goals.
In any case, i may be pe cei ed as a wo k ins uc ion, as i is subjec
o he ule o sales con ol. Ad iso s desc ibe hei pe cep ion pa ly as
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 275
an implici eeling o p essu e o lead he ADM ins uc ions o success,
which esul s om he hie a chical ela ionship be ween ad iso s and
sales con ol. O he ad iso s, howe e , do no pe cei e he echnical sup‐
po as a cons ain bu a he as a eal ex ension o hei scope o ac ion
and s ill y o se e he exac ADM cause. I is no so much coe cion ha
is a wo k o hem, bu a he a mo e a ge ed and hema ic app oach
o clien s. In con as o he o me , hese ad iso s would a he y ou
and expe ience he quali y o he esul s hemsel es.
C i e ia Au onomy
C i e ia Au onomy asks o wha ex en he c i e ia o he e alua ion
o one’s own wo k pe o mance can be de e mined by onesel , which
wo k objec i es can be se and pu sued, and o wha ex en esponsi‐
bili y is aken o hese. Thus, C i e ia Au onomy is la gely in luenced
by pe sonal and in e nalized co po a e wo k objec i es. I asked when
exac ly bank ad iso s eel hey ha e done hei jobs well, he answe s a e
unanimously: The sel -de ini ion o when decen wo k has been done is
closely linked o he p esence o in e ac ion wo k, i.e., when he day is
illed wi h (p e e ably) pleasan clien encoun e s. In any case, ad iso s
do no pe cei e i as a good day’s wo k i no clien con e sa ions ha e
aken place. The eeling ha clien s ha e le he mee ing sa is ied, ha
hey ha e been helped, and ha a ela ionship o us has been es ab‐
lished be ween ad iso and clien is a g ea asse o hei mo i a ion
and sa is ac ion.
O cou se, ad iso s a e also bound o sell p oduc s acco ding o hei
ad e ised pe o mance goals. Bu clien s should no be alked in o ce ‐
ain p oduc s. A e all, ad iso s wan o be able o “look hemsel es in
he mi o ” a he end o he day. The conscience o ha ing empowe ed
clien s as much as possible o make hei own decisions plays a key ole.
No su p isingly, a pa icula ly good day a wo k is desc ibed as one
in which pleasan discussions wi h clien s could also be p o ided wi h
business esul s. Ad iso s consciously dis inguish be ween ad iso y and
sales ac i i ies, which do no necessa ily coincide. Each ad iso deals
wi h his con lic ing ela ionship, which is cha ac e ized by con adic o y
demands, a his o he own disc e ion.
Conside ing he speci ics o C i e ia Au onomy, using he ADM sys‐
em is an ex emely ambi alen ac o ega ding a ge ing wo k goals.
The suppo in achie ing pe sonal sales a ge s, which o some we e
al eady appa en a e a b ie ime, and he eplacemen o he campaign-
based selec ion sys em a e pe cei ed as posi i e. In con as , ob ious
signs o wo k in ensi ica ion and he expansion o con ol mechanisms
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276 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
a e iden i ied, he ull po en ial o which is no ye no iceable o ad‐
iso s. Fu he es ic ions can occu i echnical ba ie s (Chap. 14.6 )
a ise.
Suppo o a ge achie emen (+)
While he company’s c edo is ha i is undamen ally i ele an in which
way and by which means ad iso s achie e hei sales goals, he bank
would s ill like o p o ide hem wi h a suppo i e ool in line wi h he
desc ibed ope a ional goals o he echnical sys em. In ac , ad iso s also
sha e he pe cep ion ha he sys em suppo s hem in achie ing hei own
sales objec i es. Especially he possibili y o add ess opics and p oduc s
a he igh ime, whe e he achie emen o sales goals is s ill incomple e,
is shown o be aluable. Wi h ADM suppo , a mo e p ecise alignmen
wi h he indi idual pe o mance goals o ad iso s is possible. The lex‐
ibili y o opics wi h a ixed ime has a posi i e e ec . Wi h he quali y
o he sys em ecommenda ions, i.e., he e e ences o clien s who also
pu chase a p oduc , he p obabili y o suppo and, hus, he gene a ion
o a new pe sonal sense o achie emen , na u ally inc eases. The ac ha
i is o en no anspa en o ad iso s (and sales con ol) in de ail why a
ce ain clien was selec ed is less impo an a his poin i he ope a ing
esul s a e igh .
I he p ocessing o he ADM app oaches is also ea ed as a wo k
objec i e, bo h in he case o success and in he nega i e case o clien
ejec ion, a eac ion code can indica e o he sales con ol ha he in‐
o ma ion has a leas been p ocessed. The wo k done is hus docu‐
men ed, e en i no economically ele an esul could be achie ed. Fo
ad iso s, howe e , he e is also he possibili y o con ol he amoun o
wo k wi hin a limi ed amewo k by allowing an ADM e en o elapse
acco ding o he wo-week pe iod.
Subsequen ly, he a ini ies o he clien s a e esco ed, possibly esul ‐
ing in a di e en p oduc ecommenda ion ha be e i s he ad iso s’
a ge ul illmen . This can also be conside ed lexibili y in e ms o pe ‐
sonal a ge achie emen . Howe e , as he sys em does no change he
clien base o hei calcula ed po en ial, he e a e ex e nal limi s o he
suppo o a ge achie emen .
Replacemen o campaign sys em (+)
The eplacemen o he campaign-based selec ion sys em o clien s is
conside ed a sepa a e posi i e ac o in luencing job au onomy, e en
hough i has al eady been men ioned se e al imes be o e when ad iso s
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 277
desc ibed his e y change as exceedingly posi i e. This is due o he
igidi y o he campaign app oach, bo h in e ms o con en and ime.
The compulsion o wo k h ough he clien lis wi hin he e m, o he
need o jus i y i i was no wo ked h ough comple ely, esul ed in a
no iceable and in ense p essu e si ua ion. O en, hese campaigns we e
almos impossible o bank ad iso s o comple e and manage in hei
daily wo k. Likewise, om he ad iso s’ pe spec i e, he e was a no ice‐
able ime-limi ed specializa ion on a ce ain opic, which o en blocked
he way o o he opics in he sense o “blinke s” and hus closed o
op ions o ac ion.
The igidi y o he campaign sys em, i.e., he p oduc ocus, also leads
o he ac ha clien mee ings a e mo e con lic ual, especially when a
clien g oup absolu ely mus be add essed. In his espec , i migh also
be a gued ha he demands on he ad iso s’ abili y o in e ac a e highe
in he campaign-based sys em. In o he wo ds, he achie emen o sales
goals is s eng hened in he ADM con ex , which is supposed o show
highe chances o success in ad ising. In e es ingly, using he ADM sys‐
em con eys a educed eeling o ex e nal con ol and wo k p essu e in
he ad iso s’ own ac ions, al hough he echnical sys em comes om he
same le el o he company, i.e., sales con ol. I is he same colleagues
who in luence which acquisi ion e en s a e issued o bank ad iso s.
F om ad iso s’ pe spec i es, howe e , he dec ease in ex e nal de‐
e mina ion esul s om he a o emen ioned g ea e a ie y o opics
in e e yday wo king li e and he possibili y o a g ea e ocus on sales
goals. This inding is in e es ing as a as he employees o sales con ol
hemsel es pe cei e he wo k o ad iso s as mo e ex e nally de e mined
wi h he ADM, p esumably due o he highe echnology pene a ion o
wo k p ocesses. This pe cep ion o he ad iso s being less ex e nally
de e mined can be explained by he ac ha acquisi ion app oaches
can be selec ed indi idually. Addi ionally, he e is (so a ) no obliga‐
ion o wo k h ough he new acquisi ion esul s un il he end. Wo k‐
ing h ough he en i e p ocess is no possible anyway because he ADM
ecommenda ion lis is cons an ly being eplenished, as he nex sec ion
will show.
Wo k h ough an in ini e o-do lis (–)
A majo change associa ed wi h he use o he ADM ecommenda ions
is an o ganiza ional one and less ocused on he a ge co ido o he
clien mee ing. Fo his, he ollowing backg ound in o ma ion on he
p e-ADM se ing is essen ial: Ad iso s’ ask lis o he cu en day o
a speci ic pe iod is displayed on he sales on page ( Figu e 14 ). A he
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278 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
op o he lis a e he appoin men s wi h clien s ha we e ei he made
by he clien o by he se ice pa ne , i.e., a sel -de e mined numbe o
appoin men s and asks o esubmission. Fu he asks could be added,
o example, by he campaign sys em o coope a ion pa ne s. In any
case, he e was a ime-limi ed numbe o asks ha had o be comple ed,
a ini e o-do lis .
The p ope ies o he ADM sys em ha e now been implemen ed in
such a way ha hose clien ecommenda ions a e illed up daily. How
many ADM e en s he e a e depends on he numbe o o he acquisi‐
ion app oaches, because he e is cu en ly s ill a cap on he numbe o
asks (max. 100). Cu en ly, 50 ADM e en s a e issued pe ad iso o a
o nigh , i.e., i e pe day. This is how he amoun o wo k is cu en ly
con olled. In any case, he ask display changes o ad iso s, who now
see an almos in ini e o-do lis in on o hem in which new ADM
e en s a e added all he ime, so ha he ask lis eaches 100. This lis
o asks can usually no be comple ed.
The idea o an implici in ensi ica ion and inc ease in he amoun o
wo k is ob ious, e en i he c edo o non-coe cion in ADM assignmen s
con inues o apply. The assessmen o he ex en o which he compulso y
use o he sys em will change in he u u e is discussed ambi alen ly, e en
i he company has so a spoken ou agains i . Mos bank ad iso s,
howe e , a e aking a elaxed app oach o he in ini e o-do lis . They a e
concen a ing on hei sel -imposed deadlines and asks, and he eeling
o p essu e o wo k h ough he lis a all cos s has no ye a isen. I also
plays a ole in ha clien sugges ions o e en s ha canno be deal wi h
wi hin he wo-week pe iod a e displayed by he sys em again a e some
ime, so no clien is immedia ely los i ac ion is no aken immedia ely.
Howe e , he ques ion ha ul ima ely a ises is: Wha happens o he
ad iso s i hey can ne e ully comple e hei asks? Will hey con inue
o ocus exclusi ely on hei pe sonal sales a ge s, o will he ne e -
ending o-do lis ake i s oll e en ually, wi h mo i a ion and sel -e icacy
su e ing? The answe o his ques ion essen ially depends on he deg ee
o which he e will be a compulsion o wo k h ough his lis comple ely
a some poin . Thus, he po en ial o con ol ha he sys em holds mus
also be discussed, since he possibly sub le means o p essu e used by he
managemen is he indi ec con ol mechanism o sel -asse ion o co po‐
a e goals. This quickly u ns possibili ies and sugges ions in o implici
wo k di ec i es.
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 279
The ques ion o con ol (–)
Ha dly any o he ad iso s in e iewed explici ly e e ed o he ADM
sys em as a con ol ins umen , al hough i can be jus ha . Sales con ol
is able o e alua e exac ly which sys em e en s ha e been p ocessed and
possibly also which esul s ha e been achie ed in ad iso y mee ings. The
echnical possibili y o acking he gene al use o he sys em and i s
successes is gi en. As is o en he case, i depends on how his in o ma ion
is used om an o ganiza ional pe spec i e.
Fi s o all, i mus be men ioned ha wi hin he amewo k o he
ADM app oach, he e is a conc e e e alua ion ool by means o so-called
eac ion codes. These eac ion codes a e supposed o be used by bank ad‐
iso s a e a sys em ecommenda ion has been p ocessed. They include,
o example, con ac a emp s wi h / wi hou in e es , mail iewed, wi h
appoin men / wi hou appoin men , o conclusion yes / no. E en suppos‐
edly nega i e eac ions, such as he clien no being eached a e se e al
a emp s, can be mi o ed by ad iso s. I a sugges ion is no p ocessed,
he sys em no es he occasion as ha ing expi ed and ecalcula es he
a ini ies. The esponse codes go much u he han he example shown.
I he ad iso ills in he codes co ec ly, he successes o ailu es o he
ADM ecommenda ions can be e alua ed p ecisely.
Acco ding o company s a emen s, no pe sonal da a o indi idual
ad iso s is e alua ed in e ms o use and success a e; only he di ec
supe iso can iew his da a, which, howe e , gi es he imp ession o
indi idualized e alua ion possibili ies. Finally, he e is ac i i y con olling,
which does no e e o a clien ’s eac ions o a con ac a emp bu how
ad iso s mo e wi hin an ADM e en : Do hey a leas open he e en ?
Wha ac ions ollow a e wa ds? The combina ion o ac i i y p o ocols
and eac ion codes na u ally p o ides a lo o da a abou he ad iso s’
con inuous wo k me hods. Acco ding o he company’s pe spec i e, his
da a should also be u ilized, bu in wha way emains unclea . How hese
echnical means will a ec ad iso s is he e o e no o eseeable in conc e e
e ms. Howe e , he isk o inc easing di ec o indi ec con ol is p esen .
Acco ding o he ad iso s, he ex en o which he sys em unc ions
as a con ol ins umen depends on he consequences o no mee ing he
sales a ge s. I ad iso s do no mee hei pe sonal pe o mance a ge s,
i may be used “in con ol cons ella ions”. This s a emen does no come
om he ad iso bu is om he company. In ac , se e al company
ep esen a i es sha e a desi ed con ol mechanism behind he sys em,
ini ially wi h he objec i e o de e mining whe he i is used (pe spec‐
i ely, how success ully i is used). The signs a e on wo k ins uc ions
and cons ain s.
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280 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
Scheduling Au onomy
Scheduling Au onomy asks o wha ex en he sequence, p io i iza ion,
iming, and speed o comple ing a ask can be de e mined, b eak imes
can be chosen, and in e up ions and unce ain ies can be deal wi h. The
e ec s o he sys em’s use on Scheduling Au onomy a e double-edged:
Au onomy-enhancing momen s a e isible in ela ion o ime gains and
ee p io i iza ion o asks. Howe e , he design o he sys em ecom‐
menda ion binds ad iso s o a ce ain iming when add essing he clien .
The pa allelism o opics can ha e in ensi ying e ec s. The p edic abil‐
i y o wo k p ocesses is p obably no suppo ed by he sys em. Fu he
es ic ions can occu i echnical ba ie s (Chap. 14.6 ) a ise.
Time gains (+)
Time gains o bank ad iso s should be conside ed in close connec ion
wi h he educed amoun o wo k due o he elimina ion o indi idual se‐
lec ions and que ies. Addi ional wo k due o new clien s o speci ic clien
bases may o may no occu . In any case, ad iso s p edominan ly epo
ime gains ha a e e lec ed in mo e ad iso y ime. Inc easing ad iso y
ime, because only his can usually lead o ope a ionally e ec i e esul s,
is also an elemen a y co po a e objec i e o using he sys em. The mo e
analogous a ian o he indi idual selec ion o speci ic clien g oups
by he ad iso and se ice pa ne epea edly p o ed o be ex emely
ime-consuming and unsys ema ic. Wi h his ask, he e was always he
ques ion o ime and he chance o success. Mos ly, he e is no idle ime a
all in which hese esea ch and analysis asks can be comple ed. Whe e
should i come om? The daily ou ine o bank ad iso s, wi h up o
i e clien mee ings and addi ional ollow-up pape wo k, is ex emely
comp essed. The ADM sys em is a leas supposed o elie e hem o he
indi idual selec ion wo k. No only ad iso y ime bu also se ice ime
can be used mo e in ensi ely using he echnical sys em. Howe e , he
ime gains a e limi ed. A e all, no addi ional ime is g an ed o using
he sys em, bu i does eplace he campaign sys em.
Mo e independen p io i iza ion, mid- e m (+)
When i comes o he possibili y o o ganizing wo k asks mo e eely,
he compa ison wi h he campaign-led sys em, which p o ides o opic
ocusing wi h a du a ion o abou wo mon hs, comes in o play again.
In addi ion o he sel -scheduled appoin men s wi h clien s, he p io i i‐
za ion o opics wi h he aim o wo king h ough he campaign lis s is
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 287
s ill e y impo an . The e is no sign o a de ia ion om his co po a e
c edo o a mo e owa ds a pu ely digi al bank. The compe i ion wi h he
online b anch is he e o e only occasional, bu i may expand in he u u e
wi h ADM suppo . So a , he sys em does no in luence he dis ibu ion
o asks be ween he online b anch and bank ad iso s, and he la e usu‐
ally e ain he au ho i y o in e p e he loca ion o a clien ’s se ice.
In e ac ional Au onomy
In e ac ional Au onomy asks abou he dependence o one’s wo k on
o he people, be hey colleagues, supe iso s, o clien s, and how i is
in luenced by hem. When asked o wha ex en coope a ion and in e ‐
ac ion wi h clien s and colleagues a e a ec ed by he echnical sys em,
mos bank ad iso s s a ed ha he e is no in luence on in e ac ion wo k.
Wi h e e ence o Me hod Au onomy, he exac p ocedu e and he way
o dealing wi h he clien emain la gely una ec ed by he echnical
sys em. The clien mee ing can s ill be s uc u ed indi idually. I is he
ad iso -clien ela ionship ha is decisi e, no he echnical cons uc o
he ADM ool. The conclusion is ha he sel -de e mina ion o ad iso s
ega ding in e ac ion wo k emains in ac .
Ne e heless, some endencies ega ding changed In e ac ional Au‐
onomy a e iden i ied in he ollowing, which ad iso s ha e no ye ec‐
ognized o hemsel es, such as he possibili y o mo e indi idualized
ad iso y wo k o changed eamwo k. Finally, a majo change in he
in oduc ion o he ADM sys em is he inc eased in e ac ion wi h new
clien s, which b ings speci ic challenges. Finally, ano he ques ion a ises,
e en i i canno be answe ed conclusi ely: Wha does using he ADM
suppo ac ually do o he clien ? Fu he es ic ions can occu i ech‐
nical ba ie s (Chap. 14.6 ) a ise.
Mo e indi idualized ad iso y se ices (+)
Since one objec i e o using he ADM sys em is o be e espond o clien s’
needs, pa ly o an icipa e hem and o open ad iso s’ iews owa ds new
clien -p oduc ma chings, one can speak o a mo e indi idualized ad iso y
possibili y. Mo e p omising counseling in e ms o con en may lead o
a pleasan , less demanding ad iso y mee ing, which esul s in a posi i e
e ec on ad iso s’ In e ac ional Au onomy. Bank ad iso s a e mo e de‐
ached om he igid speci ica ions o he campaign sys em and ecei e ec‐
ommenda ions o mo e indi idualized ad iso y se ices due o he ime-
bound na u e o he ADM suppo . The po en ial o add ess clien s wi h
he igh p oduc a he igh ime, some imes wi h a p oduc “ ha hey
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288 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
hemsel es do no ye know hey need,” is no ed pa icula ly posi i ely by
hem. O e all, acco ding o he i s expe iences o ad iso s, he counseling
se ices wi h he ADM supplemen a e close o he needs o he clien s.
The emphasis mus again be on supplemen a ion. As a eminde , ad‐
iso s desc ibe ha elying exclusi ely on he ADM e en s would lead o
a g ea deal o s anda diza ion, including in he clien dialogue. Howe e ,
he e mus always be he possibili y o ac i ely eac o clien s’ ques ions
and no sell hem a useless p oduc . Indi idualized ad iso y wo k is
he e o e only possible h ough a combina ion o expe ience-led ac ion
and he new sugges ions o he ADM sys em, whose g ea es s eng h, as
al eady men ioned, lies in i s ole as a sou ce o ideas. In addi ion, he
ime eed up by he elimina ion o ime-consuming indi idual selec ions
by he ad iso may also bene i he ime spen on clien mee ings. The
inal e alua ion o his de elopmen mus emain open o he ime being.
On he one hand, he indi idualized ad iso y ime should, o cou se, be
maximized as much as possible because i gene a es ele an business
esul s. On he o he hand, he p opo ion o wo king ime ha ad iso s
spend wi h clien s is al eady so high ha he limi s o hei wo kload
ha e been eached o some. I is di icul o imagine accommoda ing
e en mo e ad iso y wo k in o his scena io. I one excludes he in en‐
si y o in e ac ion wo k and conside s he pu e ime spen wi h se ice
ecipien s, bank ad iso s pe o m e en mo e in e ac ion wo k han he
ca egi e s om Case I, o example.
Facili a ed eamwo k (+)
Simpli ied collabo a ion be ween colleagues, be ween ad iso s and hei
se ice pa ne s, has only been hin ed a and is no so much due o he
use o he ADM ool as o he new sales on end, which acili a es he
dis ibu ion o asks. Se ice s a can iew he sales asks o hei ad‐
iso s and p o ide suppo as needed, o hey a e guided by ad iso s o
con ac speci ic clien s. The ADM plays a ole in ha he clien ecom‐
menda ions a e o en subjec o a clea di ision o labo . Se ice s a
con ac ecommended clien s, and ad iso s conduc he mee ing.
Communica ion abou he p og ess o wo k akes place in pe son
and ia he ep esen a i e sys em. Less e o o bo h sides and hus eas‐
ie coope a ion esul om he elimina ion o ex ensi e selec ion wo k,
which is now aken o e by he ADM sys em. In his way, addi ional
e o s in he acquisi ion o new clien s can also be pa ially compensa ed
o . The join p ocessing o lis s in he campaign managemen sys em,
which is o en a bu den, is no longe necessa y and allows o an in en‐
si ied use o se ice imes.
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 289
I is no only be ween ad iso s and se ice s a ha he eplacemen
o he campaign sys em is pe cei ed as acili a ing. Be ween ad iso s
and supe io s, i.e., usually b anch managemen , ewe lines o con lic
ha e eme ged so a (which is o cou se also due o he ac ha he use
o ADM is no ye compulso y). Fo example, he s a us o p ocessing
campaign lis s no longe mus be epo ed o he supe iso . This con ol
elemen is he e o e omi ed. Howe e , supe io s like o use he ADM
app oaches o gi e ad iso s ecommenda ions o achie ing hei sales
goals. Again, only he non-coe ci e use o he ADM ool implies he eas‐
ing o he ins uc ional ela ionship be ween sales managemen , b anch
supe iso s, and bank ad iso s.
Emo ional demand wi h new clien s (–)
The se ing o emo ional demands in he clien con e sa ion, especially
wi h new clien s, is ini ially echnology-independen because hey a e
oo ed in he challenges o in e ac ion wo k. In his case, howe e , he
ADM suppo igge s mo e con e sa ions and in e ac ions wi h new and
un amilia clien s, which many ad iso s desc ibe as pa icula ly chal‐
lenging and o which hey use mo e p epa a ion ime. To cla i y he
exac pa o in e ac ion wo k: I is less abou ac i ely p ocessing, using,
and in luencing he clien s’ eelings. This belongs o he mo e ou ine
ac i i ies o a bank ad iso . Ra he , his poin is in ended o illus a e
he handling o bank ad iso s’ own emo ions (emo ional labo ) and un‐
o eseen si ua ions. The emo ional challenges a e he e o e also o be
conside ed in close connec ion wi h dealing wi h he unp edic abili y o
he wo k unde he poin o Scheduling Au onomy. As al eady desc ibed,
he e a e highe wo kloads wi h new clien s. E en he i s con ac can
be e y ime-consuming, no o men ion he p epa a ion o he mee ing.
Wo king wi hou ADM ecommenda ions is mo e easible since p e‐
dic abili y is ela i ely high and he p epa a ion e o is usually mode a e.
These wo poin s a e combined in he i s mee ing wi h new clien s be‐
cause he elemen s o he unknown a e much mo e ex ensi e om he ad‐
iso ’s pe spec i e. O cou se, expe ienced ad iso s can eac o he espec‐
i e needs o he clien and s ee he con e sa ion in he desi ed di ec ion,
bu especially in ADM-ini ia ed si ua ions, i is o en a g a ui ous walk
be ween ul illing he co po a e expec a ions o he bank and he ac ual
needs o he clien . This con lic is cons an ly on he shoulde s o ad iso s.
The objec i e o an ad iso when alking o new and unknown clien s
is o build up a long- e m ela ionship ha is as in ensi e as possible and
o lay he ounda ions o his in hei i s app oach. Howe e , he p ocess
o building us o en akes yea s. Ad iso s he e o e also place he highes
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290 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
demands on hemsel es in hese si ua ions. Some desc ibe hei p epa a o y
wo k wi h new clien s as wo king me iculously o minimize elemen s o
unce ain y. I is o cou se impossible o p edic wha he clien will eally
be like, which is why he elemen a y challenge o in e ac ion wo k o en
a ises ia ADM e en s. In addi ion, he e is he dange ha he a ini y
calcula ions o he echnical sys em may no be co ec , and, in he wo s
case, clien s may be aliena ed by he w ong app oach.
These desc ip ions a e no mean o sugges ha ad iso s shy away
om si ua ions wi h new clien s al oge he . They do no . Howe e , he
in e ac ions a e made mo e challenging by he ac o s o unp edic abil‐
i y and unplannabili y, which is why ad iso s should s ike a balance
be ween expe ience-based wo k and hese elemen s o unplannabili y, i
only o hei own p o ec ion. Again, his implici ly speaks agains he
compulso y use o he ADM sys em.
14.6. Technical ba ie s, misuse, and a eas o imp o emen
In gene al, echnical mal unc ions and obs acles do no pa alyze he wo k
o bank ad iso s. E en wi hou au oma ed clien selec ion, hey can pe ‐
o m hei usual wo k asks. The abili y o ad iso s o deal wi h mal‐
unc ions is he e o e conside ed o be high. The echnical unc ionali y
o he sys em is meanwhile ega ded as qui e posi i e, i.e., conside ably
inc eased compa ed o he beginning o he es phase. Howe e , he
accu acy o he clien ecommenda ions s ill has po en ial o imp o e‐
men . Because o p e ious inaccu a e esul s, he gene al accep ance o
he sys em is open o deba e. These sou ces o e o and unce ain y ha e
a pa ial nega i e impac on he job au onomy o ad iso s ( Table 12 ).
Table 12: Impac o echnical ba ie s on employees, Case II
Task
Au onomy Me hod
Au onomy C i e ia
Au onomy Scheduling
Au onomy In e ac ional
Au onomy
Technical ba ie s (employees)
Inaccu a e esul s
– W ong clien
– Duplica ion wi h
esubmission
– Righ clien , w ong
con en
Highe wo k
quan i y Missing
op ions o
ac ion
Ta ge
achie emen
impeded
Addi ional
ime and
unp edic ‐
abili y
Clien
aliena ion
Risk o non-accep ance Highe wo k
quan i y Op ion o
ac ion ejec ed Addi ional
ime and
unp edic ‐
abili y
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 291
Inaccu a e esul s
One di icul y ha appea ed, especially a he beginning o using he
ADM sys em, is he ac ha ad iso s pe cei ed ha he w ong esul s
we e being p oposed, i.e., bo h he w ong clien s and in ma ching wi h
he w ong p oduc s. This applies, o example, o clien s who ha e no
eal inancial means a hei disposal o ake ad an age o , such as e‐
cipien s o social secu i y bene i s. Fo ad iso s, hese clien s a e usually
quickly iden i iable. Howe e , clien s we e also sugges ed who, a i s
glance, we e no candida es o a pa icula p oduc . As a ule, ad i‐
so s can only judge based on expe ience whe he a clien is a sui able
candida e o a gi en p oduc o se ice. The di icul y lies in emaining
open o sugges ions ha a e less p omising bu ha u n ou o be new
oppo uni ies wo h close conside a ion. The ac ha he echnical sys‐
em deli e ed inco ec esul s could be o e come ela i ely quickly ia
selec ed exclusion c i e ia by sales con ol. So-called KO c i e ia, such
as he basic liquidi y equi ed by he clien , a e decisi e. Likewise, i is
impo an o selec he igh ime o he a ini y calcula ion.
Ano he sou ce o e o is he ecommenda ion o p oduc s and se ‐
ices ha ha e al eady been pu chased by ac i e clien s. This also in‐
cludes, o example, ecommenda ions o clien s ha we e al eady in‐
cluded in bank ad iso s’ esubmission sys em o p oduc s ha he clien
al eady owns. This sou ce o e o can be minimized easily by means
o exclusion c i e ia. The ad iso s’ knowledge and expe ience o hei
clien base a e equi ed, which can iden i y and ec i y hese p oblems
quickly. I his expe ience-based ecogni ion o al eady known clien -
p oduc ma ches ails o wo k, he e is s ill a isk o duplica es and, in
some cases, o aliena ing clien s wi h alse app oaches.
A con inuing p oblem is ha he igh clien s may be ecognized by
he ADM sys em, bu he w ong p oduc wi h he w ong o ou da ed
con en may be ecommended. Simila o he duplica ion o al eady-
known clien s, he e is a isk o aliena ing ecipien s wi h he w ong con‐
en . Once again, he ad iso mus make decisions based on expe ience
and, i necessa y, eso o a ecalcula ion i he e a e doub s abou he
ecommenda ion. F om he ad iso ’s pe spec i e, i is s ill possible o
app oach he clien abou o he con en despi e he inco ec ecommen‐
da ion and hus s ill each a conclusion. In any case, he e a e elemen s
o unce ain y and s ain on ad iso s’ abili y o in e ac .
The h ee abo e-men ioned mal unc ions add up o he concep o
inaccu a e ADM esul s, which esul in ex a wo k (Task Au onomy) as
well as addi ional ime and unce ain y (Scheduling Au onomy) o u ‐
he use by ad iso s. I he esul s a e ecognized as inco ec , he ADM
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292 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
e en is no longe a ailable as an op ion o ac ion (Me hod Au onomy),
which dis up s he achie emen o sales a ge s (C i e ia Au onomy). An
immedia e dange is ha he delica e ela ionship be ween he ad iso
and he clien is shaken (In e ac ional Au onomy).
Risk o non-accep ance
The ac ha he e is a isk ha ad iso s do no accep he ADM sys em
and he e o e e use o use i is no a classic mal unc ion bu a he a
consequence o his in combina ion wi h he black box cha ac e o he
applica ion. Abo e all, he ac ha he e we e many mis akes a he
beginning o he implemen a ion and ha wo d quickly go a ound abou
he poo quali y o he esul s lies like a shadow o e all e o s o gain
accep ance o he sys em. One could d aw a compa ison o he e m
“ echnological myopia” (Susskind & Susskind, 2015, p. 44), which de‐
sc ibes he unde es ima ion o he pe spec i e capaci ies o a echnology
due o cu en sho comings.
Acco ding o sales con ol, he challenge o c ea ing accep ance
among ad iso s is so impo an because a leas he quali y o he esul s
o he campaign sys em was high. Howe e , his s a emen con adic s
some o he ad iso s. In addi ion, i is possible ha he ad iso s ejec
he sys em because hey wan o e ain as much au ho i y as possible
o e he in e p e a ion o hei wo k in ela ion o he echnical sys em.
In his con ex , he managemen and sales con ol eams also ecognized
ha he e was a lack o communica ion abou he goals, capabili ies,
and p oblems o he ADM sys em. Objec i es o using he echnology
we e no clea ly s a ed, and ad iso s we e no asked o hei eedback
igh a he beginning (o p e e ably be o e implemen a ion). Howe e ,
his is also due o he bank’s in eg a ion in o he umb ella o ganiza‐
ion.
The ex en o which he non- anspa ency o ADM e en s poses a
p oblem o ad iso s and leads o non-accep ance is also a ma e o
discussion. As al eady desc ibed, he ADM e en s p o ide only b ie ea‐
sons, o no easons a all, o he selec ion o a pa icula clien . To a
ce ain ex en , he e o e, ad iso s’ us in he echnology is equi ed i
he sys em esul s a e no o be undamen ally called in o ques ion. This
us in he echnology, o as one managemen ep esen a i e pu i , “ he
ad iso s’ ai h” in he sys em, is only achie ed i he esul s o he ADM
sys em a e as accu a e as possible.
The non-accep ance o he sys em and i s black box cha ac e can
mani es i sel in addi ional e o s o ad iso s due o missing in o ma‐
ion (Task Au onomy) as well as addi ional ime equi ed o p ocessing
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 293
(Scheduling Au onomy). The elemen o unce ain y in he use o he
sys em may ha e a pa icula impac and lead o an ac i e ejec ion o
he op ion o ac ion (Me hod Au onomy). Technology accep ance in his
case s udy appea s o depend on a combina ion o unc ional quali y,
communica ion, and anspa ency.
Finally, hese obs acles, e o s, and sugges ions o imp o emen ha e
occu ed wi h dec easing equency since he s a o he es phase. The
lea ning capabili ies o he sys em based on he bank’s own da a should
u he minimize he occu ence o inaccu acies and imp o e he qual‐
i y o esul s. Collabo a i e wo k on e o educ ion con inues wi hin
he es g oup, wi h o he pilo banks, and wi h he umb ella se ice
p o ide s.
14.7. Impac and condi ions o changed job au onomy
T adi ional uni e sal banks like he case s udy company, which y o
each clien s wi h a high physical p esence and p oximi y, a e la gely
dependen on he skills o hei bank ad iso s. Thei business model is
based on he abili y o bank ad iso s o in e ac wi h clien s and he
le el o us be ween hem. This aises he ques ion o whe e echnology
can be use ully deployed o suppo ad iso y wo k and o alloca e sca ce
esou ces op imally. I is an inc easingly delica e and con lic -laden si ‐
ua ion in which bank ad iso s ha e o ope a e o sa is y he bank’s co ‐
po a e in e es s, he clien ’s needs, and ul ima ely he expec a ions and
hopes o hei own wo k.
In e es ingly, in a simila case s udy by Nies (2015, p. 167) on he
ension be ween con en and co po a e equi emen s o bank ad iso s,
he esponden s desc ibe hei expec a ions o hei own wo k in exac ly
he same e ms: They mus s ill be able o look hemsel es in he mi ‐
o . Acco dingly, he con lic be ween he demands o wo k con en , i.e.,
esponsibili y owa ds clien s, and sales-o ien ed pe o mance manage‐
men o ms an i esol able con adic ion (Nies, 2015, p. 241). This con‐
adic ion is also e lec ed in he p esen case s udy, whe eby he ADM
sys em con ibu es o bo h he quali y o clien ad ice and managemen
con ol.
The in luence o using he ADM sys em on job au onomy mus be
conside ed wi hin his scena io. In p inciple, i s po en ial is p omising,
as i allows ad iso s o add ess una ended / passi e clien s. A he same
ime, he sys em loses weigh in e e yday wo k o does no appea a all i
he ad iso s’ weal h o expe ience is la ge and sales a ge s a e achie ed
anyway. The mo e in e es ing and mo e ambi alen consequences o sys‐
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294 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
em use occu when he sales a ge s ( om he managemen ’s poin o
iew) a e insu icien ly add essed o he e a e empo a y capaci ies in
he ad iso s’ calenda s.
The analysis o he ADM sys em along he se en job au onomy di‐
mensions has isola ed speci ic changes and e ec s in he wo k o ad i‐
so s. These a e summa ized along h ee dis inc lines: he quali a i e and
quan i a i e imp o emen o ad iso y se ices, subs an ial elie enden‐
cies, bu also conside ably mo e con adic ions in he daily wo k ou ine.
The in luence o he ADM sys em on he quali y and quan i y o
ad iso y se ices is a ibu able o se e al componen s. Fi s , he a ‐
ge ed app oach o a ine clien s inc eases he quan i y o he ac i e clien
base, and hey a e also add essed wi h a b oade ange o p oduc s. The
expansion o ad iso y se ices o include una ended and new p oduc
clien s is closely ela ed o he g ea e a iabili y o asks o ad iso s.
Bu i goes beyond inc easing he shee olume o p oduc s and se ices;
using he sys em also enables mo e speci ic esponses o clien needs.
A e all, he sys em a emp s o do jus ha : iden i y clien s wi h pa ic‐
ula ly high a ini ies o a p oduc . In a quali a i e sense, his ep esen s
a mo e indi idualized ad iso y se ice ha a emp s o implemen he
concep o holis ic clien app oach and suppo . A possible side e ec
is ha he ADM app oach ees ad iso s om con lic ing o non- a ge
clien in e ac ions because hese a e simply no sugges ed. Impo an o
implemen ing he imp o emen o quali a i e and quan i a i e ad iso y
pe o mance is ha he sys em does no in luence he conduc o he
ac ual ad iso y mee ing wi h he clien o he sel -de e mined p io i‐
iza ion o he clien in e ac ion. The suppo o he ad iso y se ices
wi h he clien ul ima ely con ibu es o he achie emen o sales objec‐
i es.
Suppo ing o e en elie ing elemen s in he handling o he ADM
sys em esul p edominan ly om he elimina ion o he campaign sys‐
em and less wo kload in he indi idual selec ion o clien s. Ad iso s
epo a o ably no only on eed-up ime bu also on he possibili y o
o ganizing hei day- o-day wo k mo e independen ly wi hou ha ing o
wo k h ough campaign lis s. Thei daily wo k ou ine is less ense. The
ADM sys em’s abili y o o ganize and p io i ize asks, combined wi h he
a iabili y o asks and he b oadening o op ions o ac ion in e e yday
wo k, ha e a pa icula ly suppo i e e ec on ad iso s. In essence, i
is he pe cep ion o ewe ime cons ain s and mo e decision-making
scope a he wo k p ocess le el ha has a pa icula ly bene icial e ec
on ad iso s. Again, i he ecommenda ion is o a sui able quali y, i is
also possible o speak o a educ ion in he wo kload by suppo ing he
achie emen o sales a ge s.
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14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode 295
The pe cep ion o se e al posi i e e ec s associa ed wi h he ADM
sys em is pa ly clouded by he ac ha , unde ce ain ci cums ances, a
numbe o new con adic ions a ise a wo k. Al hough he elimina ion o
he campaign sys em p o ides new p io i iza ion op ions in he medium
e m, he p essu e o adhe e o he deadlines o ADM e en s could can‐
cel ou hese oppo uni ies in he sho e m. The new a iabili y o asks
is accompanied by a highe deg ee o pa allelism, which may ha e an
in ensi ying e ec on he wo k o ad iso s. The implici obliga ion o use
he sys em also s ands in he way o he new op ions o ac ion ha ha e
eme ged o bank ad iso s. Fu he mo e, he educed wo kload esul ing
om he elimina ion o indi idual selec ions is canceled i highe emo‐
ional demands, wo kloads, and a lack o in o ma ion a ise wi h new
clien s.
Elemen s o unp edic abili y a e always p esen in he applica ion
o he sys em, as new possibili ies a e accompanied by new unce ain‐
ies. The e o e, when applying he ADM ecommenda ions, he e is he
ques ion o he si ua ions in which using he sys em migh ha e a densi‐
ying and con adic o y e ec on ad iso s. This p oblem is pa icula ly
e iden when i comes o suppo ing sales a ge achie emen . Ad iso s
o e whelmingly epo ha i helps hem o achie e hei wo k goals,
while a he same ime, wi h an in ini e o-do lis , hey a e aced wi h a
ple ho a o ADM-ini ia ed asks ha a e almos impossible o comple e.
The condi ions o posi i e e ec s o using he sys em o un old a e
bo h echnical and o ganiza ional, wi h he echnical aspec s mainly be‐
ing lis ed unde he echnical hu dles in he p e ious chap e : In pa ‐
icula , he objec i e needs o emain imp o ing he quali y o he sys‐
em’s esul s. The suppo po en ial o he success ul achie emen o
sales goals, he c ea ion o posi i e clien expe iences, and ul ima ely he
accep ance and posi i e impac on he job au onomy o ad iso s depends
cen ally on he quali y o he ADM esul s. P ospec i ely, he quan i y
o he ou comes in e ms o he b ead h o he p oduc ange mus also
be expanded. I is essen ial o maximize he quali y o he da a, including
i s comple eness, o elimina e he e o s men ioned abo e, and o check
he ime ames o he da a used. All hese poin s ha e al eady been
wo ked on by sales con ol. One di icul y, howe e , is ha he quali y
o he ADM sys em’s esul s is impossible o assess conclusi ely, since
e en an excep ionally good clien ecommenda ion s ill depends on he
ad iso ’s abili y o success ully implemen hese sugges ions in he clien
in e ac ion.
Ano he echnical condi ion is o inc ease he anspa ency o he
sys em. This is qui e possible h ough he u he de elopmen o he
ADM sys em wi h in-house clien da a and by building up he expe‐
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296 14. Company Case II: uni e sal bank in change mode
ience o sales con ol and ad iso s. This inc ease in he anspa ency
o he easoning behind an ADM e en has he po en ial o elimina e a
majo au onomy- es ic ing elemen in using he sys em. Howe e , he
case s udy bank is s ill in a dependen ela ionship wi h he umb ella
o ganiza ion and he se ice p o ide s.
F om an o ganiza ional pe spec i e, he p ese a ion o as la ge a
p opo ion o sel -de e mined in e ac ion wo k as possible is essen ial
o he c ea ion o posi i e momen s o job au onomy. This is no o
ques ion he ac ha main aining in e ac ion wo k is also in he in‐
e es o he bank, as i is a decisi e elemen o ope a ional success.
Ra he , i is a ques ion o using expe ien ial knowledge in dealing wi h
clien s. Fo some ad iso s, he shi away om expe ience-based wo k,
o example, wi hin he amewo k o hei own esubmission sys em, is
al eady o eseeable esul ing om using he ADM sys em. Fo hem, he
ques ion a ises as o he p opo ionali y o expe ience-based wo k and
ADM ecommenda ions in he long e m.
Ul ima ely, he p ese a ion o expe ience-based in e ac ion wo k
will be de e mined by compa ing he success a es be ween ad iso s’
own esubmission sys em and ADM ecommenda ions. A he momen ,
he expe ience o ad iso s wi h he clien base is s ill indispensable. Bu
especially in iew o he demog aphic impac on employmen po en ial,
he ole o bank ad iso s may also change in he u u e. Some wi hin he
company ha e gone as a as o p edic ha hese e y employees wi h
a weal h o expe ience will become ex inc . This may p esen oppo uni‐
ies o younge and new colleagues, bu ul ima ely, he po en ial loss o
expe ience-based in e ac ion wo k also e odes momen s o meaning and
mo i a ion in ad iso y wo k.
The inal o ganiza ional componen desc ibes he ques ion o he
con ol capabili ies o he ADM sys em, o a he , how hey a e used
by he company. As has al eady been emphasized se e al imes, he e
is cu en ly no obliga ion o p ocess he abundance o ADM e en s.
Wha happens, howe e , when choice becomes impe a i e? Using he
ADM ool is accompanied by he c ea ion o compa abili y be ween
bank ad iso s and he ep oducibili y o esul s beyond an indi idual
bank. The con ol po en ial inhe en in he sys em is ob ious. Whe he
i is also pe cei ed as a con ol ins umen by bank ad iso s ul ima ely
depends on he consequences ha a ise i he sys em is no used and he
sales a ge s a e no achie ed. The unde s anding o he sys em objec i es
di e s o some deg ee be ween managemen and ad iso s. Ad iso s end
o pe cei e he enabling momen s while using he sys em.
Fo company ep esen a i es, he po en ial o con ol is e iden ,
while ad iso s a e ambi alen abou i . Ul ima ely, only he ad iso who
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16. Limi a ions 303
i i y each ime. Cynically speaking, i is un o una e ha he in e iewe
and au ho o his hesis is a human being. Howe e , i is ad an ageous
o make use o his subjec i i y in he in e iew si ua ion, which equi es
no only lexibili y bu also empa hy o he in e iewee.
In his con ex , he open design o he in e iews wi h ee esponse
op ions p o ed o be ad an ageous. The in e iewees we e gi en he op‐
po uni y o e eal hei e y subjec i e pe spec i es and in e p e a ions.
They could de elop hei own connec ions and la ge cogni i e s uc u es
in he in e iew. Implici ly, his also makes i possible o es whe he he
esponden s eally unde s and he esea ch ques ion.
Pa icula ly in he case o he employee in e iews, he openness o
he in e iewees is no ewo hy, as hey epo ed willingly and, o he
mos pa , e y e lec i ely on hei e e yday wo king li es. One di i‐
cul y, howe e , was o epea edly di ec he con e sa ion o he conc e e
aspec s o echnology use. This poin s o he qui e subo dina e ole ha
he espec i e sys em plays ega ding he co e o se ice wo ke s’ wo k.
I also became clea ha some expe ience in ca e wo k and banking
se ices, as well as e lec i e abili y on he pa o he in e iewees, was
necessa y o do jus ice o he complexi y o he esea ch opic.
Con en limi a ions ul ima ely ask o wha ex en he wo case s ud‐
ies can con ibu e o answe ing he esea ch ques ion and o wha ex en
he e is ans e po en ial o o he b anches. The di icul ies in conduc ‐
ing and analyzing company cases lie in hei immanen exempla y na u e,
om which conclusions and implica ions a he b anch o sec o le el can
only be d awn wi h g ea cau ion, as will be shown below.
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