So iadan, Mawussi Kossi i e al.
A icle — Published Ve sion
E alua ing he impac o imp o ed echnology adop ion
in adi ional poul y a ming on po en ial ou comes o
a me s: E idence om u al Togo
Cogen Food & Ag icul u e
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Leibniz Ins i u e o Ag icul u al De elopmen in T ansi ion Economies (IAMO), Halle (Saale)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: So iadan, Mawussi Kossi i e al. (2024) : E alua ing he impac o imp o ed
echnology adop ion in adi ional poul y a ming on po en ial ou comes o a me s: E idence om
u al Togo, Cogen Food & Ag icul u e, ISSN 2331-1932, Taylo & F ancis, London, Vol. 10, Iss. 1,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311932.2024.2341091 ,
h ps://www. and online.com/doi/ ull/10.1080/23311932.2024.2341091
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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Food Science & Technology | ReSeaRch aRTicle
Cogen Food & Ag iCul u e
2024, Vol. 10, no. 1, 2341091
E alua ing he impac o imp o ed echnology adop ion in adi ional
poul y a ming on po en ial ou comes o a me s: e idence om u al
Togo
Mawussi Kossi i So iadana , osama ahmeda , Zane a Kubikb , anselm anibueze ene ec,
chukwuemeka Uzoma okoyec and Thomas glaubena
aleibniz ins i u e o Ag icul u al de elopmen in ansi ion economies (iAMo), depa men o Ag icul u al Ma ke s, Ma ke ing, and
Wo ld Ag icul u al ade, Halle (Saale), ge many; bChai o in e na ional economic Policy, uni e si y o gö ingen, gö ingen,
ge many; cdepa men o Ag icul u al economics, Facul y o Ag icul u e, uni e si y o nige ia, nsukka, nige ia
ABSTRACT
Social p og ams a e designed o each bene icia ies and achie e expec ed objec i es. The e is
a need o unde s and whe he de elopmen p og ams wo k and hei le el o impac on he
bene icia ies in ol ed. along hese lines, he objec i e o his s udy is o e alua e he impac
o imp o ed Technology adop ion in T adi ional Poul y Fa ming (iTTPF) on a me s’ po en ial
ou comes in Togo. Baseline and ollow-up da a we e collec ed om 400 a me s and analyzed
using di e ence-in-di e ences models. The s udy e eals ha i e yea s a e he
implemen a ion o he p og am, he annual g oss p o i inc eased on a e age by US$ 1294
o each p og am pa icipan . The esul s o he he e ogeneous impac s assessmen indica e
ha pa icipa ing in he p og am is a necessa y condi ion o iTTPF adop ion, bu no su icien
o p o i op imiza ion. o e all, he p og am has a posi i e and signi ican impac on he
po en ial ou comes o a me s in Togo. The go e nmen in i s ag icul u al policy should
mobilize mo e esou ces o enable conside ably mo e a me s o adop imp o ed ag icul u al
echnologies. in addi ion, ag icul u al policymake s should implemen he ins umen s o he
chain planning, p og amming, budge ing, execu ion, moni o ing and e alua ion o all
ag icul u al de elopmen p og ams and p ojec s o make p og essi e adjus men s o op imal
esul s achie emen and sus ainable ag icul u al de elopmen .
1. In oduc ion
The ag icul u al sec o is a he hea o he econ-
omy o de eloping coun ies. i gene a es a la ge
sha e o he g oss domes ic p oduc (gdP) and
employs a signi ican p opo ion o he ac i e popu-
la ion. i is an impo an sou ce o o eign exchange,
p oduces he mos basic oods u s and is he only
sou ce o li elihood and income o mo e han hal
o he popula ion o de eloping coun ies (oecd/
Fao, 2023; So iadan e al., 2022, 2023).
The poul y sec o is an ag icul u al sub-sec o
ha con inues o g ow in many pa s o he wo ld.
The inc easing pu chasing powe o he popula ion
© 2024 he Au ho (s). Published by in o ma uK limi ed, ading as aylo & F ancis g oup
CONTACT Mawussi Kossi i So iadan so [email protected], [email p o ec ed] leibniz ins i u e o Ag icul u al de elopmen in
ansi ion economies (iAMo), Ag icul u al Ma ke s, Ma ke ing, and Wo ld Ag icul u al ade, heodo -liese -S aße 2, 06120 Halle (Saale), ge many.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311932.2024.2341091
his is an open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion license (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un e-
s ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. he e ms on which his a icle has been published allow he
pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
Recei ed 11 decembe
2023
Re ised 10 Ma ch 2024
accep ed 4 ap il 2024
KEYWORDS
T adi ional poul y
a ming; imp o ed
echnology adop ion;
impac e alua ion;
di e ence-in-di e ences
models; po en ial
ou comes; a me s
REVIEWING EDITOR
M. luisa escude o-gile e,
Uni e si y o Se ille,
Se ille, Spain
SUBJECTS
ag icul u e &
en i onmen al Sciences;
econome ics; a ican
S udies; Ru al
de elopmen ; Resea ch
Me hods in de elopmen
S udies; Mic oeconomics;
de elopmen S udies;
de elopmen Policy;
economics and
de elopmen ; Sus ainable
de elopmen
2 M. K. SoViadan eTal.
and u baniza ion ha e been powe ul d i e s o his
g ow h. The e o e, poul y p oduc ion has become
highly specialized and inc easingly p oduc i e and
hence needs o be managed by specialis s (Food and
ag icul u e o ganiza ion o he Uni ed na ions
[Fao], 2015).
in addi ion, he de elopmen and ans e o ech-
nologies and a ming echniques inc eased he e i-
ciency o poul y p oduc ion. This has led mode n
poul y a ms o g ow apidly in size, concen a e
nea sou ces o inpu s o ou pu ma ke s and op o
e ical in eg a ion (ao e al., 2021; chen e al., 2024;
Mahan y e al., 2023).
This s uc u al e o m is pa icula ly e lec ed in
he e olu ion o con ac a ming in he b eeding o
laye s and b oile s, which allows a me s wi h
medium-sized uni s o access ad anced echnology
wi h a ela i ely low ini ial in es men (Fao, 2015).
T adi ional poul y a ming is de ined as small-scale,
household-le el poul y p oduc ion using amily
labo and, o he g ea es ex en possible, locally
a ailable ood supplies (Mcclaughlin e al., 2024;
Wong e al., 2017). i is he mos common ype o
b eeding p ac iced by smallholde a me s in
Sub-Saha an a ica (SSa) due o low en y ba ie s. i
plays a c ucial ole in u al a eas o de eloping coun-
ies in sus aining li elihoods, supplying poul y
p oduc s in u al, subu ban and u ban a eas and ep-
esen ing impo an suppo (such as heal h ca e o
amily membe s, school ees o child en, cul u al
e en s, i uals, e c.) o he mos ulne able g oups
(Fao, 2014). as long as po e y pe sis s in de elop-
ing coun ies, adi ional poul y a ming will con-
inue o p o ide oppo uni ies o high-quali y
income gene a ion and nu i ion o he human pop-
ula ion (Fao, 2015).
The mode n la ge- and medium-sized poul y p o-
duc ion sys em supplies in eg a ed ma ke ing chains
while he ee- ange, low-income, amily-scale poul-
y p oduc ion sys em is supplying local o niche
ma ke s.
T adi ional poul y ea ing is he mos commonly
used me hod o poul y p oduc ion in Togo because
i is less expensi e han mode n comme cial poul y
a ming o o he ypes o li es ock p oduc ion. i is
well-es ablished among smallholde s in u al Togo
due o low en y ba ie s and is conside ed an eco-
nomic ac i i y ha could be easily accessed e en by
he mos ulne able social s a a o he popula ion
(eg low-income, landless and emale a me s) (Fao,
2014). howe e , his sec o is cha ac e ized by low
p oduc i i y because i s p oduc ion po en ial is
inhe en ly low combined wi h poo en i onmen al
and eeding condi ions. losses a e usually due o dis-
appea ances, he and slaugh e because o he
ex ensi e na u e o his ype o b eeding. high mo -
ali y and slow g ow h o poul y a e he majo con-
s ain s o p oduc ion. The mos common mo ali y
causes a e diseases, p eda ion, ex e nal pa asi es and
acciden s. The majo i y o cons ain s in adi ional
poul y a ming a e ela ed o a m managemen
echniques.
in his con ex , and in ending o make adi ional
poul y a ming mo e p oduc i e and e icien o
enhance ood secu i y, di e si y income sou ces and
hus s eng hen he esilience o a me s o weal h
c ea ion and po e y alle ia ion, he in oduc ion o
iTTPF becomes c ucial. The imp o ed adi ional
poul y a ming di e s om ee- ange adi ional
poul y ea ing in se e al espec s. The imp o ed
poul y a ming is semi-in ensi e as he poul y bi ds
a e aised in an enclosu e wi h a well-buil habi a
called a semi-mode n o imp o ed adi ional poul y
housing. in addi ion, he bi d species and eed qual-
i y a e imp o ed, he b eeding equipmen is
semi-mode n and he hygiene and heal h ca e a e
pe iodic (Fao, 2014, 2015; So iadan e al., 2022,
2023; yada e al., 2013).
Since 2014, h ough he na ional P og am o
ag icul u al in es men o Food and nu i ional
Secu i y (PniaSan), and he ag icul u al Sec o
Suppo P ojec (PaSa), he go e nmen in Togo wi h
he help om he Fao and he inancial suppo
om he Wo ld Bank has been assis ing smallholde
a me s in u al a eas wi h he adop ion o imp o ed
Technology in T adi ional Poul y Fa ming (iTTPF) o
c ea e weal h, imp o e ood secu i y and alle ia e
po e y (So iadan e al., 2022, 2023). The iTTPF is a
comme cial ype o adi ional poul y a ming ha
di e s om ee- ange adi ional poul y ea ing in
e ms o imp o emen s in a m managemen , a m
equipmen , poul y housing, poul y eed and dis-
ease con ol. despi e he measu es aken by he go -
e nmen o make pa icipa ion in he p og am mo e
accessible o a me s, only 86 we e able o be
en olled in i in 2014. Since no all a me s pa ici-
pa ed in he p og am, he e is a need o ca ego ize
hem in o wo g oups, ha is, he ea ed g oup
(p og am bene icia ies) and he un ea ed g oup
(p og am non-bene icia ies).
Se e al p e ious s udies e e ed o any in e en-
ion p og am as ‘ ea men ’ (alem & Ruhinduka, 2020;
ca e e al., 2019; cole & Fe nando, 2021; gao e al.,
2020; Rubin, 1974). The e m ‘ ea men ’ e e s o
ea ly wo k in he medical ield ha ocused on de e -
mining he e icacy o ea men s. al hough i is no
cogenT Food & agRicUlTURe 3
he mos app op ia e e m, i is used in econome ics
o desc ibe public in e en ion, subsidy policy, social
assis ance p og am o implemen a ion o a de elop-
men p og am ha is being e alua ed. Rubin’s (1974)
coun e ac ual amewo k, which has been adop ed
by many esea che s in s a is ics and econome ics,
including Rosenbaum and Rubin (1983), heckman
(1992, 1997), imbens and ang is (1994), ang is
e al. (1996), heckman e al. (1997), allows o he
de ini ion o a ious ea men e ec s ha may be o
in e es . once he ea men e ec is de ined, one
can s udy ways o consis en ly es ima e his e ec
(Woold idge, 2010). The li e a u e on ea men
e ec s begins wi h a coun e ac ual, whe e each
indi idual in he popula ion has an ou come wi h
and wi hou ea men . To ensu e an unbiased ea -
men e ec e alua ion, i is essen ial o iden i y he
ype o ea men based on he s ochas ic and
beha io al a ibu es o he popula ion. The e o e, o
apply he mos app op ia e impac e alua ion
me hod o an in e en ion p og am, he e is a need
o compa e he socioeconomic cha ac e is ics o
bene icia ies and non-bene icia ies o his p og am
be o e i s implemen a ion. The balanced socioeco-
nomic cha ac e is ics o bo h ea ed and un ea ed
g oups should, he e o e, be used as con ol a i-
ables o he impac e alua ion analysis o he p o-
g am. Fu he mo e, a de elopmen p og am is only
ele an i he po en ial ou comes o bene icia ies
di e signi ican ly om hose o non-bene icia ies
a e he p og am’s implemen a ion. Be o e conduc -
ing he impac e alua ion analysis, i is c i ical o
con i m he exis ence o a signi ican di e ence in
he po en ial ou comes o he wo g oups ( ea ed
and un ea ed) in he popula ion. no e ha , since
he in oduc ion and implemen a ion o iTTPF, he e
we e no impac assessmen s udies o e i y i he
iTTPF is deli e ing on i s in ended p omise o boos -
ing li elihoods and educing po e y. To he bes o
ou knowledge, his is he i s a emp o ill knowl-
edge gaps in e alua ing he impac o iTTPF adop-
ion on a me s’ po en ial ou comes in Togo.
The es o his a icle is o ganized as ollows.
Sec ion 2 highligh s he implemen a ion o iTTPF in
Togo. Sec ion 3 co e s ma e ials and me hods.
Resea ch indings a e p esen ed and discussed in
Sec ion 4. The conclusion and policy ecommenda-
ions a e ou lined in Sec ion 5.
2. Poul y alue chain in Togo
Since he Mapu o commi men s1 in 2003 (Benin &
yu, 2012), he comp ehensi e a ica ag icul u e
de elopmen P og am (caadP) has been a he
hea o many a ican go e nmen s’ e o s o accel-
e a e g ow h and educe po e y and hunge in
a ican coun ies h ough he a ican Union (aU)
and he new Pa ne ship o a ica’s de elopmen
(nePad). The economic communi y o Wes a ican
S a es’ Regional ag icul u al Policy (ecoWaS/
ecoWaP) was de eloped as a esul o caadP
implemen a ion in 2005 (Kola alli e al., 2012). Since
2010, Togo has been implemen ing he PniaSan
wi h assis ance om he Fao and he Wo ld Bank,
as pa o i s ag icul u al policy o sus ainable
de elopmen (So iadan e al., 2022, 2023). The
objec i e o PniaSan was o imp o e ood and
nu i ional secu i y, inc ease a me s’ income and
con ibu e o imp o ing ade balance and u al
people’s li ing condi ions h ough sus ainable de el-
opmen , wi h special a en ion paid o he poo es
and mos ulne able g oups (RoPPa, 2013;
Wo ld-Bank, 2017). PniaSan comp ised i e p oj-
ec s, including he PaSa. The main goal o PaSa
was o inc ease he p oduc i i y and/o compe i-
i eness o s a egic ood c ops, expo c ops and
li es ock a ming and o p omo e an en i onmen
conduci e o sus ainable ag icul u al de elopmen .
in his ega d, a sub-componen o PaSa was
aimed a e i ing he li es ock sub-sec o , he spe-
ci ic objec i e o which was o p o ide sho - e m
eme gency assis ance o ehabili a e poul y and
small uminan p oduc ion, assis small li es ock
a me s o de elop and imp o e li es ock a ming
in u al a eas o weal h c ea ion, ood secu i y and
po e y educ ion (So iadan e al., 2022, 2023). The
go e nmen , h ough his sub-componen o PaSa,
has made a ailable o all a me s in u al a eas a
echnical package o acili a e he adop ion o
iTTPF. This echnical package includes he cons uc-
ion o semi-mode n poul y houses (imp o ed
poul y a ms), he p o ision o echnical poul y
ea ing equipmen , aining on he composi ion o
balanced and quali y eed a lowe cos , p ophy-
laxis, accina ion o poul y, cleaning and hygiene
o poul y a ms, heal h ca e, e c. The cos (pe
a me ) o he echnical package is abou US$ 6364.
Th ough PaSa, he go e nmen , wi h help om
Fao and inancial suppo om he Wo ld Bank,
subsidized he cos o he acquisi ion o he ech-
nical package a he le el o 90%, while a me s
we e equi ed o con ibu e he emaining 10%,
which is abou US$ 636 pe a me . This coun e -
pa o indi idual con ibu ion om a me s in e -
es ed in PaSa could be paid in cash o in kind.
Mos a me s op o in-kind con ibu ions, h ough
4 M. K. SoViadan eTal.
land used as a si e o he implemen a ion o
semi-in ensi e o imp o ed poul y a ms. Fa me s
who we e awa e o he bene i s o PaSa in e ms
o ood secu i y, weal h c ea ion and po e y alle-
ia ion in u al a eas, bu who lacked bo h inancial
capaci y and land o co e hei 10% coun e pa ,
ha e aken ou loans om inancial ins i u ions o
pa icipa e in PaSa o he adop ion o iTTPF
(So iadan e al., 2022, 2023).
3. Ma e ials and me hods
3.1. Ag icul u al echnological change
Since s ic geog aphical limi s exis on ho izon al
expansion (known as ex ensi e ma gin g ow h),
ag icul u al p oduc ion g ow h will need o come
mainly om e ical expansion (known as in ensi e
ma gin g ow h) (Besedeš & P usa, 2011; Black, 1929;
chaney, 2008; Mamo e al., 2019). ag icul u al
g ow h conce ns ha e ocused on echnological
and ins i u ional inno a ions ha can inc ease o al
ac o p oduc i i y (TFP) (Bachewe e al., 2018; dias
a ila & e enson, 2010; el ghak e al., 2020; Fao,
2017; Fuglie e al., 2020; gong, 2020). Fo ag icul-
u al echnology o be used and ha e an impac on
ag icul u al p oduc ion g ow h, i mus mee h ee
equi emen s: gene a ion, adop ion and di usion
(de Jan y, 1973; Fos e & Rosenzweig, 1995, 2010;
galla do & Saue , 2018; gollin e al., 2005;
Mag ude , 2018).
The echnology mus be gene a ed, socially p o i -
able and locally a ailable. i should be adop ed by
indi idual a me s o whom i is app op ia e. i has
o di use among a me s, gene a ing pa ial and
gene al equilib ium e ec s on p ices and on he wel-
a e o bo h p oduce s and consume s (Fede e al.,
1985; Fede & Umali, 1993; lee, 2005). The ag icul-
u al echnology may consis o an o e all change in
he ag icul u al p oduc ion unc ion, as seen in he
Solow model, whe e a gain in TFP will esul in an
inc ease in ou pu o a ce ain combina ion o
inpu s, o an equi alen educ ion o inpu cos s o
achie e a gi en ou pu le el (Bachewe e al., 2018;
e enson & Fuglie, 2010). Mo e pa icula ly, hough,
he echnology is in ended o achie e speci ic gains
ha will be o in e es o he adop e wi h a ious
ad an ages o cos s o o he s as a consequence o
adop ion (Balak ishnan e al., 1996; Kuan & chau,
2001; Robe son & ga ignon, 1986). once he ech-
nology is a ailable, i has o be adop ed by a me s
o ha e an impac on ag icul u al p oduc ion and
p oduc i i y.
3.2. Econome ic me hods o impac e alua ion
The eal hu dle o an impac assessmen s udy is
de e mining wha migh ha e occu ed o bene icia-
ies wi hou he implemen a ion o he p og am
(Rubin, 1974). in he absence o any p og am o p oj-
ec , a bene icia y’s po en ial ou come would be i s
coun e ac ual. The coun e ac ual ou come ame-
wo k can be applied in si ua ions whe e each a me
in he popula ion comes up wi h wo possible po en-
ial ou comes, such as adop ing o no adop ing iTTPF.
a p og am in e en ion, such as he implemen a ion
o iTTPF, aims o s eng hen ood secu i y, inc eases
income le els and imp o es he well-being o he a -
ge ed bene icia ies. no e ha i is no possible o
d aw any conclusions abou he impac o he p o-
g am on bene icia ies’ po en ial ou comes based on a
single obse a ion a e he ea men . The p oblem
wi h assessmen is ha , while he impac e alua ion
o he p og am can only be uly assessed by compa -
ing ac ual and coun e ac ual po en ial ou comes, he
coun e ac ual canno be obse ed (heckman &
Vy lacil, 2001; Khandke e al., 2009). i he e is no
in o ma ion on he coun e ac ual, hen he mos
app op ia e op ion is o compa e he po en ial esul s
o ea ed pa icipan s o indi iduals o hose o com-
pa ison o an un ea ed g oup ha has no ecei ed
ea men (Rubin, 1974). By doing his, one ies o
selec a subpopula ion o compa ison g oup ha is
highly compa able o he ea ed g oup, in such a
way ha hose being ea ed would ha e had po en-
ial esul s simila o hose in he un ea ed g oup i
ea men had no been adminis e ed. Finding a good
compa ison g oup is c i ical o a success ul impac
e alua ion. equa ion
( )1
illus a es he undamen al
e alua ion p oblem o compa ing po en ial ou comes
Y
ac oss ea ed and un ea ed indi iduals
i
(heckman
& Vy lacil, 2001, 2005; Khandke e al., 2009)
YXT
ii i
= ++
α βε
i (1)
T
is a dicho omous a iable which is
1
o pa icipan s
in he p og am o
0
o he wise;
X
ep esen s a se o
obse able socioeconomic cha ac e is ics speci ic o
indi idual
i
; and
ε
is a s ochas ic e o e m ep esen -
ing non-obse ed ac o s a ec ing
Y
. equa ion
( )1
cap-
u es a s anda d app oach in impac assessmen
es ima ing he p og am’s di ec e ec T
()
on po en ial
ou comes Y
()
. The issue wi h es ima ing equa ion
( )1
is
ha he assignmen in o he ea men migh no
always be andom due o he in en ional placemen o
he p og am as well as sel -selec ion in he p og am
(Khandke e al., 2009). in o he wo ds, p og ams a e
cogenT Food & agRicUlTURe 5
loca ed based on he needs o popula ions and indi-
iduals, who hen sel -selec gi en p og am se -up as
well as placemen . The au o-selec ion p ocess could be
associa ed wi h obse ed cha ac e is ics as well as ac-
o s ha ha e no been obse ed, o bo h (Rosenbaum
& Rubin, 1983). When unobse ed a iables a e in e-
g a ed, he s ochas ic e o e m (
ε
) in es ima ed
equa ion
( )1
will include a iables ha a e also in e e-
la ed wi h he dicho omous ea men a iable (
T
). in
equa ion
( )1
, such unobse able ac o s canno be
measu ed and hus canno be accoun ed o , esul ing
in non-obse ed selec ion bias. in o he wo ds, i he
co a iance be ween he ea men
()
T and he s ochas-
ic e o e m
()
ε
is di e en om ze o, ha is,
Co T
(,)
ε
≠0
, hen his iola es an impo an o dina y
leas squa es (olS) assump ion, necessa y o ob ain
unbiased es ima es. as a esul , he co ela ion o e
ime be ween
()
T and
()
ε
biases o he es ima es in
equa ion
( )1
, pa icula ly he es ima e o
()
β
, which is
he causal e ec o he ea men on po en ial ou -
comes (
Y
). The main challenge o a obus impac
e alua ion s udy is he e o e o de elop echniques
and me hods o elimina ing o aking in o accoun
he selec ion bias (Khandke e al., 2009; So iadan
e al., 2022).
Se e al di e en me hods can be used in impac
e alua ion heo y o add ess he undamen al ques-
ion o he missing coun e ac ual. each o hese
me hods ca ies i s assump ions abou he na u e o
po en ial selec ion bias in p og am a ge ing and
pa icipa ion, and he assump ions a e c ucial o
de eloping he app op ia e model o de e mine p o-
g am impac s (heckman & Vy lacil, 2001, 2005;
Khandke e al., 2009). Because in ou s udy, he da a
be o e and a e he implemen a ion o he iTTPF a e
a ailable o bo h ea ed and un ea ed g oups o
a me s, he double di e ences o di e ence-in-di e -
ences (dd) me hod unde he pa allel- end assump-
ion is he app op ia e impac assessmen echnique
o e alua e he impac o iTTPF adop ion on he
po en ial ou comes o a me s in Togo. dd me hods
assume ha unobse ed selec ion is p esen and ha
i is ime-in a ian . The ea men e ec is assessed
by aking he di e ence in po en ial ou comes ac oss
ea ed and un ea ed g oups o a me s be o e and
a e he in oduc ion and implemen a ion o iTTPF.
3.3. Empi ical speci ica ions
3.3.1. DD me hods o es ima ing
Y T T
i i i i
=++ + +
ββ β β µ
01 2 3 (2)
whe e
Y
i is he po en ial ou come;
β
3
is he es ima o
o he dd, he coe icien o he in e ac ion e m
be ween ime
and he ea men a iable
Ti
;
β
2
is
he ixed di e ence be ween he mean ou come al-
ues o he ea ed and un ea ed g oups in he
absence o any ea men ;
β
1
is he measu emen o
changes in esul s’ mean alues in he absence o
any ea men ;
β
0
is he cons an ; and
µ
i
is he s o-
chas ic e o e m. The a iables and
Ti
a e included
sepa a ely o ake in o accoun he po en ial e ec o
he passage o ime and an e ec om being
included in he ea ed g oup (a p io i, no ze o i
he ea men is no andom).
The es ima es o he coe icien s in his eg ession
lead o he ollowing esul s:
Y T T
i i i i
=++ + +
ββ β β µ
01 2 3
DD EY Y T EY Y T
i ii i ii
= −=
()
−
][
−=
()
10 10
10
(3)
DD
=
+++
−+
()
−
][
+−
[( )
( ) ( )]
ββββ
ββ ββ β
012 3
02 01 0
(4)
DD
= +−
][
ββ β
31 1
(5)
DD =
β
3
The dd equa ion can also be ew i en as ollows:
Y ime T ea men
ime T ea men
i
i
=++
+
()
+
ββ β
βµ
01 2
3* (6)
ime =0
be o e he ea men and
ime =1
a e he
ea men
T ea men =0
o he un ea ed g oup and
T ea men =1
o he ea ed g oup
The dd es ima e is ob ained ollowing hese
i e a ions:
E Y ime T ea men
i = =
()
=+++
11
012 3
,
ββββ
(7)
E Y ime T ea men
i = =
()
= +
01
02
,
ββ
(8)
E Y ime T ea men
i = =
()
= +
10
01
,
ββ
(9)
E Y ime T ea men
i = =
()
=
00
0
,
β
(10)
now de ine:
6 M. K. SoViadan eTal.
EY ime T ea men
EY ime ea men D
i
i
11
01
11
,
,
3
(11)
EY ime T ea men
EY ime ea men
D
i
i
10
00
21
,
,
(12)
The e o e
DD D D=−=
12 3
β
(13)
3.3.2. Pa allel ends assump ion
β
3
is he dd es ima e and hus he eal impac o
imp o ed echnology adop ion in adi ional poul y
a ming on he po en ial ou comes o a me s in
Togo.
β
3
conce ns p oduc ion, p oduc i i y, u no e
and p o i .2 The dd me hod is based on he pa allel-
ends assump ion which s a es ha endogenei y
and unobse ed he e ogenei y in p og am pa icipa-
ion may be p esen bu ha such ac o s a e
ime-in a ian . This impac e alua ion s udy is he e-
o e based on he ollowing equi emen s: (i) he
selec ion bias is in a ian o e ime ha is changes
in po en ial ou come a iables due o he in e en-
ion a e no a unc ion o he ini ial condi ions ha
in luenced p og am pa icipa ion, (ii) he e we e no
o he p og ams in oduced concu en ly, and no
ime-pe sis en shocks and (iii) he po en ial ou -
comes would no ha e been di e en o e ime in
he ea ed g oup compa ed o he un ea ed g oup
i he p og am had no been in oduced (please e e
o he g aphical esul s o he pa allel ends assump-
ions es s in he appendix).
3.4. S udy a ea and da a collec ion
This s udy adop ed a a m household su ey design.
The su ey was conduc ed be ween July and oc obe
2020 in he i e egions o Togo (see Figu e 1).
documen a ion and ield isi s allowed us o iden i y
he di e en dis ic s and locali ies o he i e majo
u al a eas in ol ed in his in es iga ion. The a ge
popula ion size ep esen ed he o al numbe o
a me s in Togo. The sample size o his s udy was
de e mined using Fellegi’s (2003) sampling echnique
wi h a 95% con idence le el. F om a popula ion o
3,738,430 a me s, 400 a me s we e hen selec ed as
he co e sample o his s udy. Baseline da a collec ed
om he Minis y o ag icul u e helped in iden i ying
86 a me s who bene i ed in 2014 om a subsidy o
he adop ion o iTTPF. This g an was awa ded o
hem h ough PniaSan and PaSa implemen ed by
he go e nmen in Togo ( he Minis y o ag icul u e)
wi h help om Fao and inancial suppo om he
Wo ld Bank in which hey olun a ily pa icipa ed.
The o al sample o 400 esponden s was b oken
down by egion acco ding o he weigh o each
egion in he na ional ag icul u al popula ion.
The 86 a me s exposed o iTTPF we e dis ibu ed in
he i e egions o he coun y and by dis ic . They
we e he e o e conside ed as he bene icia ies and we e
pa o he o e all sample. Th ee hund ed and ou een
(314) non-bene icia y a me s, andomly selec ed om
he popula ion using a baseline da ase , cons i u ed
he es o he sample and we e also s a i ied acco d-
ing o he weigh and dis ibu ion o a me s subsidized
by he dis ic . Key socioeconomic a iables, ins i u-
ional cha ac e is ics, li es ock owne ship, p oduc ion
cos s, income and expendi u e we e all collec ed.
on Sep embe 20, 2017, his s udy ecei ed
app o al and inancial suppo om he ge man
academic exchange Se ice (daad) o i s imple-
men a ion. The daad is a join o ganiza ion o he
uni e si ies and o he ins i u ions o highe educa-
ion in he Fede al Republic o ge many. Suppo ed
om public unds, he daad p omo es in e na ional
academic coope a ion, especially h ough he
exchange o s uden s and academics. This esea ch
p ojec has been unded by he daad unde he
e e ence numbe s 57377171, 57423580 and
57520399. a he beginning o he s udy, he
esea ch p oposal was submi ed o he daad
selec ion commi ee in ge many comp ising a panel
o independen academics o conside a ion and
app o al. The commi ee was anspa en in i s
unc ioning and was independen o he esea ch-
e s, he sponso s and any o he s akeholde s. Be o e
ieldwo k and da a collec ion om esponden s in
Togo, au ho iza ion was ob ained om he Minis y
o ag icul u e, li es ock and Ru al de elopmen
(MaedR) h ough i s ad iso y and Technical Suppo
ins i u e (icaT), unde e e ence numbe 0325/icaT/
dRh/dciFS. The a icle does no include any animal
s udies conduc ed by any o he au ho s. We did
no collec any con iden ial o p i a e in o ma ion
abou he a me s. all indi idual pa icipan s in he
su ey p o ided e bal consen o be in e iewed
a e being in o med abou he pu pose o he
s udy. Upon he s udy’s comple ion, he esea che s
submi ed a inal epo o he daad, encapsula ing
a summa y o he s udy’s indings, conclusion and
ecommenda ions.
cogenT Food & agRicUlTURe 7
a e pe o ming he s a is ical and econome ic
analyses, he - es esul s a e p esen ed in Table 2,
he a e age impac esul s a e shown in Table 3, and
Tables 4, 5, 6 and 7 con ain he he e ogeneous
impac esul s.
4. Resul s and discussions
4.1. Desc ip i e s a is ics
Table 1 compa es he di e en echnology compo-
nen s adop ed by ea ed and un ea ed a me s in
Figu e 1. Map o he s udy a ea ( ogo)
Sou ce: Au ho ’s own design
8 M. K. SoViadan eTal.
Table 4. es ima es o he e ogeneous impac con olling o
he amoun o subsidy ecei ed by p og am bene icia ies
Po en ial ou comes
He e ogeneous impac e alua ion
di e ence-in-di e ences
S anda d g an Sub-s anda d g an
loss a e o poul y −0.61*** −0.63***
(0.0192) (0.0234)
Ha ching a e o eggs 0.30*** 0.26***
(0.0182) (0.0221)
Annual sale o poul y 0.0192*** 0.0282***
(0.0012) (0.0023)
u no e 0.1610*** 0.3206***
(0.0102) (0.0416)
P o i 0.0922*** 0.1862***
(0.0062) (0.0250)
No e: S anda d e o s a e in pa en heses. Annual sale o poul y, u n-
o e and p o i a e es ima ed a he 10,000 h scale.
Sou ce: Au ho s’ compu a ion based on ield da a.
***S a is ical signi icance a he 1% le el.
hei espec i e poul y a ming sys ems a e p o-
g am implemen a ion. Table 2 shows he p- alues o
S uden ’s - es s on he po en ial ou come a iables
be o e and i e yea s a e he implemen a ion o he
p og am. excep o he p- alue o poul y loss a e
be o e p og am implemen a ion, all he emaining
a e less han 1%. These indings sugges ha a me s
we e no assigned o he p og am andomly. Resul s
also indica e ha a e i e yea s o he implemen a-
ion o he p og am, he e is a signi ican di e ence
be ween he means o po en ial ou comes a iables
such as poul y loss a e, ha ching a e o eggs, a m
size, annual sale o poul y, u no e and p o i o
bo h he ea ed and un ea ed g oups o a me s.
The impac e alua ion o he adop ion o iTTPF on
Table 3. es ima es o he a e age impac o he p og am
Po en ial ou comes
di e ence-in-di e ences
(A e )
loss a e o poul y −0.62***
(0.0156)
Ha ching a e o eggs 0.28***
(0.0144)
Annual sale o poul y 0.0228***
(0.0017)
u no e 0.2241***
(0.0277)
P o i 0.1294***
(0.0166)
No es: S anda d e o s a e in pa en heses. A e : a e age ea men
e ec on he ea ed. Annual sale o poul y, u no e and p o i a e
es ima ed a he 10,000 h scale.
Sou ce: Au ho s’ compu a ion based on ield da a.
***S a is ical signi icance a he 1% le el.
Table 2. S uden es ( - es ) on po en ial ou comes o bo h he ea ed and un ea ed g oups o a me s be o e and i e yea s
a e he implemen a ion o he p og am
Po en ial ou comes
Be o e he p og am A e he p og am
S uden es ( - es ) S uden es ( - es )
loss a e o poul y 0.55 56.38***
Ha ching a e o eggs 3.30*** −22.93***
Fa m size −12.57*** −12.12***
Annual sale o poul y −12.33*** −14.47***
u no e −11.23*** −8.54***
P o i −11.24*** −8.37***
Sou ce: Au ho s’ compu a ion based on ield da a.
***S a is ical signi icance a he 1% le el.
Table 1. Compa ison o di e en echnology componen s among he ea ed and un ea ed a me s
P og am
poul y
ca ego ies
echnology componen s
un ea ed a me s ea ed a me s
adi ional poul y a ming imp o ed adi ional poul y a ming
Poul y a ming sys ems Smallholde and backya d sys ems Semi-in ensi e sys ems
Chickens
guinea owl
ducks
u keys
Poul y a m F ee- ange ea ing wi h o wi hou
adi ional poul y do mi o ies
Semi-mode n poul y housing ea u ing i e
compa men s equipped o bo h indoo and ou doo
managemen p ac ices
Poul y b eeds local o indigenous poul y b eeds local and imp o ed local poul y b eeds
B eeding p o ocol adi ional b eeding me hods based on
local knowledge and cul u al
p ac ices
Semi-mode n b eeding me hods, in eg a ing mode n,
comme cially o ien ed app oaches wi h adi ional
knowledge
Poul y eed a ion locally a ailable eed esou ces Balanced poul y eed a ion a ailable a lowe cos
B eeding equipmen adi ional poul y a ming equipmen Semi-mode n equipmen such as eede s, wa e e s,
nes ing boxes, incuba o s, ha che ies, b oode s, scales,
e c.
Heal h managemen and
disease con ol
adi ional heal h managemen Mode n heal h managemen : hygiene p ac ices,
p ophylaxes and accina ion p o ocols
incuba ion na u al incuba ion na u al and a i icial incuba ion using incuba o s,
ha che ies, and b oode s
Ad iso y and echnical
suppo se ices
no o in equen ad iso y and echnical
suppo se ices
Comp ehensi e ad iso y and echnical suppo se ices,
including aining, capaci y building and expe
moni o ing and e alua ion
Financial esou ces Ve y low equi y limi ed wo king capi al
Sou ce: Au ho s’ concep ualiza ion based on ield da a.
cogenT Food & agRicUlTURe 15
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Appendix: G aphical esul s o pa allel ends assump ions es s on po en ial ou comes o
ea ed and un ea ed g oups o a me s be o e and a e ea men
