Nawaz, Nishad; Gajende an, Vijayakuma ; Manoha an, Madhy adany; Pa ayi am,
Sa yana ayana
A icle
Disen angling he ela ionship be ween ans o ma ional leade ship
and wo k engagemen : Employee empowe men as a media o and
wo k expe ience and gende as mode a o s
Cogen Business & Managemen
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Taylo & F ancis G oup
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Nawaz, Nishad; Gajende an, Vijayakuma ; Manoha an, Madhy adany; Pa ayi am,
Sa yana ayana (2024) : Disen angling he ela ionship be ween ans o ma ional leade ship and
wo k engagemen : Employee empowe men as a media o and wo k expe ience and gende as
mode a o s, Cogen Business & Managemen , ISSN 2331-1975, Taylo & F ancis, Abingdon, Vol. 11,
Iss. 1, pp. 1-27,
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Disen angling he ela ionship be ween
ans o ma ional leade ship and wo k
engagemen : Employee empowe men as a
media o and wo k expe ience and gende as
mode a o s
Nishad Nawaz, Vijayakuma Gajende an, Madhy adany Manoha an &
Sa yana ayana Pa ayi am
To ci e his a icle: Nishad Nawaz, Vijayakuma Gajende an, Madhy adany Manoha an &
Sa yana ayana Pa ayi am (2024) Disen angling he ela ionship be ween ans o ma ional
leade ship and wo k engagemen : Employee empowe men as a media o and wo k
expe ience and gende as mode a o s, Cogen Business & Managemen , 11:1, 2291851, DOI:
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MANAGEMENT | RESEARCH ARTICLE
Disen angling he ela ionship be ween
ans o ma ional leade ship and wo k
engagemen : Employee empowe men as
a media o and wo k expe ience and gende as
mode a o s
Nishad Nawaz
1
*, Vijayakuma Gajende an
2
, Madhy adany Manoha an
3
and
Sa yana ayana Pa ayi am
4
Abs ac : The p esen s udy in es iga es he ela ionship be ween ans o ma ional
leade ship (TL) and wo k engagemen (WE). A e he de as a ing e ec s o he
ecen ly hi global pandemic, o ganiza ions a emp ed o employ esilien s a egies
as u na ound s a egies o gain he los businesses. This s udy was conduc ed
agains he backd op o he new no mal whe ein ans o ma ional leade s played
a signi ican ole in encou aging employee empowe men ha enhances WE. In
a de eloping na ion (India) con ex , a concep ual model was de eloped and es ed
using he da a collec ed om 256 employees wo king in he in o ma ion echnology
(IT) sec o in he sou he n pa o India. A e checking he psychome ic p ope ies
using he s uc u al equa ion modelling (Lis el package), he da a we e analyzed
using Hayes’s PROCESS mac os. The indings suppo (i) a posi i e associa ion o TL
wi h WE and employee empowe men , (ii) employee empowe men is a signi ican
p edic o o WE, and (iii) employee engagemen media ed he ela ionship be ween
TL and WE. Resul s also sugges ha (i) wo k expe ience mode a ed he ela ionship
be ween TL and WE, and (ii) gende mode a es he ela ionship be ween TL and
employee empowe men . The implica ions o leade ship heo y and p ac ice a e
discussed.
Nishad Nawaz
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
D . Nishad Nawaz is a dis inguished academician and p oli ic esea che wi h ocus on a i icial
in elligence [AI] & human esou ce in o ma ion sys em, and human esou ce managemen . He is
also an accomplished w i e , edi o , and ad ise wi h ex ensi e expe ience in eaching and esea ch.
D Nishad Nawaz is cu en ly wo king as an Associa e P o esso , Depa men o Business Managemen ,
College o Business Adminis a ion, Kingdom Uni e si y, Bah ain. He se ed as a Gues Edi o , Edi o ial
Boa d Membe and called special issues o well epu ed jou nals. He published e y good numbe o
pape s in well p es igious jou nals and p esen ed pape s in con e ences ac oss he Globe. He has
conduc ed con e ences, semina s and execu i e p og ams and he is a membe in a ious p o essional
associa ions and ellow o HEA UK.
Nawaz e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2024), 11: 2291851
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2023.2291851
Page 1 o 27
Recei ed: 17 July 2023
Accep ed: 01 Decembe 2023
*Co esponding au ho : Nishad
Nawaz, Depa men o Business
Managemen , College o Business
Adminis a ion, Kingdom Uni e si y,
Building 287, Road 3903, Block 939,
Ri a, Kingdom o Bah ain
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
Re iewing edi o :
Pablo Ruiz, Uni e sidad de Cas illa-
La Mancha, Spain
Addi ional in o ma ion is a ailable a
he end o he a icle
© 2023 The Au ho (s). Published by In o ma UK Limi ed, ading as Taylo & F ancis G oup.
This is an Open Access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion
License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu-
ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. The e ms on
which his a icle has been published allow he pos ing o he Accep ed Manusc ip in
a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
Subjec s: Pe sonnel Selec ion, Assessmen , and Human Resou ce Managemen ; Human
Resou ce Managemen
Keywo ds: ans o ma ional leade ship; employee empowe men ; wo k engagemen ; wo k
expe ience; India
1. In oduc ion
The seminal wo k o Bass (1985) on “ ans o ma ional leade ship” has a ac ed he a en ion o
esea che s and p ac i ione s in o ganiza ional beha io and pe sonnel psychology (Alessa, 2021;
B ee aa & Zache , 2019; Fa ahnak e al., 2020, Podsako e al., 1990; Si agnanam e al., 2022;
Sułkowski e al., 2020). Moun ing empi ical e idence sugges s ha he success o any o ganiza ion
la gely depends on he abili y o he leade s o mo i a e employees o pe o m a hei bes
(D’Souza e al., 2022; Fayda-Kinik, 2022; Knigh e al., 2017). T ans o ma ional leade s ha e he
abili y o ace challenging si ua ions and e ec i ely manage c ises (Tengi e al., 2017).
T ans o ma ional leade s inspi e he employees, build us and encou age inno a i e ideas, and
b ing ans o ma ion in employees o inc ease p oduc i i y and pe o mance (Bass, 1985;
B ee aa & Zache , 2019; Masa’deh e al., 2016; Tims e al., 2011).
The ecen ly hi global pandemic has imposed se e al challenges on o ganiza ions in a ious
sec o s wo ldwide (I shad e al., 2021; Lonska e al., 2021; Zieba & Bongio anni, 2022). The
pandemic also esul ed in new p ac ices such as wo king om home, web-based eaching and
ins uc ions, and i ual mee ings (A n z e al., 2020; K ame & K ame , 2020). These changes-
imposed wo k p essu es on he employees wo king in he in o ma ion echnology (IT) sec o
because o ganiza ions depend on IT se ices. Fo example, in highe educa ional ins i u ions, an
o e nigh mo e o web-based ins uc ion exe ed emendous p essu e on he employees in he IT
sec o (Anjani e al., 2020; Sa pa hy e al., 2021). In addi ion, especially in a de eloping coun y
(India), employees unde go s ess o mee he unexpec ed and unp eceden ed demands o he job
(Cha e jee & Shukla, 2020).
This s udy aims o un a el how TL exhibi ed in o ganiza ions helps imp o e WE in he con ex o
a de eloping coun y, India. Recen s udies epo ed ha ans o ma ional leade s play a c ucial
ole in dealing wi h s ess ul si ua ions, such as he global pandemic, and inc ease p oduc i i y and
pe o mance (Balak ishnan e al., 2022; Mush aque e al., 2022). Fo example, employees in he IT
sec o helped acul y membe s in highe educa ional ins i u ions o mee he changing needs o
web-based ins uc ion (Mas y-He zalah & Do -Haim, 2022; Si agnanam e al., 2022). In addi ion,
ans o ma ional leade s can ge he pe o mance o employees beyond expec a ions and mo i-
a e hem o each psychological (Thomas & Vel house, 1990). Ex an esea ch on TL epo ed
posi i e ou comes: job sa is ac ion, employee commi men , pe o mance, and o ganiza ional
ci izenship beha io (Buil e al., 2019; Fa ahnak e al., 2020; Somali & Mo wali, 2018; Yang e al.,
2019).
While mos s udies on he e ec i eness o TL we e conduc ed in he wes e n wo ld, e lec ions
on de eloping coun ies a e ela i ely spa se, especially in he con ex o employees wo king in he
IT sec o (Jnaneswa & Ranji , 2020; Rajagopalan e al., 2022; Usman e al., 2021). This s udy aims
o b idge he gap by in es iga ing how ans o ma ional leade s in luence employees o engage a
wo k du ing he new no mal pos -pandemic si ua ion cha ac e ized by unp eceden ed wo kplace
changes. Building on he p e ious li e a u e, his s udy inco po a es empowe men as a linkage
be ween TL and WE in employees in he IT sec o in India. Since employees’ wo k expe ience plays
a i al ole in in luencing he e ec o TL on WE, his esea ch in es iga es he ela ionships
be ween TL, empowe men , WE, gende , and wo k expe ience. This esea ch a emp s o add ess
he ollowing esea ch ques ions (RQs):
Nawaz e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2024), 11: 2291851
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2023.2291851
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RQ1: How does empowe men media es he ela ionship be ween ans o ma ional leade ship
and WE?
RQ2: How does wo k expe ience mode a e he ela ionship be ween TL and WE?
RQ3: How does gende mode a es he ela ionship be ween ans o ma ional leade ship and
empowe men ?
An o e a ching concep ual model es ed in his s udy makes se e al signi ican con ibu ions o
leade ship and human esou ce de elopmen li e a u e:
(1) TL, as a p ecu so o wo king engagemen , especially du ing he pos -pandemic pe iod, adds
o he g owing body o esea ch in leade ship.
(2) This esea ch unde sco es he impo ance o employee empowe men in enhancing WE. I is
documen ed in his s udy ha TL, in addi ion o he di ec e ec , has an indi ec impac
h ough empowe men .
(3) The indings om his s udy indica e ha wo k expe ience plays a i al ole in s eng hening
he ela ionship be ween TL and WE.
(4) Gende di e ences in he ela ionship be ween TL and empowe men a e highligh ed in his
esea ch. To sum up, he concep ual model de eloped and es ed in he con ex o employ-
ees in he in o ma ion echnology (IT) sec o , pa icula ly in a de eloping coun y, India, is
a pi o al con ibu ion.
(5) Conside ing he pa adigma ic shi in he wo k cul u e in many o ganiza ions du ing he
pos -pandemic pe iod (labeled as he “new no mal”), his esea ch adds o a limi ed numbe
o s udies a ailable.
The es o he pape is o ganized as ollows. Sec ion 2 co e s he heo e ical backg ound and
hypo heses de elopmen based on he li e a u e e iew. Sec ion 3 deals wi h he me hodology,
ollowed by an analysis in sec ion 4. Sec ion 5 co e s he discussion sec ion ha includes he
heo e ical and p ac ical implica ions, limi a ions, sugges ions o u u e esea ch, and conclusion.
2. Theo e ical backg ound and hypo heses de elopmen
The Full Range Leade ship (FRLT) (Bu ns, 1978) and Job Demands—Resou ces (JD-R) (Bakke &
Deme ou i, 2007a; Deme ou i e al., 2001) p o ide he heo e ical unde pinning o his esea ch.
Du ing he pas h ee decades, he FRLT has domina ed he li e a u e on wo kplace leade ship
(Bass & A olio, 1994; Lo d e al., 2017). This leade -cen e ed concep iews wo k adminis a o s as
ac o s who can in luence business esul s (A olio e al., 1999; Judge & Piccolo, 2004). FRLT s a es
supe iso y beha io s a e i al in in luencing employees o supe io pe o mance. Th ee me a-
ca ego ies o leade ship s yles— ansac ional, ans o ma ional, and passi e, ha e been ad anced
by (De ue e al., 2011).
Mul iple esea che s no e ha supe iso s’ ans o ma ional and, o a lesse ex en , ansac-
ional leade ship s yles con ibu e o subo dina es’ in ended wo k ou comes, such as a o able
mindse s and pe o mance, whe eas an ine s ance seems de imen al (Judge & Piccolo, 2004;
Wang e al., 2011). By compa ing he wo leade ship s yles— ans o ma ional and ansac ional,
he ea ly schola s a gued ha ans o ma ional leade ship is mo e e ec i e a achie ing desi ed
o ganiza ional esul s. T ans o ma ional leade s mo i a e employees o wo k o hei ulles
po en ial and con ibu e o achie ing goals e ec i ely (Bass, 1985; Shami e al., 1993). Digging
up he li e a u e, we ind ha among se e al heo ies on leade ship ( ai , beha io al, si ua-
ional), and se an leade ship (Ruiz-Palomino e al., 2023), one o he con empo a y heo ies
widely discussed is “TL” (Bass, 1985). O ganiza ions emb ace ans o ma ional leade s because
hey mo i a e and encou age employees o pe o m beyond expec a ions (Howell & A olio,
1993). Li e a u e hea ily documen ed he posi i e associa ion o TL wi h pe o mance (Ha e &
Nawaz e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2024), 11: 2291851
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2023.2291851
Page 3 o 27
Bass, 1988; Zoha , 2002) and employee commi men (Fe ne e al., 2015). TL is empi ically ound
o be nega i ely associa ed wi h s ess, bu nou , and u no e in en ions (Bycio e al., 1995;
Rüsch & Co igan, 2002).
JD-R (Bakke e al., 2001; Deme ou i e al., 2001) is ano he heo e ical pla o m on which his
s udy is based. Acco ding o he model, s ess and bu nou inc ease when job demands a e high,
and employmen esou ces/posi i es a e low. In con as , many posi i e aspec s o he wo kplace
can mi iga e he consequences o high job demands. The JD-R model iden i ies wo b oad ca e-
go ies o job cha ac e is ics—job demands and esou ces. Job demands engage psychological,
physical, social, and o ganiza ional cha ac e is ics ha need sus ained physical e o (Deme ou i
e al., 2001). Fo ins ance, a hea y bu den is emo ionally axing in e ac ions wi h clien s. Job
equi emen s abso b e o and ene gy, consequen ly a ec ing employee heal h and con ibu ing
o consequences such as bu nou , which is a heal h des uc ion de elopmen (Schau eli & Bakke ,
2004). In con as , job esou ces a e he physical, psychological, social, and o ganiza ional aspec s
o he job ha assis in achie ing wo k pu poses, educing job demands, o inspi ing pe sonal
g ow h, lea ning, and g ow h (Bakke & Deme ou i, 2007a). Examples include job au onomy, social
suppo , sugges ions, and ecogni ion om o he s. Mo i a ion is ini ia ed by occupa ional
esou ces (Schau eli & Bakke , 2004). They sa is y undamen al psychological equi emen s like
independence, connec ion, and abili y. In insic and ex insic mo i a ion encou age g ea e wo k
engagemen , o ganiza ional commi men , sa is ac ion, and achie emen (Bakke & Deme ou i,
2017). The ea lie esea che s con i med ha he JD-R model has mainly con i med ha a ious
job demands a e op imis ically ela ed o bu nou while di e se job esou ces a e ela ed o
engagemen (C aw o d e al., 2010; Halbesleben, 2010; Nah gang e al., 2011). Da a is also building
o a gue o he con en ions ha job esou ces ha e a p o ec i e ole in mi iga ing he ad e se
e ec s o job demands on wo ke esul s (Bakke & Deme ou i, 2017; Xan hopoulou e al., 2007)
and hold supe io salience unde condi ions o ele a ed job demands (Bakke & Deme ou i, 2007a).
In sum, o ganiza ions p o ide job esou ces (physical, social, psychological, and o ganiza ional
esou ces) o employees o comple e hei wo k goals. O ganiza ions also c ea e job demands ( he
physical, social, and psychological e o s and ene gy) equi ed om he employees o comple e
he asks (Bakke & Deme ou i, 2007a). To p omo e a iendly wo k en i onmen , i is essen ial o
main ain he p ope balance be ween he demands and esou ces (Deme ou i & Bakke , 2011).
Using he FRLT and JD-R, we explain how TL posi i ely in luences WE. As leade ship s yle signi i-
can ly a ec s he deg ee o which leade s encou age employee empowe men , JD-R helps demon-
s a e he e ec i eness o TL in his p ocess.
2.1. Hypo heses de elopmen
2.1.1. The ela ionship be ween TL and WE
T ans o ma ional leade s inspi e employees and enhance hei sel -e icacy o each indi idual and
o ganiza ional goals (Fi zge ald & Schu e, 2010). The inspi a ional mo i a ion s emming om
ans o ma ional leade s enables employees o see he ision and con ibu e o hei ull po en ial.
Inspi a ional mo i a ion helps sha e he common goals o o ganiza ional e ec i eness, hus
assis ing employees in ocusing on wo k (D’Souza e al., 2022). T ans o ma ional leade s, h ough
indi idualized conside a ion, pay close a en ion o he needs and equi emen s o employees,
he eby in luencing hem o comple e gi en asks (A olio & Bass, 2001; Jung e al., 2009). I ealized
in luence makes ans o ma ional leade s ole models in he eyes o employees who, in u n,
belie e ha engaging in wo k is essen ial o pe o m e ec i ely (Ekaningsih, 2014; Han e al.,
2020). Th ough in ellec ual s imula ion, leade s encou age and p omo e he c ea i e ideas o
employees, which would mo i a e hem o engage in wo k wi h igo and dedica ion (A olio &
Bass, 2001; Jung e al., 2003; Schau eli e al., 2002).
Leade s mo i a e employees o be adap i e and encou age hem o ollow new echnical
app oaches o mee changing si ua ions (Khan e al., 2020; Ko janic e al., 2013).
Nawaz e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2024), 11: 2291851
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WE is a posi i e emo ional-mo i a ional s a e consis ing o h ee elemen s: igo , dedica ion,
and abso p ion (Schau eli e al., 2002). Vigo is ela ed o he ene gy le els, men al esilience, and
e o employees exe while pe o ming jobs. Dedica ion is associa ed wi h he since i y and
hones y o doing wo k and explains how en husias ic and inspi ed he employee is in pe o ming
gi en asks. Abso p ion, he hi d componen , is ela ed o he deg ee o which an employee is
ocused o imme sed in a job (Lopez-Za a e al., 2022). A ple ho a o esea ch p o ided moun ing
e idence ha TL is posi i ely associa ed wi h WE (B ee aa e al., 2014; Decuype e & Schau eli,
2020; Lai e al., 2020; Rahmadani & Schau eli, 2022). Fo example, in a s udy conduc ed among
530 ull- ime employees in Aus alia, he esea che s ound ha TL s yle posi i ely in luenced he
ollowe s’ a ibu es o WE (Ghadi e al., 2013). Fu he mo e, in a ecen s udy conduc ed among
261 police o ice s in China, he esea che s epo ed he posi i e impac o TL on WE (Meng e al.,
2022). Thus, based on abundan a ailable empi ical e idence, we o e he ollowing hypo hesis:
H1: TL is signi ican ly and posi i ely ela ed o WE
2.1.2. The ela ionship be ween TL and employee empowe men
In he managemen li e a u e, empowe men is adi ionally pe cei ed as delega ing au ho i y
and powe o subo dina es (Da , 2014). The no ion o empowe men builds on he well-g ounded
body o pa icipa i e managemen , job en ichmen , and aliena ion esea ch (Sp ei ze e al., 1997).
Though s a ed as a concep emphasizing sel -e icacy (Conge & Kanungo, 1988), he cogni i e
model o empowe men includes in insic mo i a ion (called psychological empowe men ) and
con ol o e esou ces o pe o m gi en asks, in addi ion o au ho i y (Thomas & Vel house, 1990).
Employee empowe men is a s a egy employed by o ganiza ions o p omo e employees’ decision-
making skills esul ing in employee de elopmen , TL, and employee empowe men . Ex an
esea ch epo ed ha TL s yle is posi i ely associa ed wi h empowe men and c ea i i y
(Öza alli, 2003; Wei e al., 2010). In a su ey conduc ed on 200 nu sing s a om hospi als in
Malaysia, Choi e al. (2016) epo ed ha TL esul ed in job sa is ac ion media ed h ough
employee empowe men . A ecen ly conduc ed ield s udy on 126 employees in a mul ina ional
echnological company e ealed ha empowe men mode a ed he ela ionship be ween TL and
inno a ion (G ošelj e al., 2021). Nea ly wo decades back, Ka k e al. (2003) empi ically demon-
s a ed ha he e ec o TL on employees could be ouched om empowe men . While in ellec-
ual simula ion enhances employees’ sel -e icacy and commi men , inspi a ional mo i a ion
enables employees o assume mo e signi ican esponsibili ies, accep accoun abili y, and engage
in decision-making. Thus, based on a ailable empi ical e idence, we o e he ollowing hypo hesis;
H2: TL is signi ican ly and posi i ely ela ed o employee empowe men .
2.1.3. The ela ionship be ween employee empowe men and WE
Fo o ganiza ions, e ec i e employee empowe men and engagemen is a c i ical conside a ion as
i leads o a high o ganiza ional pe o mance ha is measu able by posi i e inancial pe o mance
(Al es e al., 2013). In a ecen ly conduc ed s udy on 370 nu ses in hospi als in China, he
esea che s ound ha empowe men signi ican ly posi i ely a ec s WE (Gong e al., 2020). As
Wang e al. (2022) a gued, i is essen ial o implemen employee empowe men in o ganiza ions
o inc ease p oduc i i y and p o i abili y. Macey and Schneide (2008) ad oca ed ha empowe -
men is one o he bes s a egies o ganiza ions emb ace o in luence wo ke s o supe io pe o -
mance. Se e al esea che s ha e hea ily documen ed he bene i s o empowe men on WE,
p oduc i i y, commi men , and pe o mance (Al-Abdulla & Dababneh, 2018; Allen e al., 2018).
A s udy conduc ed on bank employees in Jo dan ound ha o achie e goals, manage s mus be
ained o p omo e empowe men (Dahou & Hacini, 2018). Thus, based on abundan e idence in
suppo o he posi i e e ec o empowe men on WE, we o e he ollowing hypo hesis:
H3: Employee empowe men is signi ican ly and posi i ely ela ed o WE.
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2.1.4. Employee empowe men as a media o
Though ans o ma ional leade s play an essen ial ole in mo i a ing wo ke s o engage in wha -
e e asks hey do, he implemen a ion o employee empowe men con ibu es o
Since inc easing WE is challenging, ans o ma ional leade s may os e engagemen by ene giz-
ing h ough empowe men (Liden e al., 2000; Macey & Schneide , 2008). TL encou ages c ea i i y
and inno a ion and gi es adequa e powe o employees o implemen hei ideas (Bass & Riggio,
2006; Eiseneiss e al., 2008). In he empowe men model, Sp ei ze e al. (1997) a gued ha
employees ind meaning in hei wo k, which has a i al ole in WE, pe o mance, and p oduc i i y
(Rosso e al., 2010). In addi ion, se e al p ominen schola s epo ed ha ans o ma ional leade s
signi ican ly al e he belie s, alues, and needs o employees (Ga dne e al., 2005), inc ease he
le el o commi men and ci izenship beha io (Nguni e al., 2006), and espec he opinions o
employees (Jung e al., 2009).
In his s udy, we a gue ha in addi ion o he di ec in luence o ans o ma ional leade s on WE,
indi ec e ec s can be el h ough employee empowe men .
To he bes o ou knowledge, he media ion o employee empowe men has a ely been s udied
by esea che s. Though ha is no he a ionale o s udying he media ing ole o employee
empowe men , using he logos (A is o elian he o ic), i would be in e es ing o in es iga e how
ans o ma ion leade s in luence employees’ WE h ough empowe men . Based on he di ec
posi i e ela ionships, we o e he ollowing explo a o y media ion hypo hesis:
H4: Employee empowe men media es he ela ionship be ween TL and WE.
2.1.5. Wo k expe ience as a mode a o
Pas esea che s ha e examined he impac o indi idual cha ac e is ics o employees: expe ience
and abili y on job pe o mance (Ng & Feldman, 2009; Waldman & Spangle , 1989). While ans-
o ma ional leade s in luence he employees o engage in hei wo k, i is mo e likely ha
indi iduals wi h highe wo k expe ience may ollow he leade s and show a highe le el o WE.
Two ield s udies by Yücel and Richa d (2013) ound ha employee expe ience played a i al ole in
he dyadic ela ionship be ween ans o ma ional leade s and employees; mo e expe ienced
employees showed s ong commi men han less expe ienced employees. When ans o ma ional
leade s pe suade hei employees o pe o m asks beyond hei sel -in e es s (Yamma ino e al.,
1993), he abili y o employees o unde s and he ision di e s based on hei wo k expe ience.
The e o e, he subo dina es’ cha ac e is ics need o be ac o ed in o be o e assessing he impac o
TL on employees’ WE. I would be in e es ing o in es iga e how wo k expe ience s eng hens he
ela ionship be ween TL and WE. This esea ch explo es he mode a ing e ec o wo k expe ience,
and he hypo hesis o e ed is as ollows:
H1a: Wo k expe ience o employees mode a es he ela ionship be ween TL and WE such ha he
e ec o TL on WE is s onge (weake ) o employees wi h highe (lowe ) wo k expe ience.
2.1.6. Gende as a mode a o
The li e a u e on gende s udies e eals ma ked di e ences in how indi iduals eac o si ua ions in
wo k o ganiza ions (Çoban, 2022; Ghe a di, 1994; Kelan, 2010). Pa icula ly in he Indian con ex ,
he adi ional amily sys em conside s men as b eadwinne s, and women a e es ic ed om
pe o ming household ac i i ies. Howe e , he cen aliza ion o he domes ic ole o women is
g adually ading away when women s a ed employmen in o ganiza ions du ing he las i e
decades (Chidamba am e al., 2022). U baniza ion and indus ializa ion ha e pa ed he way o
women’s employmen , hough mos women in de eloping coun ies conside he home en i on-
men cul u ally iewed as a emale domain (Gielen & Roopna ine, 2005).
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In his s udy, we a gue ha gende di e ences a e mo e likely o in luence he e ec o TL on
empowe men . Though bias and s e eo yping e ec s gende in wo k o ganiza ions, in mos
o ganiza ions, men domina e he posi ions o powe (Lade gaa d, 2011). In con as , women
show highe WE and job sa is ac ion (Zou, 2015). Fu he mo e, Kim and Shin (2017) ound ha
gende signi ican ly a ec s psychological empowe men , such ha male subo dina es a e mo e
s ongly in luenced by TL han hei emale coun e pa s. Thus, based on he scan a ailable
empi ical e idence, we o e he ollowing mode a ion hypo hesis:
H2a: Gende mode a es he ela ionship be ween TL and employee empowe men such ha
empowe men is highe o male employees han o emale employees.
The concep ual model is p esen ed in Figu e 1.
3. Me hodology
3.1. Va iables in his s udy
3.1.1. T ans o ma ional Leade ship
T ans o ma ional Leade ship. TL is de ined as “a ela ionship in which leade s and ollowe s aise
one ano he o highe le els o mo i a ion and mo ali y” (Bu ns, 1978, p. 6). Acco ding o Bass and
A olio (1994), TL has ou dimensions: (i) indi idualized conside a ion, (ii) in ellec ual s imula ion,
(iii) inspi a ional mo i a ion, and (i ) idealized in luence.
The indi idualized conside a ion dimension conce ns how leade s lis en o he employee’s
conce ns and needs and gi e suppo . By showing indi idual conside a ion, employees do no
eel hey a e neglec ed. On he con a y, leade s a e mo e likely o be in insically mo i a ed when
hey espec e e y employee and pay special a en ion o hei needs.
The in ellec ual s imula ion dimension is ela ed o how leade s encou age employees o hink
c ea i ely and independen ly. As a esul , indi iduals ge s imula ed o ace unexpec ed si ua ions
and lea n om he oppo uni ies s emming om he en i onmen .
The inspi a ional mo i a ion dimension conce ns how leade s a icula e he ision and gi e
challenging assignmen s o he employees. Leade s also aise pe o mance s anda ds and ins il
op imism abou achie ing o ganiza ional goals e ec i ely. Finally, leade s mo i a e employees and
help build con idence o pe o m gi en asks. The idealized in luence dimension is conce ned wi h
which he leade s ac as ole models by exhibi ing high e hical beha io and ollowing mo al alues.
Podsako e al (1990) a gue ha TL consis s o six beha io s—iden i ying and a icula ing ision,
os e ing accep ance o g oup goals, ins illing high-pe o mance expec a ions, p o ide indi idua-
lized suppo , and in ellec ual s imula ion. Following McKenzie e al. (2001), Ca less e al. (2000)
de eloped a sho measu e o TL consis ing o he abo e-men ioned dimensions. In his s udy, we
ollowed Global T ans o ma ional Leade ship scale de eloped by Ca less e al. (2000).
3.2. Wo k engagemen
Wo k engagemen is “a posi i e, ul illing wo k- ela ed s a e o mind cha ac e ized by igo ,
dedica ion, and abso p ion” (Schau eli e al., 2002, p. 74). The li e a u e on human esou ce
de elopmen (HRD) dis inguishes be ween h ee ypes o engagemen : employee engagemen ,
wo k engagemen , and o ganiza ional engagemen . Employee engagemen is he “simul aneous
employmen and exp ession o a pe son’s p e e ed sel in ask beha io s ha p omo e connec-
ions o wo k and o he s, pe sonal p esence, and dynamic ull ole pe o mance (Kahn, 1990,
p. 700). O ganiza ional engagemen conce ns “ he ex en o which an indi idual is psychologically
p esen in a pa icula o ganiza ional ole” (Saks, 2006, p. 604). Se e al schola s (Alok & Is ael,
2012; Babcock-Robe son & S ickland, 2010; Bakke & Deme ou i, 2008; Halbesleben e al., 2009;
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Table 2. Desc ip i e s a is ics: means, s anda d de ia ions, and ze o-o de co ela ions
Mean S anda d
De ia ion
12345
1. Gende 1.32 0.47 1
2. Wo k expe ience 3.41 1.17 − 0.29*** 1
3. TL 3.71 0.76 0.021 0.19*** 1
4. Empowe men 3.81 0.74 −0.043 0.014 0.16*** 1
5. WE 4.02 0.63 −0.15* 0.18*** 0.51*** 0.22*** 1
*** p < 0.01; * p < 0.05.
Gende : 1 = Male; 2 = Female.
Wo k expe ience: 1= Less han 2 yea s; 2 = 3–5 yea s; 3 = 6–10 yea s; 4 = 11–15 yea s; 5 = Abo e 15 yea s.
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Table 3. Tes ing H1, H2, H3, and H4
DV= WE DV = Empowe men H2 DV = WE
S ep 1 S ep 2 S ep 3
Coe se p Coe se p Coe se p
Cons an 2.4694 0.1686 14.6461 0.0000 3.2326 0.2273 14.2186 0.0000 2.0824 0.2234 9.3202 0.0000
TL H1 0.4172 0.0445 9.3782 0.0000 0.1560 0.0600 2.5997 0.0099 0.3985 0.0446 8.9415 0.0000
Empowe men H3 0.1197 0.0460 2.6019 0.0098
R-squa e 0.257 0.161 0.276
F 87.95 16.75 48.35
d 1 1 1 2
d 2 254 254 253
p 0.0000 0.0099 0.0000
To al E ec
To al E ec se p LLCI ULCI
0.4172 0.0445 9.3782 0.0000 0.3296 0.5048
Di ec E ec
Di ec E ec se p LLCI ULCI
TL→ WE 0.3986 0.0446 8.9415 0.0000 0.3108 0.4863
Boo s apping Indi ec E ec (H4) (To e i y media ion)
Indi ec E ec BOOT se BOOT
LLCI
BOOT
ULCI
TL →Empowe men →WE 0.0187 [0.1560 × 0.1197
= 0.0187]
0.0112 0.0013 0.0447
No es: N = 256. Boo LLCI, Boo ULCI = Boo s apping con idence lowe limi con idence in e al, uppe limi con idence in e al. The esul s we e based on 20,000 boo s apping samples [p < .05].I is
ecommended o use ou decimal digi s because some alues may be e y close o ze o.
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se = 0.0112; Boo LLCI = 0.0013; Boo ULCI = 0.0447]. Since “ze o” ze o was no con ained in he
Boo LLCI and Boo ULCI, he esul s suppo he media ion hypo hesis (H4).
To double check he esul s, we e i ied he o al e ec (0.4172), which is a o al o di ec e ec
(0.3985) and indi ec e ec (0.0187). The indi ec e ec is a p oduc o eg ession coe icien o TL
on empowe men (0.1560) and eg ession coe icien o empowe men on WE (0.1197) [i.e.
0.1560 × 0.1197 = 0.0187]. The o al e ec , he e o e, is (0.3985 + 0.0187 = 0.4172). The indi ec
e ec o TL → empowe men → WE was signi ican , hus ende ing suppo o he media ion
hypo hesis 4.
4.5. Tes ing he mode a ion o wo k expe ience (H1a)
To es H1a, we used model numbe 1 o Hayes (2018) PROCESS mac os and p esen ed he esul s
in Table 4.
H1a posi s ha wo k expe ience mode a es he ela ionship be ween TL and WE. As shown in
Table 4, he eg ession coe icien o he in e ac ion e m (TL and wo k expe ience was signi ican
(β
TL x wo k expe ience
= −0.080 = −2.08; p < .05; Boo LLCI (−0.1559); Boo ULCI (−0.0045). These
esul s suppo H1a as he eg ession coe icien o in e ac ion e m is nega i e. The isualiza ion
o wo-way in e ac ion is p esen ed in Figu e 2.
Figu e 2 depic s he ela ionship be ween TL and WE mode a ed by wo k expe ience. As can be
seen in Figu e 2, a lowe le els o TL, wo k expe ience o 3–5 yea s is associa ed wi h lowe WE
when compa ed o wo k expe ience o 11–15 yea s, and o e 15 yea s. The igu e does no show
ha as TL inc eases people wi h mo e expe ience end o show highe le els o WE. The esul s
indica e ha he e ec o TL is mo e on he employees wi h lowe expe ience. The e o e, he
esul s did no suppo H1a.
Hypo hesis 2a posi s ha gende is a mode a o in he ela ionship be ween TL and empowe -
men . To es H2a, we used Hayes (2018) PROCESS mac os (model numbe 1) and p esen ed he
esul s in Table 5.
The esul s show ha he eg ession coe icien o he in e ac ion e m is signi ican
(β
TL x gende
= −0.364; = −2.98; p < .05). These esul s, based on 20,000 boo s ap samples, show
ha he 95% Boo LLCI (−0.6037) and BOOT UL (−0.1241) shows signi ican alues (as ze o is no
con ained in he Lowe and Uppe limi s), hus suppo ing H2a. The in e ac ions model is signi i-
can and explains 24.7% a iance in empowe men [R
2
= 0.247; F (3,252) = 54.89; p < 0.001]. The
condi ional e ec s o he ocal p edic o a alues o mode a o (gende ) a e p esen ed in he
bo om o Table 4. The isual p esen a ion o in e ac ion e ec o gende is done in Figu e 3.
As shown in Figu e 3, he lowe le els o TL, he WE is high o emales when compa ed o males.
Howe e , as he TL om “low” o “high”, he WE o emales dec ease whe eas he WE inc eases
o males. A dec easing slope o emales and inc easing scope o he cu e o he males’ ende
suppo he mode a ion hypo hesis (H2a).
The empi ical model is p esen ed in Figu e 4
5. Discussion
In his esea ch, we de eloped a concep ual model and es ed he hypo hesized ela ionships by
analyzing he da a collec ed om 256 employees wo king in he IT sec o . A e checking he
ins umen ’s psychome ic p ope ies, we used Hayes (2018) PROCESS mac os and ound suppo
o all he hypo heses.
Fi s , he indings indica ed a posi i e associa ion o TL wi h WE (Hypo hesis 1), consis en wi h
esul s om he li e a u e (Lai e al., 2020; Meng e al., 2022). I is somewha expec ed ha all he
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Table 4. Tes ing o hypo hesis 1a ( wo-way in e ac ion) Hayes (2018) PROCESS mac os (model numbe 1)
DV=WE
Va iables Coe se p LLCI ULCI
Cons an 1.4017 0.4938 2.8388 0.0049 0.4293 2.3741
TL 0.6682 0.1345 4.9685 0.0000 0.4033 0.9331
Wo k expe ience 0.3415 0.1444 2.3655 0.0188 0.0572 0.6258
TL x Wo k expe ience H1a −0.0802 0.0384 −2.0853 0.0380 −0.1559 −0.0045
R-squa e 0.278
F 32.17
d 1 3
d 2 252
p 0.0000
Condi ional e ec s o he ocal p edic o a alues o mode a o (Wo k expe ience)
Wo k expe ience E ec se p LLCI ULCI
3–5 yea s 0.5078 0.0671 7.5697 0.0000 0.3757 0.6400
11–15 yea s 0.3475 0.0524 6.6359 0.0000 0.2444 0.4506
O e 15 yea s 0.2673 0.0794 3.3684 0.0009 0.1110 0.4236
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dimensions o TL: in ellec ual s imula ion, indi idualized conside a ion, idealized in luence, and
inspi a ional mo i a ion help employees in WE, which in u n, inc eases pe o mance. These
indings aligning wi h he heo e ical unde pinnings o FRLT and JD-R. Second, he posi i e asso-
cia ion be ween TL and employee empowe men (Hypo hesis 2) ound suppo in his esea ch,
which is consis en wi h he esul s o se e al s udies in he li e a u e (Choi e al., 2016; G ošelj
e al., 2021). Thi d, his s udy ound ha employee empowe men posi i ely p edic s WE
(Hypo hesis 3), suppo ed by ex an esea ch (Al-Abdulla & Dababneh, 2018; Dahou & Hacini,
2018). In p esen -day o ganiza ions, empowe men is used as a s a egy employed by manage s
so ha employees engage in decision-making and en hei ideas and opinions o he bene i o
he o ganiza ion. Fou h, he bene i s o TL on WE a e acc ued h ough employee empowe men
(Hypo hesis 4), and indings om his s udy we e in alignmen wi h esul s om scan li e a u e
(Liden e al., 2000; Macey & Schneide , 2008).
Fi h, he esul s did no suppo he mode a ing e ec o wo k expe ience in he ela ionship
be ween TL and WE (Hypo hesis 1a). We hypo hesized ha wo k expe ience o employees mod-
e a es he ela ionship be ween TL and WE such ha he e ec o TL on WE is s onge (weake )
o employees wi h highe (lowe ) wo k expe ience. On he con a y, we ound ha he e ec o TL
Figu e 2. Wo k expe ience as
a mode a o in he ela ionship
be ween TL and WE.
Table 5. Tes ing o hypo hesis 2a ( wo-way in e ac ion) Hayes (2018) PROCESS mac os (model
numbe 1)
DV= Empowe men
Va iables Coe se p LLCI ULCI
Cons an 1.4580 0.6753 2.1592 0.0318 0.1282 2.7879
TL 0.6595 0.1783 3.6998 0.0003 0.3085 1.0106
Gende 1.2812 0.4635 2.7644 0.0061 0.3684 2.1939
TL x Gende
H2a
−0.3639 0.1218 −2.9888 0.0031 −0.6037 −0.1241
R-squa e 0.247
F 54.89
d 1 3
d 2 252
p 0.001
Condi ional e ec s o ocal p edic o a alue o he mode a o (Gende )
Gende e ec s.e p Boo LLCI Boo ULCI
Male 0.2956 0.0752 3.9325 0.0001 0.1476 0.4437
Female −0.0683 0.0958 −0.7131 0.4764 −0.2569 0.1203
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on WE is s onge o employees wi h lowe expe ience. The indings hus indica e ha when TL
plays a i al ole on employees wi h less expe ience when compa ed o mo e expe ienced employ-
ees. The e ec o TL on wo k engagemen is highe o expe ienced employees when TL is low.
Six h, ollowing he gende s udies, his esea ch ound ha gende di e ences in luence he
ela ionship be ween TL and employee empowe men (H2a). Though ea lie schola s scan ly
s udied gende as a mode a o , he p e ious s udies ouched o gende di e ences in o ganiza-
ions (Gielen & Roopna ine, 2005; Kim & Shin, 2017). O e all, he concep ual model de eloped and
es ed has exci ing esul s which a e con incing.
5.1. Theo e ical implica ions
The p esen esea ch has se e al con ibu ions o leade ship and human esou ce managemen
li e a u e. Fi s , his s udy adds o he g owing li e a u e on TL ollowing he FRLT. Second, in
Figu e 3. Gende as
a mode a o be ween TL and
empowe men .
Figu e 4. Empi ical model.
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cong uence wi h human esou ce de elopmen , he esul s suppo he impo ance o WE, which is
a p ecu so o supe io pe o mance. Though we did no s udy he e ec o WE on pe o mance,
p oduc i i y, and job sa is ac ion, much esea ch documen ed he posi i e e ec s o WE. Second,
ou esul s unde sco ed he impo ance o employee empowe men in in luencing WE. Thi d,
h ough in ellec ual s imula ion and inspi a ional mo i a ion, ans o ma ional leade s allow
employees o ake on addi ional esponsibili ies h ough empowe men . Fou h, wi h ega d o
mode a ing hypo hesis we ound ha less expe ienced employees end o unde s and leade s’
ision and implemen i h ough WE, whe eas o mo e expe ienced employees TL does no ha e
any signi ican ole o play.
The i h key con ibu ion o his s udy is ha ans o ma ional leade s need o unde s and
gende di e ences in en o cing empowe men . In gene al, and as e idenced in his s udy, male
employees a e gi en addi ional oles and esponsibili ies compa ed o women. The e ec o TL on
employee empowe men was nega i e in he case o women, whe eas he esul was posi i e o
male employees. The concep ual model adds o he li e a u e, albei wi h a small con ibu ion.
5.2. P ac ical implica ions
This s udy has se e al implica ions o p ac icing manage s, especially in he con ex o de eloping
coun ies (such as India). Fi s , he manage s mus unde s and ha in he p esen -day “new
no mal” cha ac e ized by a pos -pandemic en i onmen , exhibi ing TL is essen ial o enhance
WE. Se e al employees ha e unde gone s ess and bu nou du ing he pandemic; as e idenced
in some ecen s udies (Chidamba am e al., 2022; Naga ajan e al., 2022), TL plays a i al ole in
b inging employees back o wo k in an e icien manne . Second, as ound in his s udy, employee
empowe men is a p ecu so o WE. Hence, manage s mus implemen empowe men p ac ices
by delega ing and decen alizing o he maximum ex en so ha employees can implemen
inno a i e ideas. Thi d, ans o ma ional leade s a e ad ised o delega e hea y wo k o less
expe ienced employees as hey can easily unde s and and ansmi he ision o lowe -le el
managemen . Fou h, manage s mus conside gende di e ences while exhibi ing leade ship
s yles and empowe ing employees wi h addi ional esponsibili ies. O e all, his s udy makes
some signi ican sugges ions o adminis a o s and ad ises hem o demons a e a TL s yle o
enhance p oduc i i y and pe o mance h ough WE.
5.3. Limi a ions and sugges ions o u u e esea ch
The esul s om his esea ch need o be in e p e ed in ligh o some limi a ions. Fi s , he sample
consis ed o employees in he IT sec o , which may limi he gene alizabili y o esul s in o he
indus ies (examples: heal hca e and manu ac u ing). Howe e , as long as he wo king condi ions
a e simila , we expec he esul s o be gene alizable ac oss di e en sec o s. Second, ou s udy
ocused on a de eloping na ion (India), and he e ec o TL on WE in de eloped coun ies may di e
because o wo k cul u e di e ences. Thi d, social desi abili y bias, common in su ey-based esea ch
whe eby he esponden s bias he answe s by gi ing an imp ession o good ci izens, may il he
indings. Howe e , we ha e aken adequa e ca e o minimize social desi abili y bias by anonymizing
he esponses, as sugges ed by ea lie schola s (La kin e al., 2017). Fou h, we ocused only on
a limi ed numbe o a iables in luencing WE: TL, empowe men , wo k expe ience, and gende . Fi h,
his s udy did no include he e ec o ansac ional leade ship s yle on WE. Ex an esea ch epo ed
ha ansac ional leade s, by ocusing on he ask and he ewa ds a e con ingen on pe o mance, i
is mo e likely ha WE would be in luenced by ansac ional leade ship s yle (D’Souza e al., 2022).
Six h, as an Knippenbe g and Si kin (2013) poin ed ou , he mul i-dimensional concep ualiza-
ion o TL has some inhe en p oblems. How he dimensions a e combined in o TL is ques ionable,
as he e is no subs an ial empi ical e idence ha a dimensional s uc u e was o med as p e-
sc ibed. Fu he , he c i ics a gue ha TL does no explain how each dimension in luences ou come
a iables. Despi e his c i icism, se e al esea che s ha e used he TL s yle o in luence employee
commi men and engagemen (D’Souza e al., 2022).
Nawaz e al., Cogen Business & Managemen (2024), 11: 2291851
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2023.2291851
Page 20 o 27
This s udy o e s se e al a enues o u u e esea ch. Fi s , u u e s udies may in es iga e he e ec
o TL on WE by collec ing la ge samples om di e en pa s o he coun y, India. Second, addi ional
a iables such as emo ional in elligence, psychological capi al, and emo ional exhaus ion may
p o oundly in luence WE. Thi d, he an eceden s o employee empowe men can be included in he
model so ha ans o ma ional leade s may ocus on hese an eceden s. Fou h, u u e s udies may
in es iga e he e ec o enu e, age, and expe ience on he WE and empowe men (Kim & Kang,
2017). Fi h, apa om gende di e ences and wo k expe ience, u u e esea che s may include
wo k- amily con lic s, quali y o wo k li e, and pe o mance eedback ha signi ican ly in luence WE,
p oduc i i y, and pe o mance (A uldoss e al., 2022; Kowalski e al., 2022). Six h, u u e s udies may
include employee compassion as a mode a o in he ela ionship be ween TL, empowe men , and
wo k engagemen . As pe son-o ganiza ion i may esul in compassion-d i en ci izenship beha io ,
employee compassion may ha e di ec and mode a ing e ec s on he ela ionship be ween TL and
wo k engagemen (Zoghbi-Man ique de La a e al., 2023). Fu he mo e, leade ship plays a i al ole in
enhancing he WE; u u e s udies may also ocus on a ious ypes o leade ship (e.g., se an
leade ship) ha p o oundly in luence o ganiza ional ci izenship beha io and eam pe o mance
(Ruiz-Palomino e al., 2023). Recen s udies epo ed a posi i e impac o se an leade ship on
c ea i i y (Ruiz-Palomino & Zoghbi-Man ique de La a, 2020), and i would be in e es ing o u u e
s udies o dwell on se an leade ship and in es iga e he ela ionships in he s udy. Finally,
a compa ison o a ious de eloping na ions such as Pakis an, Bangladesh, and S i Lanka abou he
in luence o TL ac oss mul iple o ganiza ions can be s udied by u u e esea che s.
6. Conclusion
Mos o ganiza ions wo ldwide ha e unde gone a phenomenal me amo phosis in edesigning and
e-in en ing he o ganiza ional s uc u e o bounce back om he de as a ing spell o he pan-
demic o nea ly wo and hal yea s. This s udy p o ides no el insigh s in o he ways o conduc ing
business in he new no mal. Th ough a simple concep ual amewo k, his s udy highligh s he
impo ance o TL in enhancing WE h ough empowe men . Howe e , since i akes a long ime
be o e no mal business unc ioning es o es, o ganiza ions need o engage in no el ways o
gaining los businesses. The commi men on he pa o op managemen o encou aging TL is
expec ed o be con inued o a long ime, and i is hoped ha TL, which came in o ogue nea ly
h ee decades back, emains on he esea ch agenda o a long ime.
Acknowledgmen s
The au ho s would like o acknowledge ha his esea ch
wo k was pa ially inanced by Kingdom Uni e si y,
Bah ain om he esea ch g an numbe 2023-11-013.
Au ho de ails
Nishad Nawaz
1
E-mail: [email p o ec ed]
ORCID ID: h p://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4781-7993
Vijayakuma Gajende an
2
ORCID ID: h p://o cid.o g/0000-0002-0513-0010
Madhy adany Manoha an
3
ORCID ID: h p://o cid.o g/0000-0003-4944-5724
Sa yana ayana Pa ayi am
4
ORCID ID: h p://o cid.o g/0000-0001-5565-4413
1
Depa men o Business Managemen , College o
Business Adminis a ion, Kingdom Uni e si y, Sanad,
Bah ain.
2
Depa men o Comme ce, Si Theaga aya College,
Chennai, India.
3
Depa men o Managemen s udies, BSACIT, Chennai,
India.
4
Depa men o Managemen and Ma ke ing, Cha l on
College o Business, Uni e si y o Massachuse s
Da mou h, No h Da mou h, MA, USA.
Disclosu e s a emen
No po en ial con lic o in e es was epo ed by he
au ho (s).
Supplemen al ma e ial
Supplemen al da a o his a icle can be accessed online
a h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2023.2291851
Ci a ion in o ma ion
Ci e his a icle as: Disen angling he ela ionship be ween
ans o ma ional leade ship and wo k engagemen :
Employee empowe men as a media o and wo k expe i-
ence and gende as mode a o s, Nishad Nawaz,
Vijayakuma Gajende an, Madhy adany Manoha an &
Sa yana ayana Pa ayi am, Cogen Business &
Managemen (2024), 11: 2291851.
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