Pe elli, Chia a; Cacchia elli, Luca; Mupenzi, Mu imu a; B anca, Giacomo;
So en ino, Alessand o
A icle
Unlock he complexi y': Unde s anding he economic and poli ical
pa hways unde lying he ansi ion o clima e-sma smallholde
o age-li es ock sys ems. A case s udy in Rwanda
Economies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Pe elli, Chia a; Cacchia elli, Luca; Mupenzi, Mu imu a; B anca, Giacomo;
So en ino, Alessand o (2024) : Unlock he complexi y': Unde s anding he economic and poli ical
pa hways unde lying he ansi ion o clima e-sma smallholde o age-li es ock sys ems. A case
s udy in Rwanda, Economies, ISSN 2227-7099, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 12, Iss. 7, pp. 1-19,
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies12070177
This Ve sion is a ailable a :
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Ci a ion: Pe elli, Chia a, Luca
Cacchia elli, Mu imu a Mupenzi,
Giacomo B anca, and Alessand o
So en ino. 2024. ‘Unlock he
Complexi y’: Unde s anding he
Economic and Poli ical Pa hways
Unde lying he T ansi ion o
Clima e-Sma Smallholde
Fo age-Li es ock Sys ems: A Case
S udy in Rwanda. Economies 12: 177.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies
12070177
Academic Edi o s: Flo en ina-C is ina
Me ciu, Camelia Teodo escu and
Ana-I ina Lequeux-Dincă
Recei ed: 11 Ap il 2024
Re ised: 26 June 2024
Accep ed: 28 June 2024
Published: 8 July 2024
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4.0/).
economies
A icle
‘Unlock he Complexi y’: Unde s anding he Economic and
Poli ical Pa hways Unde lying he T ansi ion o Clima e-Sma
Smallholde Fo age-Li es ock Sys ems: A Case S udy in Rwanda
Chia a Pe elli 1,* , Luca Cacchia elli 1, Mu imu a Mupenzi 2, Giacomo B anca 1and Alessand o So en ino 1
1Depa men o Economics, Enginee ing, Socie y and Business O ganiza ion, Tuscia Uni e si y,
Via del Pa adiso, 47, 01100 Vi e bo, I aly; [email p o ec ed] (L.C.); [email p o ec ed] (G.B.);
[email p o ec ed] (A.S.)
2Rwanda Ag icul u e and Animal Resou ces De elopmen Boa d (RAB), Kigali P.O. Box 5016, Rwanda;
[email p o ec ed]
*Co espondence: chia a.pe [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac : The li es ock-dai y sec o in Sub-Saha an A ica, pa icula ly in Rwanda, is expe iencing
apid g ow h due o popula ion expansion, u banisa ion, and changing ood p e e ences. The unme
local p oduc ion demands a e causing soil and wa e pollu ion, compe i ion o biomass, land, and
wa e , bu also g assland deg ada ion, biodi e si y loss, and inc eased GHGs emissions. Rwanda
has he lowes p oduc i i y in he egion, la gely due o inadequa e and poo -quali y li es ock
eed esou ces. To inc ease animal p oduc i i y, p omo ing o age species wi h highe nu i ional
alue and be e adap a ion o d ough -p one and poo - e ili y soils could be bene icial. Using
a mixed-me hods app oach, he s udy explo es B achia ia o age adop ion and p o i abili y and
analyses policy objec i es and measu es o o e come adop ion ba ie s and p omo e he ansi ion
om subsis ence o ma ke -o ien ed sys ems. Resul s show ha B achia ia, al hough ad an ageous
om an economic poin o iew, is cha ac e ised by e y low adop ion a es. Fu he mo e, access o
ex ension p og ammes is limi ed and o en no suppo ed by adequa e incen i es. To o e come such
ba ie s, policy in e en ions should be ha monised and in o ma ion and knowledge managemen
p io i ised, public and p i a e ex ension and ad iso y se ices (EASs) p og ammes coo dina ed,
ag icul u al inpu subsidies inc eased, and ins i u ional coo dina ion p omo ed o enhance clima e-
sma animal eeding.
Keywo ds: B achia ia; clima e-sma o age; smallholde a ms; Rwanda; Eas A ica
1. In oduc ion
The li es ock-dai y sec o in Sub-Saha an A ica (SSA) plays a signi ican ole in he
egion’s economy, con ibu ing o abou 35% o he ag icul u al GDP and suppo ing u al
li elihoods and ood secu i y ac oss local communi ies (E daw 2023). I is domina ed by
smallholde a me s, wi h he majo i y o p oduc ion coming om small-scale, amily-
owned a ms. This sec o has been expe iencing signi ican expansion due o a ious
ac o s, including apid popula ion g ow h, u banisa ion, and changing ood p e e ences
among an inc easingly a luen and u banised popula ion ( an Be kum e al. 2017). This
phenomenon, also known as he ‘li es ock e olu ion’, is d i ing a su ge in he demand
o high- alue p oduc s, including animal-de i ed oods such as mea , milk, and eggs
(Delgado e al. 2001). In SSA, he pe capi a yea ly consump ion o mea and milk (now
equal o abou 14 kg and 30 li es, espec i ely, on a e age) is an icipa ed o inc ease o
26 kg
and 64 li es by 2050 (Balehegn e al. 2021). As he inc easing consump ion o animal
p oduc s is no ye me by equi alen g ow h in local p oduc ion, p oduce s need o in es
in li es ock a ming and he ela ed alue chains o supply such a g owing demand (FAO
2019). Howe e , an uncon olled expansion o li es ock ac i i ies and associa ed ma ke s
Economies 2024,12, 177. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/economies12070177 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/economies
Economies 2024,12, 177 2 o 19
may ha e nega i e implica ions in e ms o soil and wa e pollu ion, compe i ion o
biomass, land, and wa e , bu also g assland deg ada ion, biodi e si y loss, and inc eased
g eenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Ge be e al. 2005;Nijdam e al. 2012;S ein eld e al.
2006;Enaho o e al. 2019;FAO 2019;He e o e al. 2014). In such a si ua ion, encou aging
o age species wi h highe nu i ional con en and imp o ed ole ance o soils p one o
d ough and low e ili y is an e ec i e s a egy o aising animal p oduc ion. In Eas e n
A ica, B achia ia is eme ging as a nu i ious g ass wi h high biomass p oduc ion and
hence he po en ial o inc ease ca le p oduc i i y (Maina e al. 2020). I can adap o a
a ie y o soil ypes and se ings, wi hs and p o ac ed d ough s, and h i e in low e ili y
condi ions (Rao e al. 2014). I can also u ilise ni ogen mo e e icien ly and seques e ca bon
hanks o i s ex ensi e oo sys em (Subba ao e al. 2009;A ango e al. 2014;Rao e al. 2014;
Maina e al. 2020
). Howe e , despi e he po en ial bene i s o B achia ia, li le is known
abou i s d i e s, ba ie s, impac s o adop ion, and economic iabili y.
The objec i es o he p esen s udy a e o: (i) compa e he p o i abili y o a m sys ems
ha use B achia ia g ass o hose adop ing Napie ; (ii) in es iga e he adop ion o B achia ia
g ass and he obs acles ha p e en a me s om using i ; and (iii) map and e alua e
he p ima y policy measu es aimed a o e coming ba ie s o sus ainable ag icul u e
in ensi ica ion p ac ices, wi h a speci ic ocus on ex ension ad iso y se ices’ ole, s uc u e,
and e ec i eness.
The esea ch employs a mixed-me hods app oach, combining quan i a i e and quali a-
i e ins umen s o allow o a holis ic unde s anding o B achia ia adop ion dynamics and
iden i y a policy amewo k ha can p omo e sus ainable and ma ke -o ien ed li es ock-
dai y sys ems. Rega ding he s udy’s no el ea u e, we make use o an ex ensi e and
dis inc i e se quan i a i e and quali a i e da a ela ed o he adop ion o SAI p ac ices
in mixed c op-li es ock sys ems in wo Rwandan dis ic s. This imp o es he esea ch
since he e is a lack o in o ma ion conce ning on- a m, cleane ag icul u al p oduc ion
p ac ices in he a eas unde in es iga ion. I also allows us o p o ide mo e igo ous da a
o policymake s as well as addi ional in o ma ion abou he s a egic pa h o p omo ing
he implemen a ion o clima e-sma a ming sys ems.
The s udy was ca ied ou in Ki ehe and Nyamagabe dis ic s, espec i ely loca ed
in he sou h-eas e n and sou h-wes pa s o he coun y. Mixed c op-li es ock sys ems
a e common among smallholde a ms in hese wo egions, and animals a e gene ally
enclosed and ed by cu -and-ca ied plan oods, including c op esidues, and o he eeds
such as concen a es, while he adop ion o B achia ia o age is pa icula ly low.
The es o his pape is s uc u ed as ollows. The backg ound o he s udy is p esen ed
in Sec ion 2. Da a and me hodology a e p esen ed in Sec ion 3. Resul s a e illus a ed in
Sec ion 4and discussed in Sec ion 5. Conclusions a e epo ed in Sec ion 6.
2. Backg ound o he S udy
2.1. Challenges and Oppo uni ies o Implemen ing B achia ia in Eas A ica
O e 70% o A ican ag icul u al GHG emissions come om he li es ock sec o , wi h
emissions pe uni o li es ock p oduc in Eas A ica ou imes highe han he global
a e age (Tubiello e al. 2014;P essman e al. 2018). Mo eo e , 58% o land deg ada ion and
soil e osion in he SSA egions is caused by o e g azing, which is a esul o ising human
popula ions and inc eased cul i a ion o ood c ops (Balehegn e al. 2021). Low p oduc i i y
o li es ock isk exace ba ing hese haza ds and ela ed implica ions (
He e o e al. 2013
,
2014;Enaho o e al. 2019). As a esul , inc easing a m animal p oduc i i y h ough
sus ainable and clima e-sma p ac ices may be iewed as a s a egic op ion o add ess
ood secu i y and clima e change conce ns, as well as social and economic issues. Howe e ,
se e al ac o s, including inadequa e in as uc u e, lack o ma ke access, lack o access
o echnology and knowledge, lack o con ol o e animal diseases, and en i onmen al
conce ns, signi ican ly hinde he p oduc i i y o smallholde li es ock p oduc ion (E daw
2023). This is especially ue in Eas A ica, which is cha ac e ised by he SSA’s g ea es
li es ock popula ion, bu whe e he li es ock p oduc i i y is 15% lowe han he es
Economies 2024,12, 177 3 o 19
o he egion because o in as uc u al ine iciencies and clima e-induced s esses ha
a e pu ing addi ional s ain on he local ood sys ems (Rahimi e al. 2021). In Rwanda,
he li es ock-dai y sec o expe iences he lowes p oduc i i y in he egion, despi e i s
pi o al ole in he local economy and in imp o ing he nu i ion and li elihood o u al
people (Mu imu a and Ghimi e 2021). One o he majo ac o s con ibu ing o such
ine iciency is he inadequa e and poo -quali y li es ock eed esou ces used a he a m
le el. O e g azing, poo pas u e managemen , and d ough ha e led o a decline in
na u al g ass land, esul ing in dec eased p oduc i i y and low nu i i e alues o c op
esidues, which a e o en insu icien o animal main enance (Mu imu a and E e son
2012). Napie g ass, he coun y’s mos widely cul i a ed o age, aces h ea s om smu
and s un ing diseases, causing yield losses anging om 5% o 90% (Luswe i e al. 2004).
This poses a isk o he li es ock-dai y sec o ’s abili y o each i s ull po en ial, mee he
an icipa ed u u e inc ease in demand o animal p oduc s, join complex and high- alue
ma ke s, and cope wi h he p ojec ed clima e changes. In such a con ex , p omo ing o age
species wi h highe nu i ional alue and be e adap a ion o d ough -p one and poo -
e ili y soils is a iable s a egy o inc easing animal p oduc i i y. In his ega d, he
Rwandan go e nmen has been in oducing, assessing, and p omo ing imp o ed and
clima e-sma o ages like B achia ia, whose p oduc ion and u ilisa ion is a ied-and- ue
me hod o inc easing a ailabili y o high-quali y eed and imp o ing animal p oduc i i y
(Mu imu a and Ghimi e 2021). I is one o he mos impo an opical o age g asses o
A ican o igin and is widely cul i a ed in La in Ame ica due o i s la ge oliage biomass
p oduc ion, i s oo sys ems ha imp o e soil s uc u e, i s capaci y o ix a mosphe ic
ca bon, and i s esilience o d ough and low e ili y soils (Tes ai e al. 2019). In addi ion,
nume ous s udies ha e demons a ed ha B achia ia is dis inguished by a high nu i ional
alue o ca le eed, esul ing in an inc ease in daily milk p oduc ion anging om 30 o
100% in he long e m (Ghimi e e al. 2015;Mu imu a e al. 2018). This means ha he
adop ion o such o age in animal eeding can ha e a po en ial posi i e e ec in e ms
o ood secu i y bu can also p omo e he ansi ion om subsis ence o ma ke -o ien ed
smallholde p oduc ion sys ems. Despi e he desc ibed bene i s, his clima e-sma o age
is cha ac e ised by low adop ion a es among smallholde a ms due o hei eliance on
adi ional sys ems, limi ed awa eness, limi ed a ailabili y o ag icul u al inpu s such as
quali y plan ing ma e ials and e ilise s, and lack o echnical assis ance and suppo i e
policies and incen i es (Ondabu e al. 2017;Nja ui e al. 2016). In such a scena io, c ea ing
an enabling en i onmen o ag icul u al de elopmen is ega ded as a key elemen o
clima e-sma ag icul u al inno a ions o ake place. Howe e , he e ec i eness o such a
condi ion depends on i s combina ion wi h in es men s in ex ension se ices as well as a
policy amewo k aimed a emo ing he ba ie s o he implemen a ion o clima e-sma
s a egies on a la ge scale. Ex ension and ad iso y se ices (EAS) a e o e ed by public-
p i a e pa ne ships, non-go e nmen al o ganisa ions, and a me -based o ganisa ions
(Bi ne e al. 2009). These se ices use a ious aining and educa ion app oaches, including
pa icipa o y me hods like a me s’ ield schools and in o mal channels like a me - o-
a me communica ion (B anca e al. 2022b). Howe e , he g ea e decen alisa ion o
public ag icul u al ex ensions and a lack o ecogni ion and in ol emen o p i a e EASs
p o ide s may unde se e esou ce-poo a me s.
2.2. S udy A ea
The s udy he e illus a ed was conduc ed in wo dis ic s o Rwanda: Nyamagabe
and Ki ehe (Figu e 1). Nyamagabe is he sou he n p o ince; i occupies 1090 km
2
and
has a popula ion o 333,587. Ki ehe is he eas e n p o ince; i occupies 1225 km
2
and
has a popula ion o 229,468. The opog aphy in Ki ehe dis ic is la land su ounded
by hills and wa e bodies, wi h mode a e le els o soil e osion. Nyamagabe ecei es
highe annual ain all (1636 mm) wi h espec o Ki ehe (750 mm) and is cha ac e ised by
lowe a e age empe a u es (16.5
◦
C) i compa ed o he o he dis ic (cha ac e ised by an
a e age empe a u e equal o 21
◦
C). In Nyamagabe, soils a e clayey and acidic, wi h high
Economies 2024,12, 177 4 o 19
le els o aluminium. Soils in Ki ehe a e cha ac e ised by a sandy loam ex u e wi h lowe
amoun s o o ganic ma e . Mixed c op-li es ock sys ems a e p e alen in bo h dis ic s. In
Nyamagabe, c ops and li es ock a e well in eg a ed, and e acing, due o i s s eep slopes,
is common. In his dis ic , he a e age a m size is less han 0.5 ha. In Ki ehe, he cu en
a ming sys ems a e cha ac e ised by monoc opping o maize, in e c opping o ce eals
wi h legumes, mixed c op-li es ock sys ems, and ag o o es y. The a e age land holding
he e is equal o 0.7 ha. The majo challenges o he adop ion o sus ainable ag icul u e
in ensi ica ion (SAI) sys ems in he selec ed dis ic s a e less e ile soils and hea y ain,
which nega i ely a ec c op and li es ock p oduc i i y in Nyamagabe, whe eas d ough
s ess and small land holdings a e he majo cons ain s o imp o ing c op and li es ock
p oduc ion in Ki ehe dis ic . O he challenges include eed sho ages o li es ock, limi ed
access o ag icul u al echnologies, and ma ke a ailabili y.
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 o 19
a popula ion o 333,587. Ki ehe is he eas e n p o ince; i occupies 1225 km
2
and has a
popula ion o 229,468. The opog aphy in Ki ehe dis ic is la land su ounded by hills
and wa e bodies, wi h mode a e le els o soil e osion. Nyamagabe ecei es highe annual
ain all (1636 mm) wi h espec o Ki ehe (750 mm) and is cha ac e ised by lowe a e age
empe a u es (16.5 °C) i compa ed o he o he dis ic (cha ac e ised by an a e age
empe a u e equal o 21 °C). In Nyamagabe, soils a e clayey and acidic, wi h high le els
o aluminium. Soils in Ki ehe a e cha ac e ised by a sandy loam ex u e wi h lowe
amoun s o o ganic ma e . Mixed c op-li es ock sys ems a e p e alen in bo h dis ic s.
In Nyamagabe, c ops and li es ock a e well in eg a ed, and e acing, due o i s s eep
slopes, is common. In his dis ic , he a e age a m size is less han 0.5 ha. In Ki ehe, he
cu en a ming sys ems a e cha ac e ised by monoc opping o maize, in e c opping o
ce eals wi h legumes, mixed c op-li es ock sys ems, and ag o o es y. The a e age land
holding he e is equal o 0.7 ha. The majo challenges o he adop ion o sus ainable
ag icul u e in ensi ica ion (SAI) sys ems in he selec ed dis ic s a e less e ile soils and
hea y ain, which nega i ely a ec c op and li es ock p oduc i i y in Nyamagabe,
whe eas d ough s ess and small land holdings a e he majo cons ain s o imp o ing
c op and li es ock p oduc ion in Ki ehe dis ic . O he challenges include eed sho ages
o li es ock, limi ed access o ag icul u al echnologies, and ma ke a ailabili y.
Figu e 1. Map o Rwanda wi h he wo selec ed case s udies.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Me hodology
The me hodology applied in he p esen s udy consis s o he ollowing analy ical
s eps: (i) a ma ginal analysis compa ing he p o i abili y o B achia ia g ass o he
con en ional odde used a he a m le el (Napie ); (ii) a desc ip i e analysis examining
B achia ia’s adop ion a e and de e mining he associa ed ba ie s; (iii) an in e en ion
logic diag am iden i ying and e alua ing policy objec i es and s a egies o o e come
Figu e 1. Map o Rwanda wi h he wo selec ed case s udies.
3. Ma e ials and Me hods
3.1. Me hodology
The me hodology applied in he p esen s udy consis s o he ollowing analy ical
s eps: (i) a ma ginal analysis compa ing he p o i abili y o B achia ia g ass o he con-
en ional odde used a he a m le el (Napie ); (ii) a desc ip i e analysis examining
B achia ia’s adop ion a e and de e mining he associa ed ba ie s; (iii) an in e en ion
logic diag am iden i ying and e alua ing policy objec i es and s a egies o o e come
obs acles and limi a ions aced by a me s in adop ing SAI sys ems; and (i ) a VENN
diag am in es iga ing he ole and impac o EASs se ices. Figu e 2shows he linkage
be ween pape objec i es, me hods employed, and sou ces o in o ma ion.
Economies 2024,12, 177 5 o 19
Economies 2024, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 o 19
obs acles and limi a ions aced by a me s in adop ing SAI sys ems; and (i ) a VENN
diag am in es iga ing he ole and impac o EASs se ices. Figu e 2 shows he linkage
be ween pape objec i es, me hods employed, and sou ces o in o ma ion.
Figu e 2. The linkage be ween pape objec i es, me hods, and sou ces o in o ma ion. Sou ce:
Au ho s’ elabo a ions.
3.1.1. B achia ia Financial Viabili y h ough Ma ginal Analysis
A ma ginal analysis a he a m le el was conduc ed o compa e he p o i abili y o
o age-li es ock sys ems adop ing B achia ia wi h espec o hose ha use Napie g ass.
In he analysis, he alue o g oss p oduc ion (which includes odde and milk p oduced
by he a m), ope a ing cos s, and labou cos s we e calcula ed using inancial p icing. The
ollowing indica o s we e hen compu ed o assess and compa e he inancial iabili y o
he wo di e en a m-le el eeding sys ems (B anca e al. 2016, 2021): (i) g oss ma gin
( e enues minus ope a ing cos s), (ii) ne ma gin ( e enues minus o al p oduc ion cos s),
and (iii) e u n o amily labou (g oss ma gin o amoun o amily labou employed a io).
Such inancial analysis was ealised using household su ey da a.
3.1.2. Quan i-Quali a i e Analysis o B achia ia Adop ion
A desc ip i e analysis was ealized o de e mine he adop ion a e o B achia ia in
he esea ch a ea and he ba ie s o i s adop ion. The su ey da a we e used o conduc
such an analysis. The esul s we e hen e alua ed, assessed, and discussed u ilising
in o ma ion ga he ed om FDGs ca ied ou in he wo dis ic s.
3.1.3. Policy Analysis h ough In e en ion Logic Diag am
Figu e 2. The linkage be ween pape objec i es, me hods, and sou ces o in o ma ion. Sou ce:
Au ho s’ elabo a ions.
3.1.1. B achia ia Financial Viabili y h ough Ma ginal Analysis
A ma ginal analysis a he a m le el was conduc ed o compa e he p o i abili y o
o age-li es ock sys ems adop ing B achia ia wi h espec o hose ha use Napie g ass.
In he analysis, he alue o g oss p oduc ion (which includes odde and milk p oduced
by he a m), ope a ing cos s, and labou cos s we e calcula ed using inancial p icing. The
ollowing indica o s we e hen compu ed o assess and compa e he inancial iabili y o
he wo di e en a m-le el eeding sys ems (B anca e al. 2016,2021): (i) g oss ma gin
( e enues minus ope a ing cos s), (ii) ne ma gin ( e enues minus o al p oduc ion cos s),
and (iii) e u n o amily labou (g oss ma gin o amoun o amily labou employed a io).
Such inancial analysis was ealised using household su ey da a.
3.1.2. Quan i-Quali a i e Analysis o B achia ia Adop ion
A desc ip i e analysis was ealized o de e mine he adop ion a e o B achia ia in he
esea ch a ea and he ba ie s o i s adop ion. The su ey da a we e used o conduc such
an analysis. The esul s we e hen e alua ed, assessed, and discussed u ilising in o ma ion
ga he ed om FDGs ca ied ou in he wo dis ic s.
3.1.3. Policy Analysis h ough In e en ion Logic Diag am
An In e en ion Logic diag am was he e de ined o map he ela ionships be ween he
policies ( hei ins umen s/measu es and hei speci ic, in e media e, and global objec i es),
he ins i u ional en i onmen (public and p i a e EASs p o ide s), and he ba ie s ela ed
o he adop ion o SAI sys ems (also based on B achia ia) in he s udy a ea. This diag am
was ealised based on he in o ma ion ga he ed om bo h FDGs and MAP mee ings held
in he wo selec ed dis ic s. The in e en ion logic diag am, as de ined by he Eu opean
Commission (2016), illus a es he logical link be ween he p oblem ha needs o be ackled
Economies 2024,12, 177 6 o 19
(o he objec i e ha needs o be pu sued), he unde lying d i e s o he p oblem, and he
a ailable policy op ions (o he ac ions ac ually aken) o add ess he p oblem o achie e he
objec i e. Such an ins umen is used in p ospec i e impac assessmen s and e alua ions.
The In e en ion Logic diag am he e illus a ed consis s o di e en sec ions ha a e
in e linked. Sec ion 1is ela ed o he iden i ica ion and ca ego iza ion o he ins i u ional
en i onmen . Sec ion 2is dedica ed o he de ini ion o weaknesses and adop ion ba ie s
o inno a ions. Finally, Sec ion 3aims o: (i) iden i y and ank he mos ele an policies
ela ed o inno a ion adop ion; (ii) iden i y he mos impo an ins umen s and measu es
as ele an ools o implemen policy p og ams; and (iii) iden i y he mos c ucial global,
in e media e, and speci ic goals ha he policy can achie e.
3.1.4. EAS Analysis h ough Venn Diag am
A Venn diag am was he e used o iden i y and map ou he key ins i u ions in ol ed in
ex ension ag icul u al se ices and o assess hei impo ance and hei links wi h he o he s
(Gen le and Ma aseni 2012). I allows us o d aw he ele ance o ins i u ions h ough he
size o ci cle ep esen ing each ins i u ion as ollows: la ge ci cles a e used o impo an
o ganiza ions and smalle o less ele an ones.
Venn diag am in o ma ion is ypically ga he ed h ough ocus g oup alks, wi h
pa icipan s asked o ank he a ious ins i u ions acco ding o impo ance in he local
con ex (B anca e al. 2022b). When a a me ecei es he same se ice om wo di e en
ins i u ions, wo ci cles in e sec , esul ing in an o e lapping a ea p opo ional o he
numbe o households supplied by bo h o ganisa ions.
Fo he pu pose o he p esen s udy, we d aw Venn diag ams using household su ey
da a. To assess he quali y o ex ension se ices p o ided by di e en o ganisa ions, we
examined he equency o a m isi s and a me ela ed sa is ac ion. As a esul , he Venn
diag am was c ea ed conside ing ins i u ion co e age in e ms o households supplied,
weigh ed by he numbe o isi s ealized and he le el o a me sa is ac ion.
3.2. Da a and Sou ce o In o ma ion
The s udy he e p esen ed was ealized unde he Ho izon 2020 p ojec “Inno a ions
in echnology, ins i u ional and ex ension app oaches owa ds sus ainable ag icul u e and
enhanced ood and nu i ion secu i y in A ica (Inno a ica)”. In his con ex , quali a i e
and quan i a i e da a we e collec ed h ough a su ey ocusing on smallholde s in Ki ehe
and Nyamagabe dis ic s in Rwanda, as well as ocus g oup discussions (FGDs) and
Mul i-Ac o Pla o m (MAP) mee ings in ol ing li es ock-dai y alue chain ac o s.
3.2.1. Field Su ey, Ques ionnai e S uc u e and Sample Desc ip ion
The s udy used da a ob ained om a ield su ey ca ied ou om Janua y o Feb ua y
2018 in Ki ehe and Nyamagabe dis ic s. The s udy adop ed a mul i-s age app oach o
selec ing a me s o pa icipa e in he esea ch, which included iden i ying he ele an
a me popula ion, in ol ing bo h adop e s and non-adop e s o B achia ia, selec ing clus-
e s ep esen ing lowe adminis a i e uni s, and andomly selec ing a me s o in e iews.
A o al o 616 a ms we e su eyed in he s udy a ea (308 a ms in each dis ic ). The sample
size was de ined using he ollowing Coch an’s sample o mula:
n0= Z2pq/e2
whe e: Z ep esen s he s anda d de ia ion o he 95% con idence in e al cha ac e ising a
no mal dis ibu ion; p is he es ima ed p opo ion o a ms adop ing mixed li es ock- o age
sys ems; q is equal o (1 −p), and e ep esen s he desi ed le el o p ecision.
Table 1 epo s he s uc u e o he ques ionnai e ha allows us o collec he ollow-
ing in o ma ion: smallholde s’ socio-demog aphic and economic p o iles, household’s
s uc u e and decision making, challenges in implemen ing inno a ions in he ag icul u e
sec o , access o ag icul u al inpu and c edi , ood and nu i ion secu i y, membe ship in
ag icul u al associa ions, and access o ex ension and ad iso y se ices.
Economies 2024,12, 177 7 o 19
Table 1. S uc u e o he HH ques ionnai e.
A Gene al in o ma ion
B Demog aphic cha ac e is ics and asse s
C Fodde /pas u e p oduc ion and managemen
D Milk p oduc ion, p ocessing and ma ke ing
E C op p oduc ion/Seed Sys em
F Clima e change and a iabili y, adap a ion and coping s a egies
G Membe ship in ag icul u al associa ions and access o ex ension and ad iso y se ices
H Food and nu i ion secu i y
J Access ag icul u al inpu and c edi
K Household decision making
Sou ce: Au ho s’ elabo a ions.
Table 2illus a es he majo cha ac e is ics o he sample analysed. The bulk o
he sampled a me s in e iewed a e middle-aged men wi h a leas a p ima y school
educa ion. The selec ed u al households ha e a e age on- a m and o - a m mon hly
incomes, espec i ely equal o abou 13 and 40 USD, while jus abou 39% o hem ha e
access o c edi . In e ms o physical asse s, sampled a ms ha e an a e age land a ea o
0.8 hec a es and own an a e age o wo milking cows, wi h 68% owning c oss-b eeding
ca le heads, while 24% and 10% hold local and exo ic b eeding animals, espec i ely.
Conside ing milk p oduc ion, only oughly 19% o a ms sell milk and animal-de i ed
p oduc s, while he es o hem a e s ill subsis ence-o ien ed. In e ms o in ol emen
in ne wo ks, associa ions, and ex ension p og ammes, a ound 36% o sampled a ms
belong o a me s’ g oups, wi h jus abou 13% ha ing access o EASs. Finally, in e ms
o en i onmen al and clima e shocks, i is wo h no ing ha he majo i y o a me s
in e iewed ha e encoun e ed clima e s ess in he p e ious i e yea s, as well as a li es ock
eed sho age in he pas 12 mon hs.
Table 2. Sample desc ip ion and s a is ics.
Va iables Desc ip ion Mean S .De .
Demog aphics
Household head, gende 1 i emale, 0 i male 0.781 -
Household head, age Age o he household head (yea s) 50.394 12.822
Household head, educa ion
1 i household head a ended a leas
p ima y school, 0 o he wise 0.760 -
Economic asse s
On- a m income Income gene a ed by ag icul u al
ac i i ies (USD) 36.742 43.539
O - a m income Income gene a ed by non-ag icul u al
ac i i ies (USD) 12.955 29.929
C edi access 1 i household has access o c edi ,
0 o he wise 0.391 -
Physical asse s
Land a ea Size o he ag icul u al land (ha) 0.804 0.987
Li es ock owned Numbe o animal heads owned 1.567 0.857
Local b eed 1 i household own local b eed,
0 o he wise 0.243 -
Exo ic b eed 1 i household own exo ic b eed,
0 o he wise 0.102 -
C oss b eed 1 i household own c oss b eed,
0 o he wise 0.684 -
Economies 2024,12, 177 8 o 19
Table 2. Con .
Va iables Desc ip ion Mean S .De .
Social asse s
G oup pa icipa ion 1 i household is membe o a me ’s
associa ions, 0 o he wise 0.357 -
EASs access 1 i household has access o EASs,
0 o he wise 0.128 -
O he
Milk sales 1 i household sells he milk p oduced,
0 o he wise 0.193 -
Feed sho age expe ience
1 i household expe ienced eed sho ages,
0 o he wise 0.911 -
Clima e change 1 i household pe cei ed clima e changes,
0 o he wise 0.974 -
Sou ce: Au ho s’ elabo a ions.
3.2.2. Focus G oup Discussion
A FGD mee ing was conduc ed in 2019 in he selec ed s udy si es wi h he suppo o
a semi-s uc u ed ques ionnai e o ob ain in-dep h in o ma ion abou weaknesses, oppo -
uni ies, and ba ie s cha ac e izing he li es ock-dai y alue chain as well as de ails on
exis ing policies and ex ension ad iso y se ices suppo ing i s g ow h. The pa icipan s in
he mee ing included a me o ganisa ions and coope a i es (i.e., he IAKIB coope a i es),
inpu supplie s (ag o-deale s), ex ensionis s, ma ke in e media ies and collec o s, in e na-
ional ade s, ood p ocesso s, and ood e aile s. Table 3 epo s he main sec ions o he
ques ionnai e used o guide he FGDs.
Table 3. S uc u e o he Focus G oup Discussion’s ques ionnai e.
A Please, iden i y he main cons ain s cha ac e izing he li es ock-dai y alue chain
B Please, iden i y he main s eng hs cha ac e izing he li es ock-dai y alue chain
C Please, iden i y he main oppo uni ies cha ac e izing he li es ock-dai y alue chain
D Please, iden i y he main h ea s cha ac e izing he li es ock-dai y alue chain
FWha a e he main policies a na ional and subna ional le el and p og ammes suppo ing
he li es ock-dai y alue chain
G
To wha deg ee is he subna ional/na ional/in e na ional ag icul u al policy conduci e o
a me s o adop inno a ion?
H Wha is he na ional policy as ega ds Ag icul u al Ex ension and Ad iso y Se ices?
IWho a e p o iding ag icul u al ad ice o a me s, and wha a e he capaci ies o hese
di e en ac o s
Sou ce: Au ho s’ elabo a ions.
3.2.3. Mul i-Ac o Pla o ms (MAP)
Mul i-ac o pla o ms (MAP) mee ings we e held du ing June–July 2019 and Janua y–
Ma ch 2020. MAP mee ings a e one o he inno a i e ins i u ional app oaches aimed
a acili a ing he adop ion o he new echnologies. They a e seen as he ehicle o
ag icul u al inno a ion and de elopmen ( an Mie lo and To in 2014; an Paassen e al.
2014;He mans e al. 2017). Wi hin he scope o he cu en esea ch, such mee ings
b ing oge he people om he public sec o , a me s ‘o ganisa ions, coope a i es (i.e.,
he NDFFR ca le coope a i e), NGOs, and small and medium en e p ises (SMEs). They
aimed a ac i a ing a p ocess o in e ac i e lea ning, empowe men , and collabo a i e
go e nance ha enables s akeholde s o be collec i ely inno a i e and esilien when aced
wi h eme ging isks, c isis, and oppo uni ies in a complex and changing en i onmen .
Du ing hese mee ings, pa icipan s we e guided by a semi-s uc u ed ques ionnai e in
Economies 2024,12, 177 15 o 19
dispe sed demand o such inpu ha e been majo impedimen s o he expanded usage o
B achia ia in Eas e n A ica (Ghimi e e al. 2015;Che uiyo e al. 2020). Mo eo e , impo
limi a ions and a lack o de ined p ocedu es o impo ing seeds de e he p i a e sec o
om ma ke ing B achia ia in he egion (Vijay e al. 2015).
5.2. Policy Implica ions
The policy analysis’s indings show ha he mos impo an policy ini ia i es ha
p omo e inno a ion and allow o e coming he iden i ied adop ion ba ie s a e hose
ha suppo li es ock inpu subsidies, imp o e smallholde s’ access o inpu s a ai
p ices, and ain a me s on how o use inpu s and imp o e li es ock nu i ion. The
e ec i eness o hese p og ammes, howe e , may be hampe ed by a lack o unding and
di icul ies de e mining he bes ways o mo e om high-le el commi men s o local ac ion,
depending on he execu i e abili y and calib e o sec o go e nance (Badiane e al. 2018;
Haug e al. 2021;B anca e al. 2022b). Conside ing he policy measu es ela ed o he
imp o emen o a me s’ skills and knowledge h ough ex ension se ices, Ga cía de Jalón
e al. (
2017
) sugges ha in es ing in ac o s ha enhance social capi al, such as ex ension
se ices o ag icul u al associa ions, can p o ide a cos -e ec i eness a io in e ms o
adop ion imp o emen ha is much lowe han in es ing in in as uc u e. As highligh ed
du ing he MAP mee ings, in Rwanda he ex ension deli e y me hods a e becoming mo e
plu alis ic wi h he widesp ead use o mobile phones and in o ma ion and communica ion
echnology (ICT). Fu he mo e, a me s can ge in o ma ion om di e en go e nmen
ins i u ions, including he Minis y o Ag icul u e and Animal Resou ces (MINAGRI) and
he Rwanda Ag icul u e Boa d (RAB). One o he RAB’s esponsibili ies is “ o p o ide
ag icul u al ex ension se ices in acco dance wi h ag icul u al and animal husband y
needs” (MacNai n and Da is 2018). I is decen alised a he illage le el in o de o wo k
wi h a me s oge he wi h ex ensionis s om he local go e nmen . This enables ame s o
access in o ma ion on inpu supply, ma ke , and c edi a ailable in he a ea. Howe e , as
illus a ed in Sec ion 4.3.2, he ex ension ad iso y se ices emain inadequa e and each
only 13% o a ms. Fu he mo e, households gene ally ecei e he EASs om a single
p o ide . Acco ding o Beaman e al. (2021), his aspec migh nega i ely in luence he
adop ion o such clima e-sma echnology since a me s a e mo e likely o emb ace new
echnologies when hey a e exposed o a wide ange o ex ension sou ces. Fa me s ha e
access o ex ensions p og ammes h ough a m isi s mainly p o ided by esea ch ins i u es
and public sec o , o h ough a me - o- a me sys ems. The in ol emen o he p i a e
sec o , ag o-deale s, and NGOs in he p o ision o ex ension se ices emains ma ginal,
p e en ing a eal di e si ica ion o he se ices and incen i es p o ided.
Despi e he e o s made in ecen yea s, inadequa e inancial esou ces alloca ed o
policy, a low ex ensionis /household a e, he p i a e sec o no being pe cei ed as an
ex ension p o ide , and insu icien aining on leade ship skills o coope a i e mem-
be s a e some o he mos ele an ba ie s o policy implemen a ion (Haug e al. 2021;
B anca e al. 2022a).
6. Conclusions
The s udy examines Rwanda’s ansi ion om a adi ional o a sus ainable li es ock
dai y sec o , ocusing on clima e-sma solu ions and policy ins umen s o p omo e sus-
ainable inno a ions. The me hodology uses con e ging and iangula ion o quan i a i e
and quali a i e da a sou ces o p o ide a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he complexi ies
o de eloping policy in e en ions o e icien , p o i able, and sus ainable li es ock-dai y
smallholde sys ems. The s udy sugges s ha d ough - esis an g ass like B achia ia could
help a me s o e come eed sho ages and s abilize p oduc ion, leading o mo e con inu-
ous a angemen s wi h buye s and imp o ed ba gaining posi ions. Howe e , B achia ia
has low adop ion a es, wi h only 2% o a me s using i . This is due o limi ed a me
awa eness, access o ex ension p og ams, and he a ailabili y o expensi e and di icul -
o-p oduce ag icul u al inpu s like seeds. Policy in e en ions should ocus on p omo ing
Economies 2024,12, 177 16 o 19
sus ainable seed p oduc ion sys ems, maximizing seed a ailabili y o smallholde a me s,
and de eloping cos -e ec i e ha es ing, h eshing, and s o age s uc u es.
Conside ing he cu en policy amewo k, Rwanda is implemen ing ma ke -d i en
ag icul u al sec o ans o ma ion ini ia i es, bu hei e ec i eness is hinde ed by in-
adequa e inancial capaci y, ine ec i e public ex ension se ice sys ems, limi ed p i a e
in ol emen , poo ma ke coo dina ion, and limi ed in es o engagemen in ma ke in-
as uc u e. The e o e, p omo ing new echnologies should ocus on clus e ing injec ion
si es wi hin a ne wo k (Beaman e al. 2021;B anca e al. 2022b). In his ega d, a s able
poli ical en i onmen and p ope legisla i e ac ions a e sys emic cha ac e is ics ha can
p omo e ag icul u al inno a ion and u al e i al h ough EAS sys ems cus omised o
e ec i ely communica e knowledge o u al households h ough di e si ied sou ces (Kosec
and Resnick 2019;No on and Alwang 2020).
Finally, i migh be use ul o ha monize and imp o e exis ing policies o p omo e he
de elopmen o smallholde - iendly con ex s h ough: (i) e iew cu en legal amewo ks
o emo e inadequacies, con lic s, and o e laps in he a ious ins i u ions cha ged wi h
implemen a ion o he a ious policies (e.g., a be e coo dina ion be ween he Minis y
o Ag icul u e and he Minis y o En i onmen on he use o ma shland could ha e an
e ec i e impac on he low land a ailabili y); (ii) inc ease budge alloca ion accompanied
wi h adequa e accoun abili y mechanisms o ensu e judicious use o he unds a ge policy
ins umen s; (iii) p o ision o adequa e and quali ied s a o implemen he policies; and
(i ) c ea ing awa eness o and es ablishing mechanisms o sensi iza ion o communi ies
on exis ing policies o ensu e adhe ence.
Fu u e esea ch on he e ec i eness o policies p omo ing B achia ia adop ion and
p o i abili y should be expanded o o he geog aphical and ins i u ional se ings, iden i ying
pa allels, o new c i ical elemen s unde lying clima e-neu al mixed c op-li es ock sys ems.
Au ho Con ibu ions: Concep ualiza ion, C.P., L.C., M.M., G.B. and A.S.; Fo mal analysis, C.P. and
L.C.; Me hodology, C.P. and L.C.; Supe ision, L.C., G.B. and A.S.; Valida ion, C.P., L.C., M.M., G.B.
and A.S.; W i ing—o iginal d a , C.P. and L.C.; W i ing— e iew & edi ing, C.P., L.C., M.M., G.B. and
A.S. All au ho s ha e ead and ag eed o he published e sion o he manusc ip .
Funding: This esea ch was unded by EU o H2020 g an suppo o he Inno A ica p ojec : G an
ag eemen no 727201 and call SFS-42-2016.
In o med Consen S a emen : No applicable.
Da a A ailabili y S a emen : The da a p esen ed in his s udy a e a ailable on eques om he
co esponding au ho .
Acknowledgmen s: We would like o acknowledge he EU o H2020 g an suppo o he Inno A ica
p ojec (g an ag eemen no 727201). We would also like o hank e e ybody who, in di e en ways,
has been in ol ed in he Inno A ica p ojec .
Con lic s o In e es : The au ho s decla e no con lic o in e es .
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