Joh i, Ama e al.
A icle
Un eiling he dynamics o en ep eneu ship among
disad an aged communi ies in de eloping economies: a
cogni i e pe spec i e
Cogen Business & Managemen
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Un eiling he dynamics o en ep eneu ship
among disad an aged communi ies in de eloping
economies: a cogni i e pe spec i e
Ama Joh i, Mohammed Wamique Hisam, Mohammad Asi , Mohammad
Shah a az Khan, Md. Faisal-E-Alam, Mohd Yasi A a a , Zuhaib Ahmad &
Asma Zahee
To ci e his a icle: Ama Joh i, Mohammed Wamique Hisam, Mohammad Asi , Mohammad
Shah a az Khan, Md. Faisal-E-Alam, Mohd Yasi A a a , Zuhaib Ahmad & Asma Zahee (2024)
Un eiling he dynamics o en ep eneu ship among disad an aged communi ies in de eloping
economies: a cogni i e pe spec i e, Cogen Business & Managemen , 11:1, 2373352, DOI:
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En Ep EnEu ship and inno a ion | EsEa ch a iclE
Cogen Business & ManageMen
2024, VoL. 11, no. 1, 2373352
Un eiling he dynamics o en ep eneu ship among disad an aged
communi ies in de eloping economies: a cogni i e pe spec i e
ama Joh ia , Mohammed Wamique hisamb, Mohammad asi a , Mohammad shah a az
Khanc, Md. Faisal-E-alamd , Mohd Yasi a a a e, Zuhaib ahmad and asma Zahee g
aCollege o adminis a i e and Financial science, saudi elec onic uni e si y, Riyadh, saudia a abia; bDepa men o
Managemen , College o comme ce and Business adminis a ion, Dho a uni e si y, oman; cDepa men o Business
adminis a ion, College o economics and Business adminis a ion, uni e si y o echnology and applied sciences, salalah,
oman; dDepa men o Managemen s udies, Begum Rokeya uni e si y, Rangpu , Bangladesh; eDi ision o Resea ch and
De elopmen , Lo ely P o essional uni e si y, Phagwa a, Punjab, india; Cen e o p o essional s udies, aMu, aliga h;
gDepa men o Ma ke ing Facul y o economics and adminis a ion, King abdulaziz uni e si y, Jeddah, kingdom o saudi
a abia
ABSTRACT
En ep eneu ship helps o mains eam he disad an aged. in o de o design policy o
he p omo ion o en ep eneu ship among disad an aged people a p ope
unde s anding o en ep eneu ship is impe a i e and cogni ion has been conside ed as
he bes in e p e e o en ep eneu ship. his s udy aimed o explo e he d i ing o ces
and hind ances ha in luence disad an aged indi iduals in hei decision o ini ia e
en ep eneu ial endea o s. We a e using a sample o 1173 people aken om he
low-income popula ion o india. he da a is analyzed h ough he use o he logis ic
eg ession echnique. he esul e lec s ha a i ude, subjec i e no ms, sel -e icacy,
pe cei ed oppo uni ies and ole models encou age indian disad an aged o s a
business. his esea ch con ibu es o wo exis ing heo ies: challenge-based
en ep eneu ship and he heo y o planned beha io . i also sheds ligh on a p e iously
unde s udied g oup - disad an aged en ep eneu s in de eloping economies. his
knowledge can be used by policymake s o c ea e p og ams ha encou age
en ep eneu ship a he g ass oo s le el.
1. In oduc ion
he exis ing li e a u e p ima ily ocuses on examining how posi i e ci cums ances, such as p io en e-
p eneu ial expe ience, sel -e icacy (schmu zle e al., 2019), social capi al and educa ion, he abili y o
ecognize oppo uni ies and he p esence o a suppo i e ins i u ional en i onmen , in luence en ep e-
neu ship. howe e , challenge-based en ep eneu ship heo y sugges s ha indi iduals adap o challeng-
ing ci cums ances, which can os e c ea i i y and wo k discipline, ul ima ely d i ing en ep eneu ial
endea o s. i ecognizes ha indi iduals acing challenging si ua ions encoun e bo h ba ie s o o e -
come and s eng hs o le e age.
in ecen imes, a ledgling a ea o esea ch has eme ged, ocusing on del ing in o he connec ion
be ween a ious pe sonal challenges and he wo ld o en ep eneu ship (Mo is & ucke , 2023). his
esea ch also explo es he s a egies employed by en ep eneu s o o e come hese challenges, as high-
ligh ed by esea che s. howe e , ou unde s anding in his ield emains limi ed when i comes o com-
p ehending why indi iduals acing low socio-economic si ua ions, pa icula ly hose wi h limi ed incomes,
choose o engage in en ep eneu ial pu sui s in eme ging economic con ex s. his challenge is especially
pe inen wi hin he subs an ial po ion o he popula ion ha has been ma ginalized.
© 2024 he au ho (s). Published by in o ma uK Limi ed, ading as aylo & F ancis g oup
CONTACT Mohd Yasi a a a yassa a a @gmail.com Di ision o Resea ch and De elopmen Lo ely P o essional uni e si y, Phagwa a
144411, Punjab, india; Zuhaib ahmad [email protected] Cen e o p o essional s udies, aMu, aliga h.
his a icle has been co ec ed wi h mino changes. hese changes do no impac he academic con en o he a icle.
h ps://doi.o g/10.1080/23311975.2024.2373352
his is an open access a icle dis ibu ed unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons a ibu ion License (h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses/by/4.0/), which
pe mi s un es ic ed use, dis ibu ion, and ep oduc ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed. he e ms on which his a icle has been
published allow he pos ing o he accep ed Manusc ip in a eposi o y by he au ho (s) o wi h hei consen .
ARTICLE HISTORY
ecei ed 23 oc obe
2023
e ised 18 May 2024
accep ed 12 June 2024
SUBJECTS
Business, Managemen
and accoun ing; indus y
& indus ial s udies;
Economics
KEYWORDS
Ma ginalized; india;
disad an aged
en ep eneu s; cogni ion;
de eloping economies
REVIEWING EDITOR
E ic liguo i, Flo ida s a e
uni e si y, uni ed s a es
2 a. Joh i E al.
Wi hin he indian con ex , economic inequali y s ands as a pe asi e issue, a poin unde sco ed. his
inequali y is o en in e wined wi h social cha ac e is ics, as discussed by au ho s, and is in luenced by
ins i u ional no ms, as e ealed by esea che s. consequen ly, he e is a p essing need o un a el he
in ica e dynamics behind he uncon en ional en ep eneu ial ac i i ies unde aken by his ou lie seg-
men o he popula ion.
he p ima y objec i e o ou s udy is o ad ance ou comp ehension o challenge-based en ep e-
neu ship heo y, as a icula ed by some au ho s. challenge-based en ep eneu ship heo y di e s om
he adi ional iew o en ep eneu s being d i en by oppo uni y. i p oposes ha indi iduals acing
a ious challenges such as economic ha dship, social exclusion, o limi ed esou ces migh be mo e likely
o pu sue en ep eneu ship. ou esea ch ocuses on in es iga ing he ac o s ha exe in luence on
en ep eneu ship among ma ginalized en ep eneu s ope a ing wi hin eme ging economies.
his esea ch con ibu es o exis ing knowledge in se e al signi ican ways. Fi s ly, i enhances
challenge-based en ep eneu ship heo y by p o iding empi ical suppo . in doing so, we conduc a
quan i a i e s udy in ol ing 1173 ma ginalized en ep eneu s om low-income backg ounds in india also
sugges ed by B i o e al. (2022), and pidduck and cla k (2021). secondly, i ex ends he heo y o planned
beha io (ajzen, 1991) by inco po a ing cons uc s ela ed o oppo uni y, ole models, and he ea o
ailu e, and es s hese cons uc s in a disad an aged con ex o de eloping economy. as schola s ha e
u ged o ex end he heo y o planned beha io by adding di e en con ex ual a iables and es his
model in o di e en con ex so as o enhance i s applicabili y and p o e i s soundness (a a a e al.,
2020; saleem e al., 2022). hi dly, he s udy con ibu es o he g owing body o esea ch on en ep e-
neu ship by ampli ying he oices o disad an aged en ep eneu s om eme ging economies, a g oup
o en o e looked and wo hy o s udy (Maalaoui e al., 2020). as emphasized by esea che s, i is c ucial
o explo e hese neglec ed ac o s and loca ions. las ly, he s udy ca ies impo an implica ions o pol-
icymake s aiming o p omo e en ep eneu ship a he g ass oo s le el. as his esea ch explains wha can
mo i a e o discou age people o become en ep eneu .
in his s udy, we de ine en ep eneu ship as c ea ion o new en u e and disad an aged en ep eneu -
ship as c ea ion o new en u e by poo people who ace low socio-economic si ua ion.
2.Theo e ical unde pinnings and hypo heses
o na iga e he landscape o en ep eneu ial in en ion among he unde p i ileged, his s udy adop s a
modi ied e sion o a heo y o planned Beha io (ajzen, 1991) as i s amewo k. his choice is unde -
pinned by se e al compelling easons. Fi s , he heo y o planned Beha io ( pB) s ands as a widely
accep ed cogni i e model in he ield and some ecen s udies ha e u ged o use i (san os, 2023).
second, i boas s a solid heo e ical ounda ion and has ga ne ed empi ical alida ion h ough nume ous
s udies (Yasi e al., 2023; p anić, 2023; Wang e al., 2023; Kim e al., 2022; aliedan e al., 2022; K uege
e al., 2000; oy e al., 2017). Mo eo e , saleem e al. (2022) ha e ex ended he heo y o planned beha -
io in he con ex o disad an aged and ound suppo o he heo y. ema kably, pB has acc ued o e
20,000 ci a ions as pe he Web o science since i s publica ion in 1991, a es ing o i s applicabili y in
explaining a wide a ay o planned beha io s, including en ep eneu ship. Gi en i s ex ensi e usage by
en ep eneu ship schola s in he con ex o en ep eneu ial in en ion, ou esea ch aligns wi h his adi-
ion, ocusing on he en ep eneu ial in en ions o disad an aged en ep eneu s.
2.1. The heo y o planned beha io (TPB)
a he co e o he pB lies he p emise ha in en ion p ecedes e e y beha io . in en ion is he p oduc
o an indi idual’s abili y and mo i a ion, signi ying hei likelihood and de e mina ion o engage in he
a ge beha io . his heo y posi s ha he s onge he in en ion, he highe he likelihood o beha io
execu ion. his linkage be ween in en ion and ac ion has been co obo a ed by nume ous s udies (cai
e al., 2023; li e al., 2023; s a el su on & Whi e, 2016; alba acín e al., 2001; han & s oel, 2017;
schlaegel & Koenig, 2014; Webb e al., 2010).
ajzen (1991) ou lines h ee an eceden s o in en ion: pe sonal a i ude, social no ms, and pBc (pe -
cei ed beha io al con ol). ‘a i ude’ is de ined as he ex en o which a pe son assesses o ac ion in
coGEn BusinEss & ManaGEMEn 3
ques ion a o ably o un a o ably. in en ion is con ingen upon indi iduals’ e alua ions o he beha io ,
ounded on he expec ancy- alue heo y (Fishbein & ajzen, 1975). his model posi s ha he subjec i e
assessmen o ou comes di ec ly in luences a i ude in p opo ion o he s eng h o belie .
‘subjec i e no ms’, as de ined by ajzen (1991), e e o he pe cei ed social p essu e, whe he app o al
o disapp o al, exe ed on an indi idual ega ding he pu sui o a pa icula beha io . signi ican e e -
en s include amily membe s, signi ican o he s, and iends. subjec i e no ms can ei he posi i ely o
nega i ely in luence in en ion o ma ion and subsequen ac ion.
dis inguishing pB om i s p edecesso , he heo y o easoned ac ion, is he addi ion o he cons uc
‘pe cei ed beha io al con ol’ (pBc). pBc embodies indi iduals’ pe cep ions o he easiness o di icul y asso-
cia ed wi h execu ing he a ge beha io . unlike he locus o con ol ( o e , 1966), pBc aligns closely wi h
sel -e icacy (Bandu a, 1982). acco ding o Bandu a, con idence in one’s abili y (pe cei ed Beha io al con ol)
exe s a p o ound in luence on beha io pe o mance. i no only impac s ac i i y selec ion and p epa a ion
bu also in luences e o expended du ing pe o mance and hough pa e ns.
he heo y o planned Beha io ( pB) has long been employed o in es iga e en ep eneu ial in en-
ion, da ing back o he seminal wo ks owing o i s obus applicabili y, he pB has se ed as a ounda-
ional model o nume ous s udies, o en subjec o al e a ions ha enhance i s e icacy. in his manusc ip ,
we emba k on an explo a ion o he pB’s cogni i e cons uc s—a i ude, subjec i e no ms, and pe -
cei ed beha io al con ol—augmen ed by addi ional ac o s such as ea o ailu e, oppo uni y pe cep-
ion, and ole models. his augmen a ion a ises om a weal h o li e a u e (soam e al., 2023; saleem
e al., 2022; sai e al., 2016) e ealing signi ican ela ionships be ween hese a iables and he in en ion
o ini ia e en ep eneu ial endea o s.
ou s udy ep esen s a usion o indi idual cogni i e elemen s, including pe sonal a i ude, pe cei ed
sel -e icacy, ea o ailu e, and pe cep ion o oppo uni ies, wi h socio-cul u al pe cep ions encompass-
ing pe cei ed social no m. his esea ch del es in o he in ica e in e play o indi idual and socio-cul u al
in luences on he in en ions o disad an aged indi iduals o emba k on en ep eneu ial jou neys.
Fu he mo e, we empi ically examine he ela ionship be ween demog aphic cha ac e is ics and en ep e-
neu ial in en ion.
2.2. Hypo heses
as p e iously discussed, i has been no ed in he ea lie sec ion ha he componen s o he heo y o
planned Beha io ( pB) – namely, a i ude, social no ms, and sel -e icacy – collec i ely play a signi ican
ole in shaping in en ion, consequen ly leading o en ep eneu ial ac ions. i is wo h men ioning ha
he pB was o iginally de eloped and alida ed in wes e n de eloped wo ld, and in indian se ing, peo-
ple possibly will no necessa ily sha e he same mindse and cogni ion amewo k as hei wes e n coun-
e pa s. Mo eo e , a majo i y o s udies conduc ed in india ha e p edominan ly ocused on s uden
samples (soam e al., 2023; Malho a & Ki an, 2023). Gi en hese ac o s, i is bo h easonable and pe -
inen o e isi ex an schola ship and ea i m he applicabili y o he pB when esea ching disad an-
aged g oups. o add ess his, we hypo hesize as ollow:
h1a: Fa ou able a i ude owa d en ep eneu ship posi i ely impac s he en ep eneu ial in en ions o disad-
an aged indi iduals.
h1b: Fa ou able subjec i e no ms owa d en ep eneu ship posi i ely impac he en ep eneu ial in en ions o
disad an aged indi iduals.
h1c: Belie in one’s own capabili ies, as pe cei ed sel -e icacy, posi i ely impac s he en ep eneu ial in en ions
o disad an aged indi iduals.
2.2.1. Pe cei ed oppo uni ies
pe cei ed oppo uni ies has been widely ecognized and alida ed as a ca alys o en ep eneu ial ac i -
i ies since he g oundb eaking esea ch on oppo uni y and en ep eneu ship by shane and enka a aman
(2000). nume ous s udies suppo he idea ha pe cei ed oppo uni ies se es as a mo i a ing ac o o
indi iduals o emba k on new business en u es (i asciuc & ispas, 2023; McMullen & shephe d, 2006;
4 a. Joh i E al.
shane e al., 2003). howe e , i is impo an o acknowledge he possibili y o an illusiona y e ec (Ba on,
1998). acco ding o ajzen (1991), he heo y o planned Beha io ( pB), an indi idual’s belie s and a i-
udes signi ican ly in luence hei beha io . When p esen ed wi h a ange o oppo uni ies, en ep eneu s
assess he easibili y o capi alizing on hem. du ing his e alua ion, a posi i e a i ude may g ow owa d
he con empla ed in en ion and beha io (ajzen, 1991). hose indi iduals who ha bo a a o able a i-
ude a e mo e expec ed o ake he ini ia i e o launch a new en e p ise (a a a e al., 2019). nume ous
o he schola s ha e also conduc ed es s demons a ing a posi i e ela ion be ween hese wo cons uc s
(saleem e al., 2022; honjo, 2015). Based on his ounda ion, we o mula e he ollowing hypo hesis:
h2: pe cei ing oppo uni ies posi i ely in luences he en ep eneu ial in en ions o disad an aged indi iduals.
2.2.2. Fea o ailu e
F om bo h economic and psychological pe spec i es, ea o ailu e exhibi s dis inc i e cha ac e is ics
(laussel & le B e on, 1995). he economic iewpoin on anxie y ela ed o ailu e cen e s a ound he
in e se ela ionship be ween isk- aking beha io and en ep eneu ial decision-making (a enius & Minni i,
2005). esea che s ha e aimed o add ess his challenging ela ionship by a emp ing o educe he isk
pe cep ion (Koellinge e al., 2013; Wagne , 2007; a enius & Minni i, 2005).
F om a psychological pe spec i e (caccio i & hay on, 2015; Gómez-a aujo & chand a, 2017; aillan
& la uen e, 2007), ailu e is seen as a cha ac e is ic ha a ises om he socio-cul u al con ex . i is in lu-
enced by ing ained socie al no ms, such as he belie ha ailu e is a shame ul expe ience, which nega-
i ely a ec s an indi idual’s a i ude (hessels e al., 2011). schola s ha e also a gued ha an indi idual’s
pe cep ion o hei own capabili ies plays a ole in hei ea o ailu e (saleem e al., 2022; sai e al.,
2016). consequen ly, he ea o encoun e ing un o eseen challenges can educe he likelihood o s a -
ing a new en u e. he ollowing heo y eme ges om he a o emen ioned deba e:
h3: he ea o ailu e nega i ely impac s he en ep eneu ial in en ions o disad an aged indi iduals.
2.2.3. Role model
his concep elucida es how humans acqui e knowledge and skills by ac i ely pa icipa ing in ac i i ies
and obse ing he ac ions o o he s, subsequen ly emula ing hem. an indi idual’s decision o engage in
a speci ic ac i i y is o en in luenced by he opinions and beha io s o o he s, ei he h ough di ec
examples o by se ing as posi i e ole models (ake lo & K an on, 2000; ajzen, 1991). i is belie ed ha
people acqui e knowledge by obse ing o he s who hey can ela e o in a speci ic con ex and se ing,
ideally someone who excels in he ield hey a e in e es ed in and aspi e o succeed in – essen ially,
lea ning by example o modeling (a enius & Minni i, 2005). his signi ican ly impac s a po en ial en e-
p eneu ’s ca ee choice and, mo e speci ically, hei decision o emba k on hei en ep eneu ial jou ney
(a enius & Minni i, 2005). as highligh ed by an auken e al. (2006), ole models play a pi o al ole in
boos ing indi iduals’ mo i a ion o become en ep eneu s, as well as enhancing hei sel -e icacy and
con idence. consequen ly, en ep eneu ial p opensi y and he chances o engaging in en ep eneu ial
ac i i ies a e posi i ely a ec ed (By ne e al., 2019; K uege e al., 2000; K uege , 1993). he concep ual
model based on hypo hesized ela ionships was shown in Figu e 1.
h4: ole models exe a ou able impac on en ep eneu ial in en ions o disad an aged indi iduals.
3. Me hodology
We ha e employed da a acqui ed and ga he ed by he Global En ep eneu ship Moni o (GEM). GEM,
which was ounded in 1998 by Babson college and london Business school, is a global o ganiza ion
dedica ed o in es iga ing he ac o s in luencing en ep eneu ial ac i i y in di e se economies, as ou -
lined by Bosma and schu jens (2009). his da a is sou ced om publicly a ailable pla o ms and al eady
published; no u he pe mission is equi ed o i s u iliza ion in esea ch endea o s. Fu he de ails
ega ding he public elease can be ound om he websi e (h ps://www.gemconso ium.o g/abou /
wiki). he adul popula ion su ey (aps) o GEM employs an ex ensi e ques ionnai e o ga he da a
coGEn BusinEss & ManaGEMEn 5
encompassing a ious cogni i e aspec s ela ed o en ep eneu ship. hese da a a e aluable o analyz-
ing indi iduals’ inclina ion and aspi a ion o ini ia e hei own businesses. o access he aps da ase , we
u ilized he GEM websi e (www.gemconso ium.o g), which encompasses in e iews o 244,470 indi idu-
als om a ious coun ies aking pa in GEM s udy. in he ini ial phase, we selec ed da a speci ically o
india, esul ing in 3,360 obse a ions. a e il e ing ou indi iduals alling in o he low-income ca ego y,
we iden i ied da a om 1,173 indi iduals. Fo a comp ehensi e unde s anding o he da a ga he ing
p ocess o he GEM aps, eade s can e e o he de ailed explana ion p o ided by eynolds e al. (2005).
using he GEM da a p o ides ce ain ad an ages o e ga he ing esh da a o his s udy. nume ous
s udies using GEM da a ha e been conduc ed and published in epu able jou nals, a es ing o he alidi y
and eliabili y o his da ase (schmu zle e al., 2019). apa om documen ing he ex en o en ep eneu -
ial ac i i y, ou esea ch also ga he s da a on a ange o explana o y ac o s ha en ich ou comp ehension
o en ep eneu ship om di e se angles, including he domain o en ep eneu ship among people wi h low
income ( eynolds e al., 2005). consequen ly, we hold he iew ha he GEM da ase is a i ing and highly
app op ia e esou ce o ou esea ch inqui y. he desc ip ion o a iables is gi en as unde in able 1.
3.1. Bina y logis ic eg ession model
logis ic eg ession, a s a is ical echnique employed o e alua e he impac o a ious p edic o a iables
on a bina y (non-me ic) dependen a iable, has been employed in his esea ch pape . his choice o
echnique aligns wi h he esea ch’s aim o p edic ing and explaining a wo-g oup dicho omous depen-
den a iable. he e a e simila i ies be ween logis ic eg ession and mul iple eg essions in e ms o hei
a iables.
he logis ic eg ession model can be ep esen ed as ollows:
Y1 X1 X2 X3 Xn= + + +…+
logis ic eg ession plays a c ucial ole in elucida ing he connec ion be ween independen and depen-
den a iables by de e mining he op imal model i . Mo eo e , i o e s he ad an age o no equi ing
assump ions abou da a dis ibu ion (G eene, 2002). he e a e wo compelling easons o employing
logis ic eg ession in his esea ch.
1. he dependen a iable, ‘disad an aged en ep eneu s,’ exhibi s a bina y na u e.
2. Mos o he independen a iables also all in o bina y o ca ego ical ca ego ies.
4. Resul s – desc ip i e s a is ics
desc ip i e s a is ics, as p esen ed in able 2, e eal se e al key insigh s. speci ically, 14 pe cen o he
esponden s exp ess an in en ion o ini ia e hei own business, while a signi ican majo i y, comp is-
ing 61%, iew en ep eneu ship as a desi able ca ee pa h. addi ionally, 64% o indi iduals pe cei e
Figu e 1. Hypo hesized ela ionship.
Sou ce: au ho s.
6 a. Joh i E al.
en ep eneu ship as a p es igious ca ee choice. Fu he mo e, 46% o he esponden s belie e ha
he e a e a o able en ep eneu ial oppo uni ies a ailable o hem, while 38% exp ess con idence in
hei en ep eneu ial abili ies o ini ia e a business en u e. howe e , i is no ewo hy ha 42% o he
esponden s ha bo conce ns ha he ea o ailu e may hinde hem om emba king on an en e-
p eneu ial jou ney. in e ms o ole models, 21% o he esponden s epo ha ing en ep eneu ial ole
models who may in luence hei ca ee choices. on a e age, he esponden s ha e an age o 35 yea s.
4.1. Co ela ion
he co ela ion analysis, as p esen ed in able 3, o e s ini ial suppo o he hypo heses o mula ed in his
s udy. he co ela ion ma ix highligh s ha all a iables, wi h he excep ion o isk pe cep ion, exhibi
posi i e and s a is ically signi ican co ela ions wi h he in en ion o become an en ep eneu . Fu he mo e,
demog aphic ac o s also display posi i e and signi ican co ela ions wi h en ep eneu ial in en ion.
4.2. Reg ession
he p ima y objec i e o his manusc ip was o examine he impac o cogni ion on he s a -up p o-
pensi y o disad an aged indi iduals in india. o achie e his objec i e and es he hypo heses, logis ic
Table 1. Va iables desc ip ion.
Va iable Label Desc ip ion
Dependen Disad an aged
en ep eneu s
Responden s aged 18 o 64 exp ess an in en ion o ini ia e a new business. his bina y a iable
was assessed using he ollowing ques ion, ‘you in end o s a a new business wi hin nex
h ee yea s’ (0 = no, 1 = Yes).
independen
a i ude ‘assign a alue o 1 i he esponden answe s “yes” o he ques ion, “in you coun y ( egion), do
mos people belie e ha s a ing a business is an a ac i e p o ession?” and a alue o 0 i he
answe is “no.”’
social no ms his bina y a iable is assigned a alue o 1 when he esponden answe s ‘yes’ o he ques ion, ‘in
you coun y ( egion), does a pe son who success ully s a s up a new business gain high social
s a us and p es ige?’ and a alue o 0 i he answe is ‘no’.
sel -e icacy his bina y a iable is assigned a alue o 1 i he indi idual belie es hey possess he knowledge,
skills, and expe ience equi ed o s a a business, and i is assigned a alue o 0 o he wise.
oppo uni y pe cep ion his bina y a iable is assigned a alue o 1 i he esponden s, ‘see good oppo uni ies o s a a
i m in he a ea whe e hey li e’, and i is assigned a alue o 0 o he wise.
Fea o ailu e his bina y a iable is assigned a alue o 1 i he indi idual indica es ha ‘ ea o ailu e would
p e en hem om se ing up a business’, and i is assigned a alue o 0 o he wise.
Role model ‘ his bina y a iable is assigned a alue o 1 i he indi idual pe sonally knows someone who has
s a ed up hei own business in he las 2 yea s, and i is assigned a alue o 0 o he wise’.
Con ol Demog aphic ac o s
age age o he esponden
gende gende alue 1 o men and 2 o women.
educa ion he esponden s’ highes le el o educa ion was assessed, and hei esponses we e s anda dized
in o i e ca ego ies: ‘0 = no educa ion’, ‘111 = some seconda y’, ‘1212 = seconda y deg ee’,
‘1316 = pos -seconda y’, and ‘1720 = uni e si y bachelo ’s deg ee o highe ’. Fi s g oup se es as
he e e ence ca ego y.
Wo k s a us geMWoRK3. geM ha monized wo k s a us: 3 ca ego ies: namely: Wo king ull ime, no wo king,
e i ed s uden s.
Table 2. Desc ip i e s a is ics.
NMinimum Maximum Mean sD
Disad an aged en ep eneu s 1173 0 1 .14 .35
a i ude 1173 0 1 .61 .49
social no ms 1173 0 1 .64 .48
sel -e icacy 1173 0 1 .38 .49
oppo uni y pe cep ion 1173 0 1 .46 .50
Risk pe cep ion 1173 0 1 .42 .49
Role model 1173 0 1 .21 .41
age 1173 18 64 35.23 12.40
gende 1173 1 2
educa ion 1172 0 1720
Wo k s a us 1173 10 30
Valid N (lis wise) 877
coGEn BusinEss & ManaGEMEn 7
eg ession analysis was con. o ensu e he goodness o i o he model, bo h he hosme and lemeshow
es and he omnibus goodness-o - i es we e pe o med. he omnibus goodness-o - i es e alua es
he null hypo hesis, which sugges s ha all model coe icien s a e equi alen o ze o, is alid, and i
con as s his wi h he al e na i e hypo hesis, which sugges s ha a leas one pa ame e is nonze o
( amos- od íguez e al., 2012). in ou s udy, he null hypo hesis was ejec ed a he 0.01 signi icance
le el, signi ying ha he model is a sui able i and aligns wi h he equi ed c i e ia (please e e o able
4 o de ails). addi ionally, he esea che s pe o med he hosme and lemeshow goodness-o - i es ,
whe e he null hypo hesis o model i is e ained i p > .05. as depic ed in able 3, he esul s a i m
ha he model is well- i ed and sui able o his s udy.
o in es iga e he impac o heo y o planned beha io de e minan s on en ep eneu ial in en ion
disad an aged, he i s g oup o hypo heses was pu o h. hypo hesis h1a posi ed ha he a i ude o
he disad an aged g oup owa ds en ep eneu ship would posi i ely in luence hei en ep eneu ial
in en ion. Gi en ha he ma ginal alue o his a iable is bo h posi i e and no mo e han 0.05, we
canno ejec he hypo hesis. Fu he mo e, he odds a io o his p edic o is 1.8, indica ing ha indi id-
uals wi h an en ep eneu ial mindse o an in e es in s a ing hei own business a e app oxima ely
wice as likely o do so compa ed o he gene al popula ion.
acco ding o h1b, he ambi ion o disad an aged pe sons o become en ep eneu s is posi i ely and
signi ican ly impac ed by a o able social no ms. We we e unable o ejec his hypo hesis since he
ma ginal e ec o his a iable is signi ican and posi i e. acco ding o he odds alue o 1.86 o his
p edic o , hose who iew en ep eneu ship as a high-s a us oca ion a e oughly wice as likely o make
a business choice.
sel -e icacy was p esen ed as ha ing a a o able ela ionship wi h disad an aged people’s ambi ion
o s a hei own business in hypo hesis h1c. he ma ginal e ec o his a iable is signi ican and
posi i e (p .01, Wald s a is ics = 7.533), hus we we e unable o ejec he hypo hesis ha he pe cep ion
o knowledge and abili ies has a posi i e in luence on en ep eneu ial in en ion. indi iduals who possess
en ep eneu ial sel -e icacy a e almos wice mo e likely o emba k on new en u es, as indica ed by he
odds a io o his a iable.
acco ding o hypo hesis numbe wo, he pe cep ion o oppo uni ies in luences he inclina ion o
s a a business a o ably. he inding suppo s he assump ion ha pe cei ed oppo uni ies ha e a pos-
i i e impac on s a -up (p <.001; so, he hypo hesis is accep ed). people who see en ep eneu ial chances
in hei egion ha e a 2.1 imes highe likelihood o es ablishing a business han he es o he commu-
ni y, acco ding o he odds alue o he pe cei ed oppo uni ies ac o .
in e es ingly, he aspi a ions o indi iduals om low-income backg ounds o become en ep eneu s
a e no signi ican ly a ec ed by hei ea o ailu e. as a esul , hypo hesis h3, which p oposed ha ea
o ailu e has a nega i e e ec , was ejec ed due o he lack o a signi ican ma ginal e ec o his
a iable.
ole models a e seen o encou age isk- aking, acco ding o hypo hesis numbe ou . he indings
suppo he hypo hesis (p <.001). he odds a io o his a iable shows ha he likelihood ha someone
would s a hei own business is wo imes highe among hose who ha e ole models. age and gende ,
Table 3. Co ela ions.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1. Disad an aged
en ep eneu s
1
2. Pe sonal a i ude .16** 1
3. social s a us .14** .31** 1
4. Pe cei ed
oppo uni ies
.20** .18** .13** 1
5. Fea o ailu e −.04 .05 .06 .02 1
6. sel -e icacy .19** .17** .13** .26** −.10** 1
7. Role models .13** .05 .03 .11** .03 .11** 1
8. age −.07* −.06 −.05 −.01 .01 −.01 .03 1
9. gende −.10** −.07* −.05 −.08* −.03 −.11** −.10** .04 1
10. educa ion le el .10** .03 .07* −.01 −.01 .05 .07* −.28** −.20** 1
11. Wo k s a us −.18** −.06 −.04 −.06 .02 −.15** −.12** −.15** .39** .11** 1
**Co ela ion is signi ican a he 0.01 le el.
*Co ela ion is signi ican a he 0.05 le el.
14 a. Joh i E al.
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