Sa ka , Sam a ; R. S., Reshmi
A icle
Del ing he in luence o socio-economic, demog aphic and mig a ion ac o s on u iliza ion o
emi ances in he ag icul u al sec o in a high ou -mig a ing egion in India: Sam a Sa ka , Reshmi
R. S.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Sa ka , Sam a ; R. S., Reshmi (2024) : Del ing he in luence o socio-economic,
demog aphic and mig a ion ac o s on u iliza ion o emi ances in he ag icul u al sec o in a
high ou -mig a ing egion in India: Sam a Sa ka , Reshmi R. S., Resea ch in Globaliza ion, ISSN
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Del ing he in luence o socio-economic, demog aphic and mig a ion
ac o s on u iliza ion o emi ances in he ag icul u al sec o in a high
ou -mig a ing egion in India
Sam a Sa ka
*
, Reshmi R.S.
Depa men o Mig a ion and U ban S udies, In e na ional Ins i u e o Popula ion Sciences, Go andi S a ion Road, Deona , Mumbai, Maha ash a 400088, India
ARTICLE INFO
Keywo ds:
Ou -mig a ion
Remi ance
Ag icul u e
Ru al De elopmen
Middle Ganga Plain
ABSTRACT
In de eloping na ions, emi ances play a i al ole in he de elopmen o he socie y. Remi ances se e as a
subs an ial income s eam o u al households, empowe ing hem o in es in a ming ac i i ies, p ocu e e-
sou ces, and enhance hei o e all quali y o li e. This s udy ocuses on in es iga ing emi ance u iliza ion
pa e ns in ag icul u e and how do socio-economic, demog aphic and mig a ion ac o s in luence emi ance
u iliza ion pa e ns in ag icul u e in he Middle Ganga Plain egion (Eas e n U a P adesh and Biha ) o India?
The s udy u ilizes he da a om he Middle Ganga Plain (MGP) mig a ion su ey (2021) conduc ed by he In-
e na ional Ins i u e o Popula ion Sciences, Mumbai. Wi h he help o bi a ia e analysis, he s udy explo es he
ela ionship be ween socioeconomic and mig a ion cha ac e is ics and he u iliza ion o emi ances in he
ag icul u al sec o . The Chi-Squa e es alida es he indings, ollowed by a Binomial Logis ic Reg ession Model
o u he analysis. The s udy e eals ha ma ginalized social g oups a e mo e inclined o use emi ances o
ag icul u e due o hei ac i e in ol emen in ag icul u e. Fu he mo e, households wi h la ge landholdings
demons a e an inc eased likelihood o emi ance u iliza ion ac oss all ag icul u al sec o s. Addi ionally, i was
obse ed ha emi ances in ag icul u e we e mo e p e alen among emale-headed households. Mo eo e ,
pa en s who a e ecipien s o emi ances end o alloca e hei unds o ag icul u al ac i i ies. The signi ican
posi i e co ela ion be ween mon hly emi ance ecei e s and o al ag icul u al expenses unde sco es he
impo ance o emi ances in u al de elopmen . This s udy p o ides aluable insigh s in o emi ance u iliza ion
pa e ns and associa ed ac o s in he ag icul u al sec o , highligh ing he need o a ge ed policies and in-
e en ions o enhance he e icien and e ec i e use o emi ances in ag icul u e, ul ima ely con ibu ing o
u al economic g ow h and de elopmen .
1. In oduc ion
Mig a ion is a pe manen o semi-pe manen eloca ion o in-
di iduals o g oups om one egion o ano he , d i en by a ious
de e mined easons. The causes o mig a ion a e complex and mul i-
ace ed, anging om he pu sui o peace, poli ical s abili y, and
de elopmen o escaping con lic and po e y. Addi ionally, many
people mig a e ab oad o educa ional oppo uni ies o o wo k and send
emi ances back o hei amilies (Sil a e al., 2018). Signi ican ly,
millions o people mig a e yea ly o boos hei ea nings and imp o e
household wel a e, which is a widesp ead phenomenon wo ldwide ha
is especially p ominen in de eloping na ions (Rajkuma , 2020). A
subs an ial p opo ion o o e seas mig an s come om u al a eas. As a
consequence o mig a ion, i bene i s bo h egions, as he o igin egion
gains new skills and emi ances, while he des ina ion bene i s om a
plen i ul supply o a o dable labou . Simul aneously, he e u n o
money and asse s by mig an s o hei espec i e home egions is one o
he epe cussions o u al- o-u ban mig a ion (Rempel & Lobdell, 1978).
In e na ional and domes ic mig a ion om u al o u ban a eas plays a
c ucial ole in an economy’s s uc u al e olu ion, p esen ing bo h op-
po uni ies and challenges o u al economies. Fo example, amily e-
mi ances ha e a signi ican posi i e e ec on educing po e y (Sil a
e al., 2018). As a de eloping coun y, his mig a ion end in India is
no ably p onounced, wi h a dis inc shi om u al a eas o ci ies.
Al hough labou mig a ion is a complex phenomenon wi h a
conside able ocus on unde s anding i s d i ing ac o s, he e is a
* Co esponding au ho a : In e na ional Ins i u e o Popula ion Sciences, Go andi S a ion Road, Deona , Mumbai, Maha ash a 400088, India.
E-mail add esses: [email p o ec ed] (S. Sa ka ), [email p o ec ed] (R. R.S.).
Con en s lis s a ailable a ScienceDi ec
Resea ch in Globaliza ion
jou nal homepage: www.sciencedi ec .com/jou nal/ esea ch-in-globaliza ion
h ps://doi.o g/10.1016/j. esglo.2024.100235
Recei ed 7 Decembe 2023; Recei ed in e ised o m 19 June 2024; Accep ed 23 June 2024
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 9 (2024) 100235
2
no able lack o knowledge and p ac ical policies ega ding he impac s
on indi iduals and he communi ies hey lea e behind (Dessalegn e al.,
2023). Despi e hese complexi ies, i is ecognized ha emi ances can
play a signi ican ole in he economic de elopmen o he sou ce e-
gions, especially in u al a eas in his con ex (Hidaya i, 2020). They
se e as an essen ial sou ce o unding, suppo ing li elihoods and
economic ac i i ies in u al a eas(Chin amani & Kulka ni, 2023). I is
also e iden ha he quan i y o mig an emi ances ecei ed by
de eloping coun ies has expanded d ama ically o e he las decade
and has played an essen ial ole in u al de elopmen in many ways
(Mab ouk & Mekni, 2018). Remi ances o India ha e inc eased
d ama ically since 1991, p opelling he na ion o he op o he de el-
oping wo ld’s emi ance ecipien lis (Gup a, 2006). Acco ding o he
la es Wo ld Mig a ion Repo by he Uni ed Na ions, India opped he
lis o coun ies ecei ing emi ances om ab oad, wi h a o al o $111
billion in 2022. This amoun signi ican ly su passed ha o i s nea es
compe i o s, including Mexico ($61.1 billion), China ($51 billion), he
Philippines ($38.05 billion), and F ance ($30.04 billion)(Ghosh, 2024).
These emi ances, along wi h o he de elopmen aspec s such as con-
ibu ions o sa ings o business in es men s, o en help g ow local
ag icul u al ac i i ies and enhance he wel a e and li elihood o ecip-
ien households by p o iding necessi ies such as ood, clo hing,
imp o ed heal h and educa ion, and human and social capi al. (Xing,
2018). See (Fig. 1).
Remi ance in lows can p o ide smallholde a me s wi h access o
capi al, which hey can use o pu chase seeds, e ilize s, and o he
necessa y inpu s o success ul c op p oduc ion. P e iously, many
s udies ha e been ca ied ou in se e al de eloping coun ies like China,
Nepal, Bhu an, Philippines, and some La in Ame ican and A ican
coun ies. A s udy by A amano and an den Be g (2012) says
emi ances gene ally esul in highe c op ea nings o mos a me s,
excep hose who own he mos land. Ano he impo an s udy (Vasco
e al., 2016) ocused on he impac o in e na ional mig a ion and e-
mi ances on ag icul u al p oduc ion pa e ns in u al Ecuado . The
s udy says amilies wi h membe s who mig a ed ab oad end o use
emi ance o pu chase e ilize s o compensa e o he dec eased
a ailable labou due o mig a ion. A s udy in es iga ed emi ances’
impac on ag icul u al labou p oduc i i y in Sub-Saha an A ica. Using
panel da a om 39 coun ies (2000–2016), hey ound ha emi ances
had a s ong nega i e impac on ag icul u al labou p oduc i i y
(Wony a & Ame oglo, 2020). Ano he s udy (Ghimi e & Kap i, 2020)
also conduc ed simila esea ch in Nepal. They ied o analyse he ole
o ea ned and unea ned emi ance in ag icul u al p oduc i i y. Thei
s udy indings show ha unea ned emi ances imp o e ag icul u al
p oduc i i y mo e han ea ned emi ances. In he long e m, ag icul u e
can con ibu e o educing u al po e y. Howe e , in he sho e m,
emi ances om ab oad a e mo e e ec i e in alle ia ing po e y
h ough ag icul u al de elopmen in u al a eas(Liu e al., 2020). A he
same ime, he indi idual and household ac o s like age, ma i al s a us,
human capi al, household size, cas e, and land owne ship g ea ly in-
luence mig a ion decisions and he amoun o emi ances sen (Pal,
2022). Ag icul u e is he mos impo an economic sec o o u al a eas;
in his con ex , i is impo an o s udy he ole o socioeconomic, De-
mog aphic and Mig a ion Fac o s o emi ance u iliza ion in ag icul u e
in he Indian con ex . So, he esea ch ques ion a ises: How do socio-
economic, demog aphic and mig a ion ac o s in luence he u iliza ion
o emi ances in ag icul u al expenses among households in Biha and
Eas e n U a P adesh (Middle Ganga Plain egion), conside ing he
p e alence o a ious ag icul u al inpu s s a ing om hi ing labou ,
pu chasing hyb id seeds, pu chasing e ilize and pes icides o
Fig. 1. Loca ion Map o he S udy A ea.
Map Sou ce: MGP Mig a ion Su ey Repo (2021)
S. Sa ka and R. R.S.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 9 (2024) 100235
3
pu chasing ubewell?
2. Ra ionale o he s udy
Middle Ganga Plain (MGP) in his s udy co e s Biha and Eas e n
U a P adesh in India. I is a i al egion unde he Ag o-Clima ic Zone
in India, wi h 132 pe cen c opping in ensi y (Sha ma & Pai hanka ,
2014). Fu he mo e, ou wa d mig a ion is mo e p e alen in he u al
egions o he coun y’s no he n and eas e n s a es, pa icula ly in U a
P adesh and Biha (Kesh i & Bhaga , 2012). Simul aneously, acco ding
o he Middle Ganga Plain (MGP) mig a ion su ey epo (2021), o e
57 pe cen o households consis o a leas one membe who has
mig a ed o employmen o business pu poses wi hin he coun y as
well as ac oss he bo de (Roy e al., 2021).. The Census o India (2011)
also indica es ha a o al o 10.11 million male ou -mig a ion ha e
occu ed in hese wo s a es. Lack o employmen is he p ima y eason
o ou wa d mig a ion om he as egion o Eas e n U a P adesh and
Biha (Saman a & Munda, 2023). So, he mig an households o his
MGP egion ecei e no only in e nal emi ance bu also in e na ional
emi ance. This mig a ion end highligh s he in e connec edness be-
ween local and global dynamics, as indi iduals om his egion
con ibu e o he global labou o ce. Unde s anding how emi ances
low in o hese mig an households, bo h om in e nal sou ces and
in e na ionally, adds a global dimension o he s udy. Families ecei ing
emi ances end o ha e a g ea e ag icul u al ou pu (Kap i & Ghimi e,
2020). Al hough nume ous s udies ha e examined he impac o e-
mi ances on ag icul u al de elopmen in many de eloping coun ies in
many ways, esea ch in he Indian con ex has been ela i ely sca ce.
Likewise, mos o he exis ing s udies mainly highligh ed ha e-
mi ances play a i al ole in enhancing ag icul u al de elopmen in
de eloping coun ies, p o iding smallholde a me s wi h essen ial
capi al o ag icul u al inpu , and he use o his emi ance can di e
based on a ious ac o s such as socioeconomic, demog aphic cha ac-
e is ics o he households, mig a ion ac o s e c. Consequen ly, emi -
ance helps po e y educ ion and u al de elopmen . The e o e,
emi ance has he po en ial o achie e sus ainable de elopmen goals
(SDGs) and con ibu e o economic g ow h in de eloping coun ies.
The e o e, he p esen s udy examines he de e minan s o emi ance
u iliza ion in he ag icul u al sec o . See (Fig. 2).
This s udy makes se e al signi ican con ibu ions o he exis ing
li e a u e on emi ances and ag icul u al dynamics, pa icula ly in he
con ex o de eloping na ions. By concen a ing on he Middle Ganga
Plain egion in India (Eas e n U a P adesh and Biha ), his s udy p o-
ides de ailed egional insigh s ha a e o en unde ep esen ed in
b oade analyses o emi ance u iliza ion in ag icul u e. This ocus
en iches he unde s anding o dynamics and socio-economic condi ions
in luencing emi ance u iliza ion in ag icul u e. This is one o he ew
s udies ha speci ically examine he Middle Ganga Plain egion,
p o iding unique insigh s in o a ela i ely less s udied a ea. This
egional ocus in he Indian con ex ills a signi ican gap in he li e a u e
and o e s a nuanced unde s anding o emi ance dynamics and ag i-
cul u al aspec s. The de ailed examina ion o emi ance u ilisa ion in
he Middle Ganga Plain egion p o ided aluable insigh s ha can
in o m global s a egies o le e aging emi ances o imp o e ag icul-
u al p oduc i i y and socioeconomic de elopmen in o he unde ep-
esen ed and high ou wa d mig a o y egions a ound he wo ld.
3. Da a and me hodology
3.1. S udy a ea
The Middle Ganga Plain, he ocus o his s udy, includes wo
geog aphic egions: Eas e n U a P adesh and Biha in India. These
egions a e subdi ided in o 17 adminis a i e di isions, wi h Eas e n
U a P adesh con aining 8 and Biha 9, each cha ac e ized by di e se
socio-economic p o iles. Based on p e ious esea ch, his egion is
iden i ied as he p ima y sou ce o ou wa d mig a ion in India.
3.2. Sampling design
Middle Ganga Plain (MGP) mig a ion su ey da a was used o he
s udy, which was conduc ed by he Depa men o Mig a ion and U ban
S udies, In e na ional Ins i u e o Popula ion Sciences, Mumbai, in
2021. MGP has ou ypes o mig a ion da a: in e nal o ou -mig a ion,
in e na ional mig a ion, seasonal mig a ion, and po en ial mig a ion.
Apa om ha , ano he ype o mig a ion da a also includes e u n
mig a ion. Fo his s udy, he use o da a is limi ed o emi ance use in
ag icul u al expense and i s associa ed in o ma ion. This s udy
employed a mul i-s age s a i ied andom sampling app oach. Basically,
in e nal o ou mig a ion and in e na ional mig a ion da a ha e been
used in his s udy. This s udy in ol es a o al o 4056 households,
consis ing o 1579 non-mig an households and 2164 mig an house-
holds. Among he mig an households, 1639 households, wi h 1530 o
in e nal and 109 o in e na ional mig an s, ha e been conside ed o
he s udy. This da a se con ains se e al aspec s such as household
cha ac e is ics, demog aphic composi ion, mig a ion cha ac e is ics,
emi ances and hei u iliza ion pa e n, and a ious socio-economic
cha ac e is ics such as educa ion, employmen , landholding, ag icul-
u al in es men , i iga ion, and household head cha ac e is ics.
Fig. 2. Sampling F amewo k o he S udy.
No e: A Mig an is de ined as any household membe who has eloca ed hei usual place o esidence o ano he dis ic wi hin India o o a di e en coun y o
employmen , business, o educa ion, s aying away o o e a yea . A Mig an Household e e s o a household ha includes a leas one membe who is a mig an .
This indi idual could be an in e nal (ou -mig an ), in e na ional, o seasonal mig an . A Non-Mig an Household e e s o a household whe e no membe has e e
eloca ed om hei usual place o esidence o employmen o business pu poses. A Re u n Mig an Household is any household ha includes a membe who has
p e iously mig a ed and e u ned. An In e na ional Mig an Household e e s o a household whe e a leas one membe has mo ed o des ina ions ou side India
o employmen o business pu poses, and hei s ay has exceeded six mon hs. An Ou -Mig an Household e e s o a household whe e a leas one membe has
mig a ed o o he dis ic s wi hin India (bu no in e na ionally) o wo k o business o a du a ion exceeding one yea . Remi ance e e s o he money ha a
household ecei es om i s membe s who ha e mig a ed, o e a pe iod o a leas one yea .
Sou ce: MGP Mig a ion Su ey Repo (2021)
S. Sa ka and R. R.S.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 9 (2024) 100235
4
3.3. Me hods
3.3.1. Desc ip ion o a iables
Dependen a iable: Bo h in e nal and in e na ional mig an
households we e asked ou ypes o ques ions in he MGP mig a ion
su ey ega ding he expendi u e o emi ances on ag icul u al ex-
penses. These ques ions we e ela ed o he hi ing o labou e s, pu chase
o hyb id seeds, pu chase o e ilize s o pes icides, and pu chase o
ube wells. Mul iple choice answe s we e he e o e e y ques ion, hese
a e “1 =Fully”, “2 =Pa ially”, “3 =No a all” and “9 =No Appli-
cable”. These op ions a e eco ded as “1/2 =0 Yes” as esponden s using
emi ances in ag icul u al sec o s and “3/9 =1 No” as esponden s no
using he emi ances in ag icul u al sec o s. In his way, a bina y
dependen a iable has been c ea ed o u he analysis. The choice o
his bina y dependen a iable in his s udy is jus i ied because i aligns
wi h he esea ch ocus, acili a es analysis, and p o ides a s aigh o -
wa d in e p e a ion. I e ec i ely add esses he cen al ques ion o
whe he emi ances a e u ilized o ag icul u al ac i i ies.
Independen a iables: Upon examining he cu en li e a u e, he
ele an in o ma ion in he da ase ha could po en ially impac he
u iliza ion o emi ances in ag icul u al expenses has been iden i ied
and conside ed as independen a iables. A c i ical s udy by Kap i and
Ghimi e (2020) used signi ican a iables such as emi ance in lows,
numbe o mig an s, ag icul u al p oduc i i y, and o he household
head cha ac e is ics, including age, sex o he household head, educa-
ion ca ego ies, e c. and o he socio-economic cha ac e is ics o he
household includes cas e ca ego y, household size, amily ype, land-
holding e c. as independen a iable o analysing he emi ance u ili-
za ion pa e n in ag icul u al expenses. So, de ails o independen
a iables hose a e used in his s udy a e gi en below-
a) Age G oup: Age g oups can signi ican ly in luence he u iliza ion o
emi ances in ag icul u e due o a ying p io i ies, capabili ies, and
pe spec i es among di e en coho s. The Age G oup o he s udy
popula ion has been ca ego ised as ‘Less han 30 Yea s’, ‘31–45
Yea s’, ‘46–60 Yea s’, and ‘Mo e han 60 Yea s’.
b) Sex o he Household Head: The sex o he household head can
signi ican ly in luence he u iliza ion o emi ances in ag icul u e
due o di e ing oles, esponsibili ies, p io i ies, and access o e-
sou ces be ween men and women. This a iable has been ex ac ed
om he s udy o de e mine he headship o he household.
c) Cas e Ca ego y: Cas e ca ego y is ano he c ucial aspec ha plays an
impo an ole in emi ance use in ag icul u e. Cas e ca ego ies can
signi ican ly in luence he u iliza ion o emi ances in ag icul u e,
pa icula ly in socie ies whe e cas e-based hie a chies a ec access
o esou ces, oppo uni ies, and social capi al. Acco ding o da a
a ailabili y, his a iable is u he subdi ided in o ‘STs’, ‘SCs’,
‘OBCs’ and ‘O he s.’
d) Educa ion Ca ego y: The educa ion ca ego y o households can
signi ican ly in luence he u iliza ion o emi ances in ag icul u e, as
educa ion le els o en co ela e wi h access o in o ma ion, skills,
and esou ces. This a iable is u he eco ded as ‘Illi e a e’, ‘P i-
ma y’, ‘Seconda y’ and ‘Highe Seconda y & Abo e’.
e) Landholding: Landholding plays a c ucial ole in he e ec i e u ili-
za ion o emi ances in he ag icul u al sec o , as i p o ides he
necessa y esou ces and in as uc u e o in es men in a ming
ac i i ies. Landholding is u he eco ded as ‘Land Less’, ‘Less han 1
Ac e’ and ‘Mo e han 1 Ac e.’
) Na u e o Wo k: The na u e o he wo k o a mig an plays a c ucial
ole in de e mining he e ec i e u iliza ion o emi ances in he
ag icul u al sec o , as ce ain skills and expe iences may be mo e
ele an and bene icial o he speci ic needs and demands o ag i-
cul u al wo k. This a iable u he ecoded as ‘Casual Wage La-
bou ’, ‘Go . Sala ied Wo k’, ‘P i a e Sala ied Wo k’, ‘Sel -
Employed’, ‘Unpaid Family Wo ke ’.
g) Family Type: The amily ype o a mig an also holds signi ican
impo ance in he u iliza ion o emi ances in he ag icul u al sec o ,
as he needs and p io i ies o a mig an ’s amily can in luence he
alloca ion o unds owa ds ag icul u al in es men s and de elop-
men . Acco ding he need o he s udy and a ailabili y o da a his
a iable also eco ded as ‘Nuclea ’ and ‘Join /Ex ended’.
h) Family Size: He e, amily size means he o al numbe o amily
membe s in a household. The size o a mig an household holds a
c ucial ole in e ec i ely u ilizing emi ances in he ag icul u al
sec o , as la ge amilies may equi e mo e signi ican in es men s o
mee hei needs and achie e sus ainable ag icul u al g ow h. In
compa ison, smalle amilies may ha e mo e lexibili y in esou ce
alloca ion. This a iable is also eco ded in h ee subca ego ies, hese
a e ‘Single’ ‘2–5 Membe s’, and ‘6 &Mo e Membe s’
i) F equency o Remi ance: The equency o emi ance in lows is an
impo an ac o ha a ec s he u iliza ion o emi ances in he
ag icul u al sec o . Fu he , his a iable is subdi ided in o
‘Mon hly’, ‘Qua e ly’, ‘Hal Yea ly /Yea ly’ and ‘When Requi ed’.
j) Remi ance Recei e : The ole o he emi ance ecipien in u ilizing
emi ances o ag icul u al de elopmen is also c ucial. This a i-
able is ca ego ised as ‘Pa en s’, ‘Wi e’, and ‘O he s’.
k) Mig a ion Du a ion: The mig a ion du a ion can a ec he emi ance
sende ’s abili y o main ain a consis en le el o suppo o hei
amily’s ag icul u al ac i i ies. ‘Less han 5 Yea s’, ‘5–10 Yea s’ and
‘Mo e han 10 yea s’ a e he subca ego ies o his a iable.
3.3.2. Analy ical model
A bi a ia e model was used o examine he ela ionship be ween
di e en socio-economic and mig a ion cha ac e is ics o mig an s and
a ious ag icul u al expenses ha we e paid using he money sen back
by hose mig an s as emi ance. The pu pose o his analysis was o
unde s and how he cha ac e is ics o he mig an s we e ela ed o he
ag icul u al expenses ha we e being paid using hei emi ance
money. Bi a ia e analysis se es as an ini ial explo a ion o ela ionships
be ween indi idual a iables wi hou conside ing he in luence o o he
ac o s. The Chi-Squa e es has been adop ed o he alidi y check.
Fu he , he binomial Logis ic Reg ession Model has been used o his
s udy. Logis ic eg ession modelling is a sui able me hod o analyzing
he ela ionship be ween mul iple independen a iables (such as socio-
economic, demog aphic and mig a ion cha ac e is ics) and a bina y
ou come a iable. I allows o con olling he e ec s o con ounding
a iables and quan i ying he impac o each p edic o a iable on he
likelihood o speci ic ou comes. In his s udy, using a binomial logis ic
eg ession model enables us o in es iga e how di e en socio-
economic, demog aphic and mig a ion cha ac e is ics o mig an s in-
luence he likelihood o emi ance u iliza ion in ag icul u e. S a a 14.1
so wa e ool has been used o da a analysis.
4. Resul s
De e mining he backg ound cha ac e is ics o he s udy popula ion
is c ucial because he a ia ion o sociodemog aphic cha ac e is ics
be ween indi iduals who pa icipa e and hose who do no in
popula ion-based s udies can in oduce bias and diminish he applica-
bili y o any esea ch esul s (Vo e al., 2023). The e o e, ele an so-
cioeconomic, demog aphic and mig a ion cha ac e is ics which can
in luence he u iliza ion o emi ances ha e been selec ed o he p e-
sen s udy. Table 1 p o ides a b ie backg ound cha ac e is ic o he
s udy popula ion.
In e ms o age dis ibu ion, he majo i y o mig an s all wi hin he
age ange o 46–60 yea s (31.91 %), ollowed by hose aged less han 30
yea s (24.28 %), 31–45 yea s (25.16 %), and mo e han 60 yea s (18.64
%). Rega ding he sex o he household head, a highe p opo ion o
households a e headed by emales (61.3 %) compa ed o males (38.7 %).
Cas e ca ego y dis ibu ion e eals ha a signi ican po ion o mig an s
belong o O he Backwa d Classes (OBCs) (55.19 %), ollowed by
S. Sa ka and R. R.S.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 9 (2024) 100235
5
Scheduled Cas es (SCs) (23.19 %), O he s (19.22 %), and Scheduled
T ibes (STs) (2.4 %). In e ms o educa ion, he majo i y o mig an s a e
illi e a e (58.05 %), while smalle p opo ions ha e comple ed p ima y
(13.77 %), seconda y (20.19 %), o highe seconda y educa ion and
abo e (7.98 %). Landholding pa e ns show ha a conside able p o-
po ion o mig an s ha e no land (55.8 %), while o he s own less han 1
ac e (30.04 %) o mo e han 1 ac e (14.16 %). Rega ding employmen , a
signi ican po ion o mig an s a e engaged in p i a e sala ied wo k
(44.99 %), ollowed by casual wage labou (48.22 %), sel -employmen
(3.4 %), go e nmen sala ied wo k (3.26 %), and unpaid amily wo k
(0.13 %). Nuclea amilies cons i u e he majo i y (60.29 %), and e-
mi ances a e p ima ily sen mon hly (63.99 %), wi h wi es being he
mos common ecei e s (58.44 %). Mig a ion du a ion is ai ly e enly
dis ibu ed, wi h app oxima ely one- hi d o mig an s ha ing been away
o less han 5 yea s (32.49 %), 5–10 yea s (35.22 %), and mo e han 10
yea s (32.29 %).
Remi ances play an impo an ole in inc easing o e all well-being
and p omo ing economic g ow h a bo h he indi idual and commu-
ni y le els(Ghosh Das ida , 2017). The e icien use o emi ances is
de e mined by he ecei e s’ unique needs and ambi ions and he la ge
con ex o he ecei ing communi y. Table 2 indica es de ailed in o -
ma ion abou emi ance u iliza ion in a ious sec o s acco ding o he
mig a ion ypes as well as egion-wise in he Middle Ganga Plain. The
analysis u he e ealed ha medical expenses ha e he highes sha e o
emi ance expenses, a ound 63 %, ollowed by daily needs, including
ood, a ound 60 %, and educa ion o he child en, abou 56 %. Social
ce emonies, such as es i als and gi s o ela i es, ha e a pe cen age o
51.5 % while paying dow y has a pe cen age o 45.6 %. Loan epaymen
accoun s o 42.3 %. Fo in es men , he highes pe cen age is spen on
cons uc ing a new house a 50.2 %, ollowed by epai /main enance o
he house a 51 %. Pu chasing o o namen s and in es ing in buying
li es ock a e also lis ed unde his ca ego y. O he household pu chases
include a mo o cycle, ele ision, idge/washing machine, and mobile/
came a, wi h he highes pe cen age spen on a mo o cycle a 24.4 %.
Unde ag icul u e, hi ing a labou e has he highes pe cen age a 29 %,
ollowed by pu chasing hyb id seeds a 26 %. Pu chasing e ilize s/
pes icides and ube wells a e also expenses lis ed unde his ca ego y.
Table 3 p esen s he pe cen age dis ibu ion o ag icul u al expenses
a me s incu in ela ion o di e en backg ound cha ac e is ics. The
ag icul u al expenses a e ca ego ized in o ou ypes: hi ing labou ,
pu chasing hyb id seeds, pu chasing e ilize /pes icides, and pu chas-
ing a ube well. Use o emi ance in di e en ca ego ies o ag icul u al
expenses ep esen s on he basis o a ious socio-economic, de-
mog aphic and mig a ion cha ac e is ics. The backg ound cha ac e is-
ics include age ca ego ies, such as less han 30 yea s, 31–45 yea s,
46–60 yea s, and mo e han 60 yea s. Fo ins ance, a me s unde 30
yea s old spend hei emi ances in ag icul u al expenses on hi ing la-
bou , pu chasing hyb id seeds and pu chasing e ilize /pes icides
a ound 44 %, u he 46 % on pu chasing a ube well. The o al ag i-
cul u al expenses incu ed by his age ca ego y is 52.44 %. The age
g oup o mo e han 60 yea s has he highes p opo ion o emi ance
expense in e e y ag icul u al sub-ca ego y. Fo he age ca ego y o mo e
han 31 – 45 yea s, 56.58 % o hem spen hei emi ance as ag icul-
u al expenses on hi ing labou , a ound 54 % on pu chasing hyb id
seeds, 54 % on pu chasing e ilize /pes icides, and 49 % on pu chasing
a ube well. The o al ag icul u al expenses incu ed by his age ca ego y
is 63.13 %. Households headed by emales ha e highe expenses wi h
a ound 61 % ela ed o a ming ac i i ies compa ed o males, wi h
Table 1
Socio-economic and Mig a ion Cha ac e is ics o S udy Popula ion.
Backg ound Cha ac e is ics To al
(%)
No. o
Mig an s
Age Ca ego y Less han 30 Yea s 24.28 356
31- 45Yea s 25.16 367
46–60 Yea s 31.91 558
Mo e han 60 Yea s 18.64 345
Sex o he Household
Head
Male 38.7 686
Female 61.3 940
Cas e Ca ego y STs 2.4 36
SCs 23.19 418
OBCs 55.19 880
O he s 19.22 295
Educa ion Ca ego y Illi e a e 58.05 938
P ima y 13.77 233
Seconda y 20.19 322
Highe Seconda y &
Abo e
7.98 136
Land Holding Land Less 55.8 719
Less han 1 Ac e 30.04 512
Mo e han 1 Ac e 14.16 328
Na u e o Wo k Casual Wage Labou 48.22 476
Go . Sala ied Wo k 3.26 30
P i a e Sala ied Wo k 44.99 970
Sel -Employed 3.4 133
Unpaid Family Wo ke 0.13 9
Family Type Nuclea 60.29 885
Join /ex ended 39.71 744
Family Size Single 5.11 65
2–5 Membe s 68.43 1,035
6 and Mo e Membe s 26.46 526
F equency o
Remi ance
Mon hly 63.99 884
Qua e ly 22.79 311
Hal Yea ly /Yea ly 5.37 89
When equi ed 7.85 118
Remi ance Recei e Pa en s 36.83 562
Wi e 58.44 759
O he s 4.72 80
Mig a ion Du a ion Less han 5 Yea s 32.49 535
5–10 Yea s 35.22 587
Mo e han 10 Yea s 32.29 499
Table 2
Pa e n o U iliza ion o Remi ances in Va ious Sec o s in Biha , Eas e n UP
(Middle Ganga Plain).
Biha Es .
UP
MGP OM IM
Household and O he Expendi u e % % % % %
Daily need and expenses (including
ood)
62.0 55.9 60.5 60.3 63.5
Medical/Heal h ca e expenses 65.4 57.0 63.2 63.1 65.3
Educa ion o child en 56.8 53.6 56.0 55.3 66.7
Social ce emonies 53.0 47.5 51.5 50.9 62.5
Paying dow y 47.9 38.9 45.6 44.4 62.5
Loan epaymen 44.6 35.4 42.3 41.6 54.2
In es men
Cons uc ion o new house 55.7 34.1 50.2 48.9 70.1
Repai /Main enance o house 56.0 36.7 51.0 49.8 69.1
Pu chasing o land 31.7 19.8 28.7 28.6 30.5
Pu chasing o o namen s 39.7 23.1 35.4 35.2 39.2
Leasing in he land ( aking on
REHAN)
30.5 17.4 27.1 27.3 25.8
In es men in buying li es ock 33.7 18.8 29.9 30.2 25.0
O he Household Pu chases
Mo o cycle 24.9 22.7 24.4 24.0 30.9
Tele ision 21.7 22.0 21.7 21.7 22.1
F idge/Washing Machine 19.2 16.4 18.5 18.6 16.5
Mobile/Came a 38.9 25.1 35.4 35.5 34.4
Ag icul u e Expenses
Hi e labo e 27.5 33.3 29.0 29.5 21.9
Pu chase hyb id seeds 24.4 30.7 26.0 26.6 16.7
Pu chase e ilize /pes icides 22.8 30.2 24.7 25.3 16.5
Pu chase ube well 23.6 19.4 22.5 22.5 21.9
To al(n) 777 862 1,639 1530 109
Sou ce: Middle Ganga Plain (MGP) Mig a ion Su ey Repo (2021).
No e:
The Rehan sys em means ha indi iduals pledge hei land o a de ined du a-
ion, and hey mus epay he bo owed unds o egain owne ship o hei land.
OM de ines Ou mig a ion o In e nal Mig a ion wi hin he coun y, and IM
de ines In e na ional Mig a ion ac oss he bo de .
Answe s on u iliza ion o emi ance we e mul iple choice.
S. Sa ka and R. R.S.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 9 (2024) 100235
6
pe cen ages a ound 57 %. The OBCs a e he highes emi ance use s in
di e en ag icul u al sec o s, wi h a ound 62 %, whe eas STs a e he
lowes , wi h a ound 51.6 %. In e ms o he educa ion ca ego y, mi-
g an s wi h p ima y ha e he highes expenses in all ca ego ies wi h
a ound 63.24 %, while hose wi h highe seconda y ha e he lowes
expenses wi h a ound 57.38 %. Rega ding land holding, households
wi h less han 1 ac e ha e he highes expenses in all ca ego ies a 79.94
%, while hose wi h landless ha e he lowes expenses a a ound 47.54
%. In e ms o amily ype, households in join o ex ended amilies ha e
highe expenses han hose in join o ex ended amilies in all ca ego ies.
Va ious ac o s ela ed o mig a ion signi ican ly impac he u ili-
za ion o emi ances in he ag icul u al sec o . Table 4 highligh s ha
households ecei ing emi ances hal -yea ly o yea ly exhibi he
highes engagemen in ag icul u al expenses a app oxima ely 65 %,
ollowed closely by hose ecei ing emi ances mon hly a 64.09 %.
This engagemen is no ably lowe o households ecei ing emi ances
on an as-needed basis. Addi ionally, households ecei ing emi ances
om o he household membe s show a highe p opensi y (64.2 %) o
spend on ag icul u al expenses compa ed o hose ecei ing emi ances
om pa en s o spouses. Las ly, mig an s wi h a mig a ion du a ion o
mo e han 10 yea s ha e a highe likelihood (a ound 64 %) o using
emi ances o ag icul u al expenses, compa ed o hose wi h a mig a-
ion du a ion o 5–10 yea s (nea ly 61 %) and less han 5 yea s (54.93
%).
Table 5 isualises he e ec s o a ious socio-economic, de-
mog aphic and mig a ion cha ac e is ics o mig an s on emi ance
u iliza ion pa e ns in he ag icul u al sec o , such as hi ing labou ,
pu chasing hyb id seeds, pu chasing e ilize /pes icides, and pu chas-
ing a ube well. The able p esen s he odds a ios (OR) and con idence
in e als (CI) o each ca ego y o independen a iables (age, cas e,
amily ype, sex o household head, educa ion ca ego y, landholding,
mig a ion du a ion, and equency o emi ance) conce ning he
e e ence ca ego y o each a iable. The age ca ego y o mig an ag i-
cul u al households is signi ican ly associa ed wi h o al ag icul u al
expenses. Compa ed o esponden s below he age o 30, hose in he age
ange o 31–45 yea s ha e 1.3 imes highe ag icul u al expenses.
Howe e , he con idence in e al (CI) sugges s ha his esul is no
s a is ically signi ican . Howe e , o indi iduals aged 46–60 and hose
abo e 60 yea s, he ag icul u al expenses a e mo e p onounced, wi h
espec i e inc eases o 1.47 and 1.67 imes, and he la e is s a is ically
signi ican . Cas e ca ego ies also play a ole in in luencing o al ag i-
cul u al expenses. Scheduled Cas es (SCs) show a pa icula ly s ong
Table 3
U iliza ion o Remi ances in Di e en Ag icul u al Sec o s by Socio-economic and Demog aphic Cha ac e is ics.
Backg ound Cha ac e is ics Hi ing Labou Pu chasing Hyb id Seeds Pu chasing Fe ilize /Pes icides Pu chasing Tube Well To al Ag icul u al Expenses
Age Ca ego y
<30 Yea s 160 (44.61 %) 159 (44.67 %) 159 (44.8 %) 157 (46.78 %) 185 (52.44 %)
31–45 Yea s 209 (56.58 %) 213 (54.38 %) 221 (54.52 %) 179 (49.5 %) 237 (63.13 %)
46–60 Yea s 306 (51.89 %) 327 (54.72 %) 315 (53.09 %) 255 (45.21 %) 356 (60.74 %)
>60 Yea s 196 (52.26) 202 (55.14 %) 202 (55.1 %) 149 (48.02 %) 221 (64.07 %)
Sex o he Household Head
Male 363 (49.33 %) 372 (50.97 %) 363 (49.75 %) 281 (41.97 %) 415 (57.81 %)
Female 508 (52.66 %) 529 (53.1 %) 524 (53.11 %) 459 (50.49 %) 584 (61.29 %)
Cas e Ca ego y
STs 19 (47.05 %) 21 (49.04 %) 20 (48.34 %) 16 (37.86 %) 22 (51.6 %)
SCs 248 (55.86 %) 241 (52.86 %) 327 (52.37 %) 200 (46.78 %) 268 (59.81 %)
OBCs 473 (53.05 %) 497 (55.51 %) 493 (55.06 %) 416 (49.61 %) 554 (62.78 %)
O he s 133 (41.15 %) 144 (42.12 %) 139 (41.73 %) 110 (41.48 %) 157 (52.34 %)
Educa ion Ca ego y
Illi e a e 509 (50.76 %) 521 (50.48 %) 513 (50.12 %) 437 (46.37 %) 558 (60.06 %)
P ima y 128 (54.16 %) 132 (58.38 %) 130 (57.29 %) 112 (51.74 %) 146 (63.24 %)
Seconda y 164 (52.72 %) 176 (52.93 %) 176 (53.45 %) 132 (45.57 %) 186 (57.38 %)
Highe Seconda y & Abo e 72 (46.3 %) 74 (51.78 %) 70 (49.24 %) 61 (48.35 %) 81 (58.28 %)
Land Holding
Land Less 340 (41.84 %) 322 (38.99 %) 318 (38.79 %) 302 (40.14 %) 376 (47.54 %)
Less han 1 Ac e 323 (65.33 %) 354 (73.05 %) 351 (72.9 %) 278 (61.59 %) 387 (79.94 %)
Mo e han 1 Ac e 210 (58.61 %) 227 (59.79 %) 220 (57.65 %) 162 (43.83 %) 238 (65.47 %)
Family Type
Nuclea 450 (49.65 %) 463 (49.81 %) 459 (49.69 %) 412 (47.53 %) 517 (57.5 %)
Join /ex ended 423 (53.73 %) 440 (55.75 %) 430 (54.78 %) 330 (46.46 %) 484 (63.32 %)
No e: Row pe cen ages we e conside ed, and he answe s o hese ag icul u al expenses we e mul iple choice.
Table 4
U iliza ion o Remi ances in Di e en Ag icul u al Expenses by Mig a ion Cha ac e is ics.
Backg ound
Cha ac e is ics
Hi ing Labou Pu chasing Hyb id Seeds Pu chasing o Fe ilize /
Pes icides
Pu chasing Tube Well To al Ag icul u al Expenses
F equency o Remi ance
Mon hly 506 (56.75 %) 524 (56.41 %) 518 (55.81 %) 451 (51.94 %) 573 (64.09 %)
Qua e ly 164 (50.64 %) 164 (50.1 %) 165 (50.94 %) 128 (45.53 %) 190 (61.3 %)
Hal Yea ly /Yea ly 59 (57.68 %) 57 (60.35 %) 54 (59.19 %) 47 (53.03 %) 63 (64.62 %)
When equi ed 50 (38.15 %) 66 (54.77 %) 62 (53.39 %) 35 (39.15 %) 68 (55.69 %)
Remi ance Recei e
Pa en s 323 (52.15 %) 337 (55.00 %) 330 (54.14 %) 260 (47.7 %) 368 (62.4 %)
Wi e 419 (54.4 %) 433 (54.34 %) 426 (54.14 %) 369 (50.02 %) 480 (62.5 %)
O he s 36 (57.07 %) 40 (58.87 %) 42 (60.4 %) 31 (52.78 %) 45 (64.2 %)
Mig a ion Du a ion
Less han 5 Yea s 274 (49.43 %) 275 (48.47 %) 270 (47.67 %) 222 (42.34 %) 307 (54.93 %)
5–10 Yea s 305 (49.90 %) 321 (53.07 %) 315 (52.67 %) 268 (49.76 %) 360 (61.32 %)
Mo e han 10 Yea s 290 (55.09 %) 303 (55.41 %) 300 (55.22 %) 248 (49.42 %) 330 (63.72 %)
No e: Row pe cen ages we e aken in o accoun , and he answe s o hese ag icul u al expenses we e mul iple-choice.
S. Sa ka and R. R.S.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 9 (2024) 100235
7
ela ionship among di e en cas e g oups, wi h 2.06 imes highe ex-
penses han he e e ence g oup (O he s). Scheduled T ibes (STs) and
O he Backwa d Classes (OBCs) also demons a e inc eased expenses,
which a e no s a is ically signi ican . The ype o amily s uc u e
(nuclea o join /ex ended) does no appea o signi ican ly impac o al
ag icul u al expenses. The odds a io o 0.98 sugges s no subs an ial
di e ence in expenses be ween nuclea and join /ex ended amilies. The
gende o he household head is a signi ican ac o in luencing ag i-
cul u al expenses. Female-headed households exhibi 1.62 imes highe
expenses compa ed o male-headed households. This s a is ically sig-
ni ican esul indica es a gende -based di e ence in ag icul u al
spending pa e ns. The educa ion le el o he household head does no
show a clea pa e n o in luence on ag icul u al expenses. The odds
a ios o di e en educa ion ca ego ies (illi e a e, p ima y, seconda y,
and highe seconda y and abo e) a e close o 1, indica ing ha educa-
ion le el may no be a decisi e ac o in de e mining ag icul u al ex-
penses. The size o he landholding has a subs an ial impac on o al
ag icul u al expenses. Households wi h less han 1 ac e o mo e han 1
ac e o land exhibi signi ican ly highe emi ance expenses, wi h odds
a ios o 4.21 and 4.51, espec i ely. The odds a io o Landholding is
signi ican o all he dependen a iables wi h a p- alue less han 0.001.
These indings sugges ha landholding size is a c ucial de e minan o
ag icul u al expendi u e. The du a ion o mig a ion does no appea o
ha e a signi ican e ec on emi ances on o al ag icul u al expenses.
The esul s a e no s a is ically signi ican . Households ecei ing e-
mi ances mon hly show a 1.66 imes inc ease in expenses compa ed o
hose who ecei e emi ances only when equi ed. This esul is s a-
is ically signi ican , indica ing ha he equency o emi ance no ably
impac s ag icul u al spending pa e ns. Finally, he indi iduals
ecei ing emi ances also in luence ag icul u al expenses. Speci ically,
households wi h pa en s a e he ecipien s demons a ing a signi ican
expense inc ease, wi h an odds a io o 1.89. In con as , when he wi e
is he ecei e , he inc ease is 1.64 imes, bu his esul is no s a is i-
cally signi ican . This sugges s ha he ecipien o emi ances wi hin
he household has a a ying impac on ag icul u al spending.
5. Discussion
In he con ex o economic de elopmen and mode niza ion, he
emig a ion o labou om he ag icul u al sec o has been a de ining
ai , e iden h oughou he his o ical p og ession o de eloped coun-
ies and cu en ly obse ed in de eloping na ions(Rozelle e al., 1999).
The heo y o New Economics o Labou Mig a ion (NELM) also says
mig a ion can igge a p ocess o de elopmen ha educes p oduc ion
and in es men limi a ions expe ienced by households in impe ec
ma ke condi ions while es ablishing connec ions ha lead o income
g ow h in de eloping coun ies(Taylo , 1999). The e o e, emi ances
play a cons uc i e ole in os e ing economic g ow h by posi i ely
in luencing consump ion, sa ings, and in es men (Meye & She a,
2017). Concu en ly, he u iliza ion o emi ances canno be e enly
dis ibu ed ac oss all sec o s, and mul iple ac o s can impac how e-
mi ances a e u ilized. O e all, his pape inds a signi ican impac o
a ious socio-economic, demog aphic, and mig a ion cha ac e is ics in
emi ance u iliza ion on di e en ag icul u al expenses. The as ma-
jo i y o ag icul u al households, accoun ing o app oxima ely 86.4 %,
ope a e small a m sizes o less han 2 ha. These a me s p edominan ly
belong o socially ma ginalized g oups such as SCs, STs and OBCs (Rao,
2017). Due o he high le el o engagemen in he ag icul u al sec o
among ma ginalized social g oups, he p obabili y o using emi ances
is likely highe in hese ca ego ies. Howe e , ou s udy inding also
shows ha wi h inc easing landholding size o he households, he
likelihood o emi ance use is also highe in e e y ag icul u al sec o .
The mig a ion o adul men is s ongly linked o an inc ease in he abili y
o le -behind women o make decisions (Hadi, 2001). Though men a e
mo e likely han women o make decisions on a ms, his dynamic shi s
when he e is sho - e m mig a ion in he household, inc easing he
likelihood o women making decisions on a ms (Chand asekha e al.,
2022). Simila ly, a s udy in Mexico ound ha emi ances ecei ed by
emale household membe s we e mo e likely o be in es ed in ag icul-
u e han emi ances ecei ed by male household membe s (Sal ado
e al., 1995). The p esen s udy indings show ha his s a emen is ue
because, om he s udy, i can be seen ha he e is a posi i e ela-
ionship be ween he emi ance u iliza ion in ag icul u al sec o s and
households wi h emale headship. The phenomenon o eminiza ion o
ag icul u e in he Middle Ganga Plain egion in India can be a ibu ed
o a ious ac o s. While i is e iden ha his end is occu ing, i is
c ucial o conside o he con ibu ing elemen s, such as land owne ship,
decision-making p ocesses, and access o ag icul u al esou ces. Un-
de s anding hese addi ional aspec s could p o ide u he insigh s in o
he p ocesses d i ing he eminiza ion o ag icul u e in he egion.
Simul aneously, in he emi ance ecei e ca ego y, i can be seen ha
pa en s a e mo e likely o in es emi ances in ag icul u al sec o s,
which suppo s a s udy ha alks abou emi ance ecei e s who a e
pa en s may use emi ances o suppo he ag icul u al ac i i ies o
hei child en, who may ha e g ea e expe ise and knowledge o ag i-
cul u e (Khandke e al., 2013). Based on he indings o his p esen
s udy, i is e iden ha le -behind wi es do no solely in luence he
eminiza ion o ag icul u e; a he , le -behind pa en s, especially
mo he s o mig an s, also play a signi ican ole. As men ioned ea lie ,
his is u he ein o ced by he emale-headed households, which ha e a
Table 5
E ec o Socio-economic, Demog aphic and Mig a ion Cha ac e is ics on U ili-
za ion o Remi ance o Ag icul u e Expenses: E idence om Logis ic Reg es-
sion Analysis.
Backg ound Cha ac e is ics To al Ag icul u al Expenses
OR [CI]
Age Ca ego y
<30®
31–45 1.30 [0.91–1.84]
46–60 Yea s 1.47 [0.98–2.21]
Mo e han 60 Yea s 1.67 [1.01–2.74] *
Cas e Ca ego y
O he s®
STs 1.82 [0.77–4.33]
SCs 2.06 [1.41–3.03] ***
OBCs 1.61 [1.15–2.25] **
Family Type
Nuclea ®
Join /ex ended 0.98 [0.74–1.30]
Sex o HH head
Male®
Female 1.62 [1.13–2.33] **
Educa ion Ca ego y
Illi e a e®
P ima y 1.14 [0.80–1.62]
Seconda y 0.98 [0.71–1.37]
Highe Seconda y & Abo e 1.13[0.69–1.86]
Landholding
Land Less®
Less han 1 Ac e 4.21 [3.13–5.65] ***
Mo e han 1 Ac e 4.51 [3.10–6.56] ***
Mig a ion Du a ion
Less han 5 Yea s®
5–10 Yea s 1.01 [0.76–1.36]
Mo e han 10 Yea s 1.22 [0.88–1.68]
F equency o Remi ance
When equi ed®
Mon hly 1.66 [1.08–2.56] *
Qua e ly 1.31 [0.82–2.11]
Hal Yea ly /Yea ly 1.81 [0.97–3.40]
Remi ance Recei e s
O he s®
Pa en 1.89 [1.12–3.20] *
Wi e 1.64 [0.98–2.75]
* p <0.05, ** p <0.01, *** p <0.001, ®=Re e ence ca ego y.
No e: Ag icul u e expenses include hi ing labou , pu chasing hyb id seeds,
pu chasing e ilize and pes icides, and pu chasing ubewell.
S. Sa ka and R. R.S.
Resea ch in Globaliza ion 9 (2024) 100235
8
highe p e alence o u iliza ion o emi ances in he ag icul u al sec o s
in he Middle Ganga Plain egion. Simila ly, he e is a signi ican posi-
i e esul be ween he mon hly emi ance ecei e s and o al ag icul-
u al expenses. So, i can be said ha when he equency o emi ance
is mon hly, he chance o emi ance u iliza ion in he ag icul u al sec o
is also highe . A he same ime, he ela ionship be ween landholding
and emi ance u iliza ion in ag icul u e is complex and may depend on
a ange o ac o s, including land owne ship, landlessness, land ag-
men a ion, and li elihood di e si ica ion.
6. Conclusion
In conclusion, he u iliza ion o emi ances in he ag icul u al sec o
is in luenced by a ious socio-economic, demog aphic, and mig a ion
cha ac e is ics o mig an s in he Middle Ganga Plain. Howe e ,
compa ed o o he expendi u e ca ego ies like in es men s and house-
hold pu chases, he pe cen age o emi ance u iliza ion in ag icul u e is
ela i ely low (Roy e al., 2021); he s udy showed ha age, cas e, amily
ype, sex o household head, educa ion ca ego y, landholding, equency
o emi ance, and emi ance ecei e s ha e signi ican e ec s on
emi ance u iliza ion in ag icul u e. Olde esponden s and households
wi h mo e landholding we e ound o ha e a highe likelihood o u i-
lizing emi ances o hi ing labou and pu chasing inpu s such as hyb id
seeds, e ilize s, and pes icides. Addi ionally, emale-headed house-
holds and households belonging o lowe cas e ca ego ies we e mo e
likely o u ilize emi ances in e e y ag icul u al sec o . The s udy p o-
ides aluable insigh s in o he emi ance u iliza ion pa e ns in he
ag icul u al sec o . I highligh s he need o a ge ed policies and in-
e en ions o p omo e e icien and e ec i e use o emi ances in
ag icul u e in he Indian con ex , such as p o iding inancial educa ion
and aining o emi ance ecei e s and a me s, especially o he less
landholding households and ma ginalized social g oups, can help hem
make in o med decisions abou how o in es hei emi ances in he
ag icul u al sec o , which will accele a e he o e all household eco-
nomic de elopmen . The s udy indings show ha emale-headed
households a e mo e inclined o use emi ance in ag icul u e, so
s eng hened suppo o emale a me s h ough dedica ed ag icul u al
ex ension se ices, access o c edi , and empowe men p og ams could
be done, and policies should ocus on ensu ing women ha e equal access
o esou ces and decision-making p ocesses in ag icul u e and u iliza-
ion o emi ance in i .
Funding
The cu en s udy ecei ed no unding om g an agencies, com-
me cial en i ies, o non-p o i o ganiza ions.
CRediT au ho ship con ibu ion s a emen
Sam a Sa ka : W i ing – o iginal d a , Me hodology, Fo mal
analysis, Concep ualiza ion. Reshmi R.S.: Me hodology, Supe ision,
W i ing – e iew & edi ing.
Decla a ion o compe ing in e es
The au ho s decla e ha hey ha e no known compe ing inancial
in e es s o pe sonal ela ionships ha could ha e appea ed o in luence
he wo k epo ed in his pape .
Acknowledgemen
The au ho s exp ess hei hea el app ecia ion o M Ramk ishna
Saman ha, M Manoj Paul, and M Sou a Mandal o hei in aluable
assis ance in managing and handling he da a o he s udy.
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