Multimodal Collective Sensemaking in Extreme Contexts: Evidence from Maritime Search and Rescue

Lübcke, Thomas; S eigenbe ge , No be ; Wilhelm, Hend ik; Mau e , Ind e
A icle — Published Ve sion
Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking in Ex eme Con ex s:
E idence om Ma i ime Sea ch and Rescue
Jou nal o Managemen S udies
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
John Wiley & Sons
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Lübcke, Thomas; S eigenbe ge , No be ; Wilhelm, Hend ik; Mau e , Ind e
(2024) : Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking in Ex eme Con ex s: E idence om Ma i ime Sea ch
and Rescue, Jou nal o Managemen S udies, ISSN 1467-6486, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 62, Iss. 3, pp.
1220-1264,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1111/joms.13133
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Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking in Ex eme
Con ex s: E idence om Ma i ime Sea ch and Rescue
Thomas Lübckea, No be S eigenbe ge b,
Hend ik Wilhelmc and Ind e Mau e d
aGe man Ma i ime Sea ch and Rescue Se ice – DGzRS; bUmeå School o Business, Economics, and
S a is ics, Umeå Uni e si y; cWi en/He decke Uni e si y; dUni e si y o Gö ingen
ABSTRACT In ex eme con ex s, ac o s mus o en engage in collec i e sensemaking o enable
coo dina ed ac ion. While p io esea ch has es ablished ha cogni i e dispa i ies and emo i e
dis ac ions dis up collec i e sensemaking, we lack heo y on how ac o s o e come hese com-
mon challenges in ex eme con ex s. To add ess his sho coming, we conduc ed a p ocess s udy,
collec ing unique mul i- pe spec i e ideo and a chi al da a du ing a ma i ime sea ch and escue
mission in he Aegean Sea whe e ac o s (i.e., escue c ew membe s and e ugees) aced cogni i e
dispa i ies (e.g., di e en le els o ma i ime expe ise) and dis ac ing emo ions (e.g., ea , anxie y,
and ension) ye needed o coo dina e hei ac ions o ensu e a sa e e acua ion. We d aw on his
da a o de elop a collec i e sensemaking model ha de ails he auxilia y p ocess s eps and mul-
imodal communica ion – e bal, pa a- e bal, and non- e bal cues – ac o s use o al e na ely
ame emo ional s a es and con ey ask- ela ed in o ma ion. Ou model demons a es how
ac o s, h ough mul imodal collec i e sensemaking, o e come he challenges posed by cogni i e
dispa i ies and dis ac ing emo ions in ex eme con ex s. I hus adds a dynamic emo i e and
bodily pe spec i e o he p edominan ly cogni i e and e bal unde s anding in sensemaking
heo y, and also has implica ions o p ac i ione s wo king in ex eme con ex s.
Keywo ds: collec i e sensemaking, ex eme con ex s, mul imodal communica ion,
embodimen , ma i ime sea ch and escue, ideo da a
Jou nal o Managemen S udies 62:3 May 2025
doi:10.1111/joms.13133
Add ess o ep in s: Hend ik Wilhelm, Wi en/He decke Uni e si y, Al ed- He hausen- S aße 50D- 58455
Wi en, Ge many (hend [email protected]).
All au ho s con ibu ed equally; hei names a e in andom o de .
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion-NonComme cial-
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1221Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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INTRODUCTION
9 Ma ch 2016, 5:45 a.m.: The escue c uise Uni y[1] sigh s an unseawo hy ub-
be boa bobbing in he ough wa e s o he ocky sho es o he island o Les os
(G eece). C ammed wi h abou 50 e ugees om Sy ia, A ghanis an, and I aq, he
boa has men pe ched on he im; women, child en, and babies a e huddled in he
middle. These e ugees – many o whom ha e endu ed weeks, i no mon hs, o as-
saul s, ha assmen , and a acks – appea a aid, ense, and anxious. The mission o
he Uni y is o e acua e hese e ugees om hei boa o he c uise . This e acua ion
equi es a coo dina ed e o be ween he escue c ew and he e ugees. The e ugees
mus ix a owing line h own by he c ew o he s u dies pa o hei boa . I a e u-
gee is dis ac ed when he c ew membe h ows he line, he snap hook could hi and
se iously inju e one o he e ugees. Fu he mo e, i a c ew membe ails o conside
ha he e ugees may ha e a ying le els o ma i ime expe ise compa ed o he c ew,
a e ugee migh inco ec ly a ach he line, esul ing in damage o he ubbe boa and
immedia e sinking. This si ua ion would likely kill he people apped in he middle o
he boa . In his ex eme con ex , how can hese ac o s – escue c ew membe s and
e ugees – enable coo dina ed ac ion?
In ex eme con ex s – si ua ions ha a e simul aneously e ol ing, unce ain, and isky
(Hällg en e al., 2018) – ac o s o en need o engage in in e dependen ac ions (e.g.,
Heaphy, 2017; S eigenbe ge and Lübcke, 2022; Weick, 2010). Collec i e sensemaking,
he collabo a i e ans o ma ion o complex eali ies in o simpli ied cogni i e ep e-
sen a ions o coo dina ed ac ion, is common in such con ex s (Weick, 1988, 1995). I
becomes i al when o he mechanisms o coo dina ion, such as p o essional oles, hie -
a chical s uc u es, and s anda d ope a ing p ocedu es, all sho (Fa aj and Xiao, 2006;
Weick and Robe s, 1993). Howe e , collec i e sensemaking in such con ex s is agile.
The e ol ing, unce ain, and isky na u e o ex eme con ex s o en o ces oge he cog-
ni i ely dispa a e ac o s – ha is, ac o s wi h di e ing o con lic ing cogni i e elemen s
(Audi, 2013). Ex eme con ex s also o en igge dis ac ing emo ions – ha is, a ec i e
expe iences ha challenge he abili y o indi iduals o ocus on goal- ele an in o ma-
ion (Dolcos and McCa hy, 2006). Cogni i e dispa i ies and emo i e dis ac ions dis-
up he pe cep ion and p ocessing o cues and hus complica e join (in e - )ac ion (e.g.,
Cla k, 1996; Eas e b ook, 1959; Gable and Ha mon- Jones, 2010a), he eby impeding
he o ma ion o a sha ed and accu a e cogni i e ep esen a ion o he si ua ion (Mai lis
and Ch is ianson, 2014; Mai lis and Sonenshein, 2010). Wi hou such a ep esen a ion,
collec i e sensemaking is bound o ail, po en ially leading o ca as ophic ou comes (e.g.,
Weick, 1993).
P e ious esea ch (e.g., Oli e e al., 2017) has ex ensi ely documen ed how ag-
ile collec i e sensemaking is in ex eme con ex s. Wha emains puzzling and un-
clea , howe e , is how ac o s o e come his agili y so ha ca as ophic ou comes do
no occu . This puzzle pe sis s la gely because exis ing esea ch ocuses on disas ous
ailu es o collec i e sensemaking (e.g., Co nelissen e al., 2014; Dwye e al., 2023;
Weick, 1993). Fo example, Co nelissen e al. (2014) showed how ea - induced mispe -
cep ions and miscommunica ion among police o ice s led o a ally lawed cogni i e
ep esen a ions, culmina ing in he shoo ing o a bys ande . In addi ion, he ocus
1222 T. Lübcke e al.
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
o exis ing esea ch has been on expe - only collec i e sensemaking p ocesses; o
example, among medical expe s (e.g., Ch is ianson, 2019) o escue expe s du ing a
ma i ime escue exe cise (e.g., S eigenbe ge and Lübcke, 2022), in which ac o s wi h
elabo a e cogni i e ep esen a ions o he ex eme con ex mus collec i ely make
sense. Ex an esea ch hus o e s limi ed insigh s in o ou puzzle: Expe s’ simila
aining makes hem less subjec o cogni i e dispa i y, while explana ions o disas-
ous ailu es p o ide li le insigh in o how emo i e dis ac ions can be e ec i ely
handled. Consequen ly, he puzzle o how ac o s o e come he agili y o collec-
i e sensemaking in ex eme con ex s emains unsol ed. Add essing his puzzle is no
only heo e ically signi ican o ad ancing ou unde s anding o ex eme con ex s
and collec i e sensemaking, add essing i also holds p ac ical ele ance. The e o e,
his pape seeks o answe he ollowing esea ch ques ion: How do ac o s o e come
dis ac ing emo ions and cogni i e dispa i ies in collec i e sensemaking in ex eme
con ex s?
To answe his esea ch ques ion, we conduc ed a p ocess s udy analysing ex ensi e
ideo and a chi al da a ga he ed du ing a ma i ime sea ch and escue (SAR) ope a ion
in he Aegean Sea. The goal o he SAR ope a ion was o e acua e e ugees om unsea-
wo hy ubbe boa s and in ol ed wo dis inc g oups o ac o s: escue c ew membe s
and e ugees. Collec i e sensemaking was c ucial in his scena io because i enabled he
join ac ions ha we e necessa y o a sa e e acua ion and because i also p e en ed
ac ions ha would ha e endange ed he e acua ion. The beha iou o bo h g oups o
ac o s e ealed dispa a e le els o ma i ime expe ise. Fu he mo e, he e ugees o en
exhibi ed in ense emo ions, such as ea , anxie y, and ension (see also Uni ed Na ions
Human Righ s O ice o he High Commissione , 2021) – an expec ed esponse in such a
li e- h ea ening si ua ion – which dis ac ed om he collec i e sensemaking p ocess nec-
essa y o success ully comple ing each e acua ion. Consequen ly, his se ing p o ided
ideal da a o add ess ou esea ch ques ion.
Ou indings unco e he auxilia y p ocess s eps o emo i e aming and ask aming
ha acili a e ac o s’ o e coming cogni i e dispa i y and dis ac ing emo ions and ha
hus ensu e co e collec i e sensemaking (cue pe cep ion, cue p ocessing, and pu pose-
ul in e ac ion) in ex eme con ex s. While bo h emo i e and ask aming s eps ely on
mul imodal communica ion, he modali ies used in each s ep a e di e en . Speci ically,
emo i e aming elies on pa a- e bal and non- e bal communica ion, which ac o s use
o minimize dis ac ing emo ions so ha a en i eness and calm can be es ablished and
hen main ained. Once dis ac ing emo ions a e minimized, expe s – ha is, hose ac-
o s wi h mo e- elabo a e cogni i e ep esen a ions o he ex eme- con ex si ua ion –
engage in ask aming. They use simple e bal cues, b idging he cogni i e dispa i y
and p o iding he guidance necessa y o join ac ion. This mul imodal communica ion
pa e n, g ounded in he mundane – ou inized, in some cases – communica i e ac i i ies
o ac o s, emained s able ac oss di e en sensemaking episodes, enabling us o de elop
a p ocess model o mul imodal collec i e sensemaking in ex eme con ex s.
This s udy con ibu es o esea ch on collec i e sensemaking in ex eme con-
ex s (e.g., Co nelissen e al., 2014; Fa aj and Xiao, 2006; Schakel e al., 2016;
S eigenbe ge and Lübcke, 2022). Fi s , ou p ocess model heo izes he i e a ions o
emo i e and cogni i e s eps, esol ing a pe sis en puzzle in his li e a u e: how ac o s
1223Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
and John Wiley & Sons L d.
can collec i ely make sense in ex eme con ex s despi e he agili y o his p ocess.
I hus anscends he ocus in cu en li e a u e on cogni i e cue p ocessing (Fa aj
and Xiao, 2006; Landg en, 2005; She man and Robe o, 2020; S eigenbe ge and
Lübcke, 2022). Second, ou model unpacks he unde lying communica i e modali-
ies by explaining how dis inc combina ions o e bal, non- e bal, and pa a- e bal
communica ion (Dille and Plo niko , 2020; S eeck e al., 2011) help ac o s o e come
challenges ha esul om cogni i e dispa i y and emo i e dis ac ions in ex eme
con ex s. Ou s udy, ou lining he impo an ole o non- e bal language, he eby
adds a unique mul imodal pe spec i e o sensemaking esea ch. I akes mundane
communica ion se iously by o e ing heo y on he ole o he body in sensemaking
p ocesses (de Rond e al., 2019; Weick e al., 2005; Whi le e al., 2023). Finally, ou
s udy p o ides aluable p ac ical insigh s o escue wo ke s, police o ice s, medical
pe sonnel, i e igh e s, and o he s who mus coo dina e wi h dis ac ed, non- expe
indi iduals on a daily basis.
THEORY
Collec i e Sensemaking
Collec i e sensemaking (Weick, 1988, 1995) ‘in ol es a ending o and b acke ing cues
in he en i onmen , c ea ing in e subjec i e meaning h ough cycles o in e p e a ion
and ac ion, and he eby enac ing a mo e o de ed en i onmen om which u he cues
can be d awn’ (Mai lis and Ch is ianson, 2014, p. 67). Once sense has been made, ac o s
main ain a ep esen a ion o he si ua ion ha is con inually upda ed as new cues p o-
ide new in o ma ion, modi ying ha ep esen a ion only when a new cue subs an ially
challenges he es ablished meaning (Ch is ianson, 2019). Collec i e sensemaking com-
plemen s o he , mo e- s a ic p ecu so s o coo dina ed ac ion, such as p o essional oles,
hie a chical s uc u es, and s anda d ope a ing p ocedu es, and becomes c ucial when
hese app oaches a e insu icien o coo dina ed ac ion (Fa aj and Xiao, 2006; Weick
and Robe s, 1993).
Collec i e sensemaking consis s o h ee phases: indi idual cue pe cep ion, in-
di idual cue p ocessing, and collec i e pu pose ul (in e - )ac ion (Mai lis and
Ch is ianson, 2014). In he cue pe cep ion phase, indi iduals become awa e o en i-
onmen al cues – any in o ma ion ha iola es he expec a ions es ablished in an ex-
is ing sensemaking accoun . Ac o s pay selec i e a en ion, pe cei ing some cues while
missing o igno ing o he s (Oli e e al., 2017; S eigenbe ge and Lübcke, 2022). This
selec i e a en ion in he cue pe cep ion phase makes collec i e sensemaking agile,
since i is p one o dis up ions caused by dispa i ies and dis ac ions. In cue p ocess-
ing, ac o s e alua e pe cei ed cues based on hei expe ise, expe ience, and con ex ,
and hey a emp o unde s and he meaning and ele ance o cues o he si ua ion.
The las phase, pu pose ul (in e - )ac ion, ypically in ol es ac o s engaging in dis-
cou se o each a sha ed cogni i e ep esen a ion o a si ua ion based on hei indi id-
ual sensemaking accoun s, as a p ecu so o coo dina ed ac ion (Whi le e al., 2023).
Examples o pu pose ul (in e - )ac ion include doc o s and nu ses discussing pa ien

1224 T. Lübcke e al.
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
da a (Fa aj and Xiao, 2006), medical pe sonnel delibe a ing whe he a piece o ech-
nology is mal unc ioning (Ch is ianson, 2019), e ugees in a camp elabo a ing on
hei si ua ion (Kodeih e al., 2023), soldie s discussing ac ical in o ma ion du ing
ba le (Dixon and Weeks, 2017), and police o ice s communica ing abou a suspec ’s
beha iou (Co nelissen e al., 2014).
In many si ua ions, collec i e sensemaking based on e bal language alone is e -
ec i e o acili a e coo dina ed ac ion. Fo example, when oles and ou ines ail o
enable coo dina ion, medical pe sonnel ypically eso o e bal sensemaking by dis-
cussing a ailable pa ien in o ma ion and hei espec i e in e p e a ion o his da a
(Fa aj and Xiao, 2006). Simila ly, eams in con ol- oom simula ions use s aigh -
o wa d language o make sense o dynamic si ua ions (S achowski e al., 2009). In
many ex eme con ex s, hough, wo condi ions comp omise he e ec i eness o e -
bal collec i e sensemaking: dis ac ing emo ions and cogni i e dispa i ies (Dixon and
Weeks, 2017; Weick, 1993).
Collec i e Sensemaking in Ex eme Con ex s
Ex eme con ex s and hei impac on ac o s ha e been a esea ch subjec o de-
cades, da ing back a leas o So okin’s (1942) s udy, which analysed g oup eac ions
o ca as ophic e en s. So okin concluded ha in g oups, ex eme con ex s lead o
excessi ely heigh ened emo ional s a es, which dis o ac o s’ in o ma ion- p ocessing
and decision- making capabili ies. Mo e ecen ly, esea ch has demons a ed ha
ex eme con ex s can impai cogni i e unc ioning (Taylo e al., 2016) and ha
high- ac i a ion, nega i e- alence emo ional s a es such as ea , anxie y, and ension
can dis ac indi iduals and hinde hem om pe o ming collabo a i e asks (e.g.,
Cascia o e al., 2022; Ca ino and Pa io a, 2013; Co nelissen e al., 2014). Consis en
wi h his e idence, esea ch on collec i e sensemaking in ex eme con ex s is demon-
s a ing ha he dis ac ing emo ions ha hese con ex s e oke can cause collec i e
sensemaking o ail (Ca ino and Pa io a, 2013; Hällg en e al., 2018; O’Neill and
Ro hba d, 2017). Fo example, Weick’s (1993) seminal s udy on he Mann Gulch di-
sas e desc ibes how i e igh e s’ ea and panic led hem o miss and misin e p e
cues, which, in u n, esul ed in hei miscommunica ing wi h o he i e igh e s who,
apped in a o es i e, e en ually died. Such indings om case s udies a e consis en
wi h a b oad s eam o beha iou al esea ch demons a ing he dis ac ing e ec s ha
emo ions can ha e on cogni i e asks (e.g., Eas e b ook, 1959; Gable and Ha mon-
Jones, 2010a; T aege , 2013).
We know ha emo ions can dis ac ac o s in all phases o a collec i e sensem-
aking p ocess: in luencing which cues hey pe cei e, how hey in e p e hose cues,
how hey engage in communica i e ac i i ies, and how hey espond o he ac i i-
ies o o he s (de Rond e al., 2019; E ans, 2008; F ijda, 1986; Mai lis e al., 2013;
S eigenbe ge , 2015). Emo ions can dis ac because once ac o s pe cei e a ‘ ela ional
heme’ o a si ua ion – such as h ea , loss, o obs acle (Nabi, 1999) – hey in e -
p e hei en i onmen h ough he lens o his heme. This in e p e a ion a ec s
he wo king memo y hey dedica e o a ask, igge ing mo i a ed a en ion and p o-
cessing, which leads o o ien a ions o a oidance o app oach (Nabi, 1999). These
1225Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
mechanisms a ec which cues ac o s pe cei e o igno e, leading hem o p io i ize
cues ha seem ele an o he emo ion hey expe ience and pay minimal a en ion o
less- ele an cues. The pe cei ed cues a e hen p ocessed in he con ex o how hey
align wi h he emo ional goal, such as escaping a dange ous si ua ion in he case o
ea . This emo ion- induced dis ac ion can be highly p oblema ic o collec i e sense-
making in ex eme con ex s, because i can di ec an ac o ’s a en ion and cogni i e
capaci y o i ele an cues and lead hem o ac on cues only i hose cues align wi h
he emo ional goal. When ac o s pe cei e cues as no aligned wi h he emo ional goal,
hese cues a e ejec ed ( o a mo e ex ensi e discussion, see Lench e al., 2011), lead-
ing ac o s o no espond o o espond in dys unc ional ways o o he ac o s’ a emp s
a pu pose ul in e ac ion (S eigenbe ge , 2015), hus ende ing collec i e sensemaking
agile.
In addi ion o expe iencing dis ac ing emo ions, ac o s also o en encoun e cogni i e
dispa i y in ex eme con ex s (Dixon and Weeks, 2017; S eigenbe ge , 2016), and his
dispa i y can dis up hei abili y o collec i ely make sense o a si ua ion. Ex eme con-
ex s o en b ing oge he andom, cogni i ely dispa a e ac o s wi h di e en expe ise
and backg ounds who need o in e ac and coo dina e (Hällg en and Buchanan, 2020).
Cogni i e dispa i y – in pa icula , when some ac o s ha e subs an ially mo e- elabo a e
cogni i e ep esen a ions o a si ua ion han o he ac o s do – is he e o e a common
cha ac e is ic o ex eme con ex s. P e ious esea ch has demons a ed ha cogni i e
dispa i y can dis up cue pe cep ion, cue p ocessing, and pu pose ul in e ac ion in a
collec i e sensemaking p ocess (Hällg en e al., 2018; O’Neill and Ro hba d, 2017) be-
cause ac o s’ pe cep ion and in e p e a ion o cues depend on hei cogni i e ep esen-
a ions o he ac i i ies hey a e equi ed o pe o m in a gi en si ua ion. Ac o s wi h
elabo a e ep esen a ions a e mo e capable o iden i ying and p ocessing ask- ele an
cues, while ac o s lacking elabo a e ep esen a ions o en miss impo an cues o mis-
in e p e he cues hey pe cei e (Lois, 1980). Ac o s wi h elabo a e ep esen a ions a e
also able o unde s and when he cues hey pe cei e a e implausible o insu icien , and
hus hey can be e p io i ize accu a e cues and igno e implausible ones (Lai, 2021).
Finally, ac o s wi h elabo a e ep esen a ions migh mo e- easily pe cei e when cues
de ia e om expec a ions, and hus hey a e in a be e posi ion o ecognize when
collec i e sensemaking and subsequen collec i e ac ion is equi ed in he i s place
(Weick and Su cli e, 2007). In a si ua ion wi h cogni i e dispa i y, ac o s wi h elabo a e
ep esen a ions will he e o e mo e- easily and mo e- e icien ly pe cei e cues compa ed
o ac o s wi h less- elabo a e ep esen a ions (She man and Robe o, 2020; Wolbe s and
Boe sma, 2013), a s a e o a ai s ha adds o he agili y o collec i e sensemaking in
ex eme con ex s.
Cogni i e dispa i y and dis ac ing emo ions may e en ein o ce one ano he , as
Hällg en and Buchanan (2020, p. 453) sugges in hei pape on g oup dynamics in ex-
eme con ex s: ‘[m]embe s o g oups b ough oge he a andom b ing di e en e hics,
a i udes, skills, and expe ience, c ea ing ensions ha a e exace ba ed by ea and anx-
ie y’. This ein o cemen o cogni i e dispa i y and dis ac ing emo ions has escala ing
e ec s, supp essing ac o s’ abili y o make collec i e sense in ex eme con ex s: Cogni i e
dispa i y among ac o s necessi a es ex ensi e discussions in he collec i e sensemak-
ing p ocess, ye in ex eme con ex s, hese discussions a e complica ed by dis ac ing
1226 T. Lübcke e al.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
and John Wiley & Sons L d.
emo ions, which can make ac o s less ecep i e o sensemaking cues. In addi ion, cogni-
i e dispa i ies esul in ac o s bo h pe cei ing di e en cues and in e p e ing he same
cues di e en ly. Gi en hese complica ed in e ac ions, we add ess ou esea ch ques ion
by conduc ing an explo a o y p ocess s udy, in which wo g oups o ac o s – escue c ew
membe s and e ugees – aced cogni i e dispa i ies and dis ac ing emo ions ye needed
o coo dina e hei ac ions.
METHODS
We ca ied ou a p ocess s udy using unique mul i- pe spec i e ideo and ich a chi al
da a om a ma i ime sea ch and escue mission in he Aegean Sea. This me hod is pa -
icula ly sui ed o s udying unde - esea ched phenomena (S auss and Co bin, 2008;
W igh e al., 2023). Ou goal was o g adually build heo e ical unde s anding by ac-
cumula ing insigh s om he da a and hen de eloping heo y on he p ocess o in e es
(Clou ie and Langley, 2020; Co nelissen, 2017; Langley, 1999).
Resea ch Se ing
We collec ed da a in 2016, when he eas e n Aegean Sea was a humani a ian disas e
zone, as wa s in he Middle Eas and A ghanis an and humani a ian c ises in A ican
coun ies d ama ically inc eased mig a ion o Eu ope. Many e ugees ied o each
he G eek islands o Les os, Chios, Samos, and Kos in unseawo hy ubbe boa s
ha o en sank on o nea he ocky sho es o hese islands, and many died ying. In
addi ion o acing he dange s o he sea, e ugees we e o en mis ea ed by o icials
o a ious coun ies whe e hey a i ed and we e illegally h ea ened o be sen back
o he coun ies om which hey had depa ed (Uni ed Na ions Human Righ s O ice
o he High Commissione , 2021). Ou esea ch examines he e acua ion o such e -
ugees om hei ubbe boa s by he c ew o he Uni y. The Uni y is a Ge man escue
c uise – ope a ed by a non- p o i o ganiza ion (NPO) – ha was ans e ed o G eek
wa e s in 2016 as pa o an in e na ional elie mission. S a ed wi h SAR expe s
om G eek and Ge man ma i ime SAR o ganiza ions, he Uni y pa olled he eas e n
wa e s o he island o Les os o h ee mon hs, a mission ca ied ou in coope a ion
wi h he Eu opean Bo de and Coas Gua d Agency. Ou s udy co e s he i s h ee
weeks o his mission, du ing which he i s au ho o his pape se ed as a c ew
membe on he escue c uise .
Each day, he Uni y le he po o My ilene on Les os abou an hou be o e sun ise
and began pa olling o e ugee boa s in an a ea assigned o i by he G eek Coas
Gua d. I a boa was sigh ed, he Uni y c ew would p epa e o deploy he daugh e
boa , and he helmspe son would in o m he G eek Coas Gua d’s on- scene coo dina-
o o he sigh ing and o e o e acua e he e ugees om hei ubbe boa and ake
hem aboa d he Uni y. The on- scene coo dina o hen issued an o de allowing he
Uni y o p oceed wi h he escue. A his poin , he e acua ion we a e s udying began.
I equi ed coo dina ed ac ion be ween he escue c ew and he e ugees du ing h ee
phases: (1) es ablishing a ope connec ion be ween he e ugee boa and he Uni y’s
daugh e boa , (2) moo ing and secu ing he e ugee boa o he a o he Uni y, and
1227Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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(3) ans e ing he e ugees and hei luggage om hei boa o he Uni y. Wi hin
each o hese h ee phases, he escue c ew and he e ugees had o coo dina e com-
plex ac i i ies o ensu e a sa e e acua ion. Once aboa d he Uni y, he e ugees we e
aken o he po o My ilene.
The escue c ew and e ugees demons a ed conside able cogni i e dispa i y in e ms
o ma i ime expe ise, which led o di e gen ep esen a ions o he si ua ion. Speci ically,
he beha iou o he escue c ew, despi e hei he e ogeneous na ional backg ounds,
demons a ed elabo a e cogni i e ep esen a ions o he ac ions necessa y o e acua ing
pe sons om dis essed essels, expe ise ha hey had gained h ough hei ex ensi e
ma i ime aining and expe ience. Howe e , ou ideo da a and i s hand obse a ions
e eal a e y di e en scena io among he e ugees. In con as o he escue c ew, hei
beha iou consis en ly indica ed ha hey had li le ma i ime expe ise, sugges ing a di -
e en and less- elabo a e cogni i e ep esen a ion o he si ua ion. This dispa i y was
complemen ed by e ugees’ displays o emo i e dis ac ion, which may ha e esul ed
om he e ugees’ in ense emo ional s a es. Displays o ea , anxie y, and ension we e
common in ou ideo da a. These obse a ions mi o o icial epo s based on in e -
iews wi h e ugees s a ing ha ‘ hose on boa d ea ed o hei li es’ and ha ‘ he sea
is no easy, ei he you’ e sa e o you die’ (Uni ed Na ions Human Righ s O ice o he
High Commissione , 2021, pp. 12, 16). The e ugees’ expe ience o ea and anxie y is
also unde s andable gi en ha hei p e ious encoun e s wi h s a e agencies may ha e
esul ed in wa e bomba dmen s, push- backs, and/o assaul s (Uni ed Na ions Human
Righ s O ice o he High Commissione , 2021).
Cogni i e dispa i y and emo i e dis ac ion p esen ed undamen al challenges o col-
lec i e sensemaking in his ex eme con ex . Fo example, e ugees commonly demon-
s a ed hei lack o ma i ime expe ise by ying o a ach he owline o uns able pa s
o hei ubbe boa in Phase 1 o by disca ding hei li e jacke s and a emp ing o boa d
he Uni y on hei own in Phase 3 – all highly isky ac ions ha can cause se e e inju y
o d owning. In addi ion o cogni i e dispa i y, emo ions ha dis ac ed om he e ac-
ua ion also clea ly hampe ed he escue c ew’s e o s o sa ely ans e he e ugees. Fo
example, du ing Phase 1, when he c ew a emp ed o app oach he e ugee boa , he
e ugees commonly showed emo i e displays o ea and anxie y. They ook ac ions ha
we e coun e p oduc i e o he e acua ion, such as main aining hei cou se ( a he han
app oaching he escue c uise ), inc easing hei speed ( a he han educing i ), o ying
o escape om he escue c uise . O e all, collec i e sensemaking among c ew membe s
and e ugees was necessa y o pu pose ul in e ac ion, ye bo h cogni i e dispa i y and
dis ac ing emo ions hinde ed he collec i e sensemaking e o .
The aim o he escue c ew was o guide he e ugees’ cue pe cep ion, cue p ocessing,
and he esul ing in e ac ions. The cogni i e dispa i y be ween he ac o s along wi h he
dis ac ing emo ions mean ha e bal communica ion o en ailed o guide pe cep ion,
p ocessing, and in e ac ions, as was e iden ea ly in ou esea ch p ojec . Gi en hese
cha ac e is ics, he Uni y’s escue mission is as an excellen se ing o add ess ou esea ch
ques ion.
Table I below is based on ou quali a i e da a (e.g., escue- p ocedu e manuals, ideo
da a, pho og aphs, and he i s au ho ’s documen a ion) and desc ibes in de ail he
phases o he e acua ion and he ac ions ha each phase equi ed.
1234 T. Lübcke e al.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Figu e 2. Example o mapping collec i e sensemaking episodes in E acua ion #1
No e: Time s amp indica es he leng h and posi ion o he eco ding on he ideo; abb e ia ion a e ime s amp indica es he came a loca ion (e.g., ‘DB’ o daugh e
boa , ‘RC’ o escue c uise ) and speci ic e acua ion (e.g., ‘1’ o E acua ion #1); V, e bal communica ion; NV, non- e bal communica ion; PV, pa a- e bal
communica ion.

1235Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Nex , we examined he collec i e sensemaking episodes in de ail. We ound ha ac o s
ex ensi ely elied on mul imodal communica ion by combining he h ee modes o
communica ion (Bonaccio e al., 2016): e bal language, pa a- e bal elemen s (e.g.,
olume, in ona ion, o one o oice), and non- e bal body language (e.g., ges u es,
signals, o eye con ac ) o engage in aming he emo ional s a e and, based on his
emo i e aming, o enable he ask- ela ed aming.
Compa ing e acua ions o de i e ca ego ies Finally, we compa ed pai s o
e acua ions, used new pe mu a ions, and g adually expanded ou analysis (Miles
e al., 2013). In his i e a i e p ocess, we disco e ed commonali ies in mul imodal
communica ion ac oss e acua ions despi e di e ences such as ime, day, wea he
condi ions, c ew composi ion, and he numbe and demog aphics o e ugees.
Table II makes his p ocess anspa en : i shows compa isons be ween e acua ions
(i.e., E acua ions #1 o #5).
Based on ph asal desc ip ions o e bal, pa a- e bal, and non- e bal communica-
ion we engaged in highe - o de coding (S auss and Co bin, 2008). We unco e ed
ela ionships be ween codes, p obed he eme gen concep s in he exis ing li e a u e
on mul imodal communica ion and collec i e sensemaking, and buil ou ca ego ies.
Table III illus a es he highe - o de coding o he da a, using examples o he ask-
aming and emo i e- aming ca ego ies o show how hese ca ego ies ela e o ou aw
da a (P a , 2009).
De eloping a p ocess model on mul imodali y in collec i e sensemaking in
ex eme con ex s Finally, we examined ou ca ego ies in mo e de ail. In pa icula ,
and in line wi h he no ion o mul imodali y, we explo ed he in e play o e bal, non-
e bal, and pa a- e bal communica ion o emo ion- ela ed aming and ask- ela ed
aming, espec i ely. Based on he eme ging deepe unde s anding o ou ca ego-
ies we de eloped a p ocess model on mul imodal collec i e sensemaking in ex eme
con ex s.
FINDINGS
Collec i e sensemaking ook place when escue c ew membe s and e ugees needed o
c ea e a cogni i e ep esen a ion o how o collec i ely p oceed wi h he e acua ion.
These sensemaking episodes occu ed h ee imes in each e acua ion, as we showed
abo e (see Table I). Below, we de ail he sensemaking s eps ha cha ac e ize he i s
o hese episodes. In he i s episode, c ew membe s and e ugees had o es ablish
a line connec ion be ween he e ugee boa and he Uni y’s daugh e boa ( o a de-
ailed desc ip ion o he equi ed ac i i ies, see Table I, Phase 1). Fo each o hese
sensemaking s eps, we explain how e bal, non- e bal, and pa a- e bal bodily ex-
p essions combine o p oduce mul imodal cues. This app oach allows us o show he
di e ences be ween he modali ies ac o s use in emo i e aming e sus ask aming
and o es ablish hese ca ego ies as he majo building blocks o ou p ocess model
on mul imodal collec i e sensemaking in ex eme con ex s. Table A1 in he online
Appendix p esen s empi ical e idence om all in e - c ew- e ugee sensemaking epi-
sodes h oughou he s udied e acua ions. I demons a es ha he mul imodal use o
1236 T. Lübcke e al.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Table II. Summa y o sensemaking episodes ac oss e acua ions
Emo i e aming (es ablishing
a calm and a en i e s a e)
Task aming (ins uc ing
ask pe o mance)
Emo i e aming (closing
in e ac ion)
Emo i e aming ( e- es ablishing
a calm and a en i e s a e)
E acua ion #1: 2016- 03- 12, 6:15 a.m.–6:40 a.m. Posi ion: 39°04′55″ N, 026°35′80″ E. Wea he :
cloudy, wa e 16.5°C, ai 19°C, wind ligh b eeze. Rescue c ew*: 9 Ge man, 4 G eek. Rescued pe -
sons: 14 babies & oddle s on boa d, o al headcoun : 58 pe sons. Rema ks: mainly e ugees ( amilies)
om Sy ia, ligh - g ey ubbe boa (low quali y)
V: Using o mulas o
welcome (‘Good
Mo ning’.), sa e y (‘We
b ing you o ou boa
…’) and common un-
de s anding (‘Do you
speak English?’)
NV: Using ges u es o
welcome (wa ing)
while seeking eye
con ac
PV: Using iendly and
calm, one o oice,
using lega o speech
melody, speaking
loudly and clea ly
V: Gi ing ins uc ions
(‘You w ap he ope
a ound he engine’)
NV: Using illus a i e
ges u es ( inge -
poin ing, desc ibing
ci cles) while main-
aining eye con ac
PV: Using ins uc ing
one o oice, speak-
ing loudly while em-
phasizing key wo ds
(‘aa oouuund’) and
using onoma opoeia
(‘clack’)
V: Using o mulas
o hanks (‘Thank
you!’) and app aisal
(‘Okay!’)
NV: Using signals
o app aisal
( humbs- up)
PV: Using iendly,
p aising one o
oice and calm-
ing, lega o speech
melody
No ins ances o emo i e aming
( e- es ablishing a calm and
a en i e s a e)
E acua ion #2: 2016- 03- 12, 8:04 a.m.–8:14 a.m. Posi ion: 39°07′15″ N, 026°38′38″ E. Wea he :
cloudy, occasional showe s, wa e 16.5°C, ai 19°C, wind ligh b eeze. Rescue c ew*: 9 Ge man, 4
G eek. Rescued pe sons: 12 oddle s & kids on boa d, o al headcoun : 51 pe sons. Rema ks: e ugees
om Sy ia and I aq, black ubbe boa ( ai quali y)
V: Using o mulas o
welcome (‘Welcome
o Eu ope … Good
Mo ning!’), sa e y
(‘You a e in a sa e
a ea’.) and common
unde s anding (‘Is
he e anybody o
ansla e?’)
NV: Using ges u es o
welcome (wa ing)
while seeking eye
con ac
PV: Using iendly and
calm one o oice,
using lega o speech
melody, speaking
loudly and clea ly
V: Desc ibing p o-
cedu e (‘We’ll gi e
you a ope … [you
ie i ] a ound he
engine.’) and gi ing
ins uc ions (‘Tu n …
u n [i a ound] he
engine …’)
NV: Using illus a i e
ges u es (indica ing a
ci cle, showing how
o hook he snap
hook in) while main-
aining eye con ac
PV: Using ins uc ing
one o oice, speak-
ing loudly while em-
phasizing key wo ds
(‘aa oouuund’), and
using onoma opoeia
(‘clack’)
V: Using o mulas o
app aisal (‘Yeah!’,
‘Good Job!’)
NV: Using signals
o app aisal
( humbs- up)
PV: Using iendly
and applauding one
o oice and lega o
speech melody
V: Using o mulas o calm-
ing (‘Si down!’)
NV: Using calming hand
ges u e
PV: Using iendly one
o oice, using calming
speech melody
(Con inues)
1237Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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Emo i e aming (es ablishing
a calm and a en i e s a e)
Task aming (ins uc ing
ask pe o mance)
Emo i e aming (closing
in e ac ion)
Emo i e aming ( e- es ablishing
a calm and a en i e s a e)
E acua ion #3: 2016- 03- 12, 8:35 a.m.–8:50 a.m. Posi ion: 39°03′02″ N, 026°37′53″ E. Wea he :
cloudy, occasional showe s, wa e 16.5°C, ai 19°C, wind ligh b eeze. Rescue c ew*: 9 Ge man, 4
G eek. Rescued pe sons: 2 babies, 12 oddle s, 9 kids, o al headcoun : 56 pe sons. Rema ks: g ey/
g een ubbe boa (poo quali y)
V: Using o mulas o
welcome (‘Welcome
in Eu ope’.), sa e y
(‘E e y hing is okay’)
and common unde -
s anding (‘Is he e any-
body who unde s ands
English?’)
NV: Using ges u es o
welcome (wa ing)
while seeking eye
con ac
PV: Using iendly one
o oice, using calm-
ing speech melody,
speaking loudly
V: Gi ing ins uc ions
(‘Take he ope …
[w ap i ] a ound he
engine!’)
NV: Using illus a i e
ges u es ( inge -
poin ing, indica ing
a ci cle) while main-
aining eye con ac
PV: Using ins uc -
ing one o oice,
speaking loudly and
commandingly while
emphasizing key
wo ds (‘aa oouu-
und’), and using ono-
ma opoeia (‘clack’)
V: Using o mulas o
app aisal (‘Yeah!’,
‘G ea !’, ‘Okay!’)
NV: –
PV: Using iendly
and applauding one
o oice and lega o
speech melody
No ins ances o emo i e aming
( e- es ablishing a calm and
a en i e s a e)
E acua ion #4: 2016- 03- 17, 6:47 a.m.–7:14 a.m. Posi ion: 39°03′60″ N, 026°29′70″ E. Wea he : sunny,
ai 10°C, wind gen le o esh b eeze, sea 0.5–1.0 m. Rescue c ew+: 8 Ge man, 2 G eek, Li egua ds:
4 Ge man. Rescued pe sons: mainly young men om A ghanis an and India, o al headcoun : 61
pe sons. Rema ks: many people a e seasick, daugh e boa wi h new c ew ( i s join escue mission in
his eam cons ella ion), addi ional as escue boa manned wi h wo li egua ds, black ubbe boa ( ai
quali y)
V: Using o mulas o
welcome (‘Welcome o
Eu ope’.), sa e y (‘You
a e sa e!’) and com-
mon unde s anding
(‘You speak English?’)
NV: Using signals o
sa e y ( humbs- up)
while seeking eye
con ac
PV: Using calm one o
oice, speaking loudly
and clea ly
V: Gi ing ins uc ions
(‘Pu ou ope …
a ound he engine!’)
NV: Using illus a i e
ges u es (o e ing a
ope, inge - poin ing,
desc ibing ci cles)
while main aining
eye con ac
PV: Using ins uc ing
and encou aging
one o oice, speak-
ing loudly
V: Using o mulas o
app aisal (‘Pe ec !’)
NV: Using signals
o app aisal
( humbs- up)
PV: Using iendly
and p aising one o
oice
V: Using o mulas o sa e y
(‘E e y hing is okay’)
NV: Using ges u es o
calming (a m ges u e)
and signals o sa e y
( humbs- up)
PV: Using iendly one
o oice, using calming
speech melody
E acua ion #5: 2016- 03- 17, 7:30 a.m.–7:53 a.m. Posi ion: 39°04′10″ N, 026°36′90″ E. Wea he : sunny,
ai 10°C, wind gen le o esh b eeze, sea 0.5–1.0 m. Rescue c ew+: 8 Ge man, 2 G eek, Li egua ds:
4 Ge man. Rescued pe sons: mainly men, 4 women, 1 child, o al headcoun : 64 pe sons. Rema ks:
same as E acua ion #4, pe sons om E acua ion #4 we e s ill on boa d, black ubbe boa ( ai
quali y)
Table II. (Con inued)
1238 T. Lübcke e al.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
and John Wiley & Sons L d.
e bal, non- e bal, and pa a- e bal communica ion wi hin hese episodes was s able
wi hin and be ween e acua ions.
P epa ing o In e ac ion
A he beginning o he episode, he c ew engaged in in a- c ew sensemaking o p epa e
o he upcoming encoun e wi h he e ugees. As c ew membe s obse ed he e u-
gee boa , hey ypically sha ed hei assessmen s o he si ua ion and he collec i e s a e
aboa d he e ugee boa by e bally communica ing among hemsel es he cues hey
pe cei ed. The ollowing exce p [3] om E acua ion #3 illus a es how c ew membe s
aligned hei indi idual ep esen a ions while he daugh e boa was app oaching he
e ugees o p epa e o he upcoming encoun e .
00:00–01:12 (DB3): The daugh e boa , wi h wo c ew membe s on boa d, is pu suing he e ugee
boa . The i s helmspe son (CM_1) is s ee ing he daugh e boa apidly bu s eadily in he di ec ion
o he e ugee boa ; he second helmspe son (CM_2) is p epa ing he moo ing line. While app oaching
and obse ing he e ugee boa , hey speak loudly in Ge man in a small- alk- like one o oice.
CM_2: ‘Die e suchen o uns an Land zu kommen’. [‘They’ e ying o ge asho e be o e us’.]
CM_1 (wi h a quick glance a his colleague, immedia ely u ning back o he e ugee boa in on o
him): ‘Ja, die haben Angs ’. [‘Yes, hey a e a aid’.]
CM_2: ‘Ja. Alles was geh ah en die’. [‘Yes. They’ e mo ing as as as hey can’.]
Emo i e aming (es ablishing
a calm and a en i e s a e)
Task aming (ins uc ing
ask pe o mance)
Emo i e aming (closing
in e ac ion)
Emo i e aming ( e- es ablishing
a calm and a en i e s a e)
V: Using o mulas o
welcome (‘Welcome o
Eu ope’.), sa e y (‘You
a e sa e!’) and com-
mon unde s anding
(‘You speak English?’)
NV: Using signals o
sa e y ( humbs- up)
while seeking eye
con ac
PV: Using calm one o
oice, speaking loudly
and clea ly
V: Gi ing ins uc ions
(‘A ound he engine!’)
NV: Using illus a i e
ges u es (indica ing
a ci cle) while main-
aining eye con ac
PV: Using ins uc ing
and encou aging
one o oice, speak-
ing loudly
V: Using o mulas
o app aisal (‘Yes,
pe ec !’)
NV: –
PV: Using applauding
one o oice
V: Using o mulas o sa e y
(‘I ’s okay’.) and calming
(‘Si down’.)
NV: Using signals o calm-
ing (hand ges u e)
PV: Using iendly one
o oice, using calming
speech melody
No e: * and + indica e an iden ical composi ion o he escue c ew o he espec i e e acua ion; Phase 1 o each e acua-
ion, see online Appendix Table A1 o mo e e idence.
Abb e ia ions: NV, non- e bal communica ion; PV, pa a- e bal communica ion; V, e bal communica ion.
Table II. (Con inued)
1239Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Table III. Illus a ion o quali a i e da a coding
Ca ego y Speci ica ion o mul imodali y Ph asal desc ip ion o da a
Emo i e aming
(es ablishing a
calm and
a en i e s a e)
Focus on non- e bal ges u es o
signals o welcome and sa e y
Rescue c ew membe s wa e o welcome e u-
gees ( e ugees o en wa e back once in ense
emo ions a e minimized)
Rescue c ew membe s show humbs- up o
a i m ha e e y hing is okay (indi idual
e ugees o en mi o hand signal un il
in ense emo ions a e minimized)
Rescue c ew membe s use calming hand
ges u es (indi idual e ugees o en mi o
ges u e o calm down o he e ugees un il
in ense emo ions a e minimized)
Rescue c ew membe s seek eye con ac wi h
e ugees so ha e ugees become a en i e
Fo mulaic epe i ion o e bal
exp essions o welcome and sa e y
(un il dis ac ing emo ions a e
minimized and e ugees become
a en i e)
Rescue c ew membe s use o mulas o wel-
come (e.g., ‘Welcome in Eu ope’, ‘You’ e in
G eece. Welcome’), which hey epea un il
in ense emo ions a e minimized
Rescue c ew membe s use o mulas o es ab-
lish a common le el o unde s anding (e.g.,
‘Anyone speaks English?’), which hey e-
pea un il in ense emo ions a e minimized
and e ugees become a en i e
Rescue c ew membe s use o mulas o signal
sa e y (e.g., ‘E e y hing is okay’, ‘You a e
sa e’, ‘We b ing you o ou boa ’, ‘All o you
will ge o e soon’), which hey epea un il
in ense emo ions a e minimized
Focus on iendly, clea , and calming
pa a- e bal communica ion
Rescue c ew membe s use iendly and calm
one o oice ( e ugees o en mi o one o
oice once in ense emo ions a e minimized)
Rescue c ew membe s speak loudly and
clea ly un il e ugees become a en i e
Rescue c ew membe s use a lega o and
calming speech melody un il in ense emo-
ions a e minimized and e ugees become
a en i e

1240 T. Lübcke e al.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
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Ca ego y Speci ica ion o mul imodali y Ph asal desc ip ion o da a
Task aming (in-
s uc ing ask
pe o mance)
Main enance o epe i ion o
non- e bal body signals and
illus a i e ges u es o ge
a en ion (un il equi ed ask is
comple ed)
Rescue c ew membe s main ain body lan-
guage (e.g., u ning o e ugees, aking a
isible posi ion, kneeling o eye le el) so ha
e ugees s ay a en i e ( e ugees use body
language o show a en ion, eadiness)
Rescue c ew membe s main ain eye con ac
o ensu e ha e ugees s ay a en i e ( e u-
gees main ain eye con ac o indica e hei
a en i eness and eadiness o accomplish
equi ed ask)
Rescue c ew membe s use illus a i e hand
ges u es (e.g., desc ibing ci cles, a hand
ges u e showing how o ‘hook in’ he
ca abine , a ges u e o poin ing o e ugees
‘one- by- one’), which hey epea un il
equi ed ask is comple ed
Focus on e bal ansmi ance o
cues o pe o ming equi ed ask
Rescue c ew membe s gi e ins uc ions on
how o es ablish ope connec ion be ween
e ugee boa and (daugh e boa o he)
escue c uise wi hou u he explana ion
(e.g., ‘You ake he ope and pu i a ound
he engine’)
Rescue c ew membe s desc ibe basic p oce-
du e o e acua ion wi hou u he expla-
na ion (e.g., ‘Fi s we ix he boa . Boa ding
when we say s a . Fi s babies, child en,
women. And one- by- one’)
Main enance o epe i ion o
ins uc i e, onoma opoeic
pa a- e bal communica ion
(un il equi ed ask is comple ed)
Rescue c ew membe s use ins uc ing and
encou aging one o oice so ha e ugees
s ay a en i e
Rescue c ew membe s speak loudly, some-
imes commandingly, so ha e ugees s ay
a en i e
Resue c ew membe s emphasize key wo ds
(e.g., ‘aa oouund’) and use onoma opoeia
(e.g., ‘clack’) o illus a e e bal ins uc ion
(i.e., hooking in he ca abine ), which hey
epea un il equi ed ask is comple ed
Table III. (Con inued)
(Con inues)
1241Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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Ca ego y Speci ica ion o mul imodali y Ph asal desc ip ion o da a
Emo i e am-
ing (closing
in e ac ion)
Focus on non- e bal ges u es o
signals o hanks and app aisal
Rescue c ew membe s show humbs- up
o a i m ha join wo k is comple ed o
e e yone’s sa is ac ion (indi idual e ugees
o en mi o hand signals)
Rescue c ew membe s use ges u es (e.g., high
i e) o a i m ha join wo k is comple ed
o e e yone’s sa is ac ion ( e ugees o en
mi o ges u es o smile wi h elie and
sa is ac ion)
Fo mulaic epe i ion o e bal ex-
p essions o hanks and app aisal
(lea ing o e all posi i e collec i e
emo i e s a e)
Rescue c ew membe s use o mulas o hanks
(e.g., ‘OK. Thank you!’) o a i m ha join
wo k is comple ed o e e yone’s sa is ac ion
Rescue c ew membe s use o mulas o ap-
p aisal (e.g., ‘Yes, pe ec . Pe ec !’, ‘Yeah
g ea , okay’, ‘Good job’) o a i m ha join
wo k is comple ed o e e yone’s sa is ac ion
Focus on iendly, p aising,
and calming pa a- e bal
communica ion
Rescue c ew membe s use iendly and p ais-
ing one o oice
Rescue c ew membe s use a lega o and calm-
ing speech melody
Emo i e aming
( e- es ablishing
a calm and a -
en i e s a e)
Focus on non- e bal ges u es o
signals o calming and sa e y
Rescue c ew membe s use calming hand
ges u es (indi idual e ugees o en mi o
ges u e o calm down o he e ugees un il
in ense emo ions a e minimized)
Rescue c ew membe s use signals (e.g.,
humbs- up, poin ing o escue c uise ) o
a i m ha e e y hing is okay
Rescue c ew membe s seek eye con ac wi h
e ugees so ha e ugees become a en i e
Fo mulaic epe i ion o e bal
exp essions o calming and sa e y
(un il dis ac ing emo ions mini-
mize and e ugees calm down)
Rescue c ew membe s use o mulas o signal
sa e y (e.g., ‘E e y hing is okay’, ‘We a e
he e’, ‘The big boa is coming’), which
hey epea un il in ense emo ions a e
minimized
Rescue c ew membe s use calming o mulas
(e.g., ‘Si down’, ‘Wai ’), which hey epea
o s op es lessness among e ugees
Focus on iendly, clea , and calming
pa a- e bal communica ion
Rescue c ew membe s use iendly and calm
one o oice
Rescue c ew membe s speak loudly and
clea ly o ensu e ha e ugees lis en
Rescue c ew membe s use a lega o and calm-
ing speech melody un il in ense emo ions
a e minimized
Table III. (Con inued)
1242 T. Lübcke e al.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
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CM_1: ‘Ich auch. Ich su e ge ade’. [‘Me oo. I’m su ing igh now’.]
CM_2 (wa ing o e ugees): ‘E soll Gas wegnehmen, sons e senken wi das Ding’. [‘He
be e slow down o we’ll sink his hing’.]
CM_1 (wi h a glance o e his shoulde ): ‘Wi nich ’. [‘No us’.]
CM_2 (poin ing o e ugee boa ): ‘Nein, e soll Gas wegnehmen, sons e senken wi die’.
[‘No, he should slow down o we’ll sink hem’.]
The ollowing exce p om E acua ion #4 p o ides an addi ional example.
00:00–00:58 (DB4- 1): The e ugee boa has al eady been spo ed and he daugh e boa is heading
o i . While one helmspe son (CM_3) is s ee ing he daugh e boa , ano he one (CM_4) is p epa ing
he moo ing line.
CM_3 ( u ning a ound o his colleague, add essing him in a small- alk ye sailo - like one o oice
[in Ge man]): ‘Has Du die Leine kla ?’ [“Is he line clea ?”]
CM_4: ‘Bin schon dabei’. [‘I’m al eady on i ’.]
CM_3: ‘Jawohl’. [‘Ay’.]
CM_4 (con inues p epa ing moo ing line and snap hook; a e a while he add esses his colleague
again): ‘Schön langsam, ne. Fah schön langsam’. [‘Nice and slow, eh. Sail nice and slow’.]
CM_3: (wa ing o e ugees)
CM_4: ‘Das is ein schwa zes Boo ’. [‘This is a black boa ’.]
Ve bal cues e e ed o a ange o ci cums ances, such as he e ugees’ ac ions (‘E soll
Gas wegnehmen, sons e senken wi das Ding’. [‘He be e slow down o we’ll sink his hing’.]),
in ense emo ional displays (‘Ja die haben Angs ’. [‘Yes, hey a e a aid’.]), o cha ac e is ics o
he ubbe boa (‘Das is ein schwa zes Boo ’. [‘This is a black boa ’]).[4] Ve bal communica-
ion was commonly accompanied by p epa a o y body mo emen s (p epa ing he owing
line, slowing down he daugh e boa ) (e.g., E acua ion #1, E acua ion #2, E acua ion
#3, E acua ion #4), as we e bodily signals when he e ugees we e in sigh (poin ing
a and wa ing o he e ugees) (e.g., E acua ion #3, E acua ion #4, E acua ion #5),
and hese signals p ima ily p o ided cues o escue c ew membe s (and appa en ly o
he e ugees as he daugh e boa app oached he e ugee boa ) ha he encoun e was
imminen . Pa a- e bal communica ion was unagi a ed, wi h a a he small- alk- like o
p o essional one o oice, and he olume was qui e loud depending on he backg ound
noise o he engine, wind, and wa es.
In summa y, ‘p epa ing o in e ac ion’ ocuses on he in a- c ew e bal ansmis-
sion o sensemaking cues, which was accompanied by non- e bal bodily cues. The
1243Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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combina ion o e bal and non- e bal language helps c ea e among he escue c ew
a sha ed ep esen a ion o he key pa ame e s o he e ugees’ boa , including he
composi ion, ac ions, and eac ions o he e ugees; and pa icula ly, he collec i e
emo i e s a e among hem.
Emo i e F aming (Es ablishing a Calm and A en i e S a e)
Once he e ugee boa was wi hin ea sho , collec i e sensemaking be ween he escue
c ew and he e ugees began. The escue c ew and he e ugees sough o a i e a
a sha ed ep esen a ion o he si ua ion, which, as he ollowing examples illus a e,
in ol ed cues ha signal welcome and sa e y. The ollowing exce p is again om
E acua ion #3:
01:53–02:26 (DB3): The daugh e boa has almos eached he e ugee boa . Bo h c ew membe s
wa e o e ugees, seeking eye con ac wi h hem and add essing all o hem in English in a loud bu
iendly and calming one o oice.
CM_1: ‘Welcome in Eu ope. You’ e in G eece. E e y hing is okay. Welcome!’.
Re ugees (wa ing back): ‘Thank you! Welcome!’.
CM_1: ‘Is he e anybody who unde s ands English?’.
Re ugee_3_1 (gi ing a sign): ‘Yes, I speak English’.
CM_1 (main aining eye con ac ): ‘English?’.
Re ugee_3_1: ‘Yes’.
CM_1: ‘Okay’.
Re ugee_3_1: ‘Tha ’s igh ’.
In his sensemaking s ep, bo h c ew membe s and e ugees used mul imodal com-
munica ion, combining e bal wi h non- e bal communica ion (e.g., ges u es and hand
signals) and pa a- e bal elemen s, such as a iendly, clea , and calm one o oice.
When he c ew membe s p oduced cues ha appea ed o be ambiguous, he e ugees
in u n indica ed ha hey we e con used, anxious, o ense. In hese ins ances, he c ew
membe s epea ed speci ic embodied exp essions un il hey and he e ugees seemed o
each a sha ed ep esen a ion o he si ua ion. The ollowing exce p om E acua ion
#1 shows how his sha ed ep esen a ion was eached o bo h se s o ac o s:
00:17–01:10 (DB1): One o he c ew membe s g ee s he e ugees in English. He alks loudly and
clea ly, add essing all e ugees in a iendly, calming, lega o one o oice.
1250 T. Lübcke e al.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
and John Wiley & Sons L d.
02:31–03:02 (DB2): A e he ope om he daugh e boa has been connec ed o he e ugee boa ,
bo h c ew membe s p oceed wi h owing he e ugee boa o he a o he escue c uise . CM_1 is o-
cused on s ee ing he daugh e boa and CM_2 is keeping he ope in he igh posi ion while e ugees
ha e o wai and si down in he boa . Re ugee_2_3 in he back o he boa appea s o ge es less.
CM_1 ( o Re ugee_2_3, wi h a calming hand ges u e and a calming and iendly one o oice): ‘Si
down!’.
The ollowing exce p om E acua ion #4 p o ides an example o he escue c ew
membe s p o ec ing he ask pe o mance om in e e ence by he e ugees while
a he same ime minimizing po en ially dis ac ing emo ions. The c ew membe s
had u ned away om he e ugees (i.e., dis ancing), bu esponded immedia ely wi h
emo i e main aining when he e ugees showed non- e bal cues o un es (e.g., hand
signals). The c ew membe s used non- e bal communica ion (e.g., ges u es) and a
calm and iendly one o oice o ein o ce hei e bal exp essions un il e ugees
calmed down again.
02:28- 03:05 (DB4- 1): A e Re ugee_4_1 and Re ugee_4_5 ha e success ully ixed he moo ing
line o he engine o hei boa , he c ew membe s on he daugh e boa concen a e on keeping he dis-
ance be ween he wo boa s. Due o ough wa e , and he e o e di icul ies in handling he moo ing line,
much in a- c ew coo dina ion is necessa y.
CM_4 ( o his colleague): ‘F ank, se z zu ück! Du se z o ne au ’m Schlauch[boo ] au .
F ank, Du wa s au ’m Schlauch[boo ] … Also, wi sind es , wi sind es … So …
S op. S op. Vo wä s, o wä s. Ich hab nich meh iel [Leine]. Okay, langsam, lang-
sam, langsam. Wi haben Zei … Okay, wi haben’s hin en d an’ [F ank, go backwa ds!
You ouched down a he on o he ubbe (boa ). F ank, you we e on he ubbe (boa ). So, we a e
ixed … So … S op. S op. I don’ ha e much ( ope) le . Okay, slowly, slowly, slowly. We ha e ime.
… Okay, we’ e go i behind].
A he same ime, some o he e ugees a e ge ing es less, gi ing hand signs signalling ha hey wan
o ge o e o he daugh e boa .
CM_4 (calming one o oice, using a m ges u es ha indica e ha he ‘Uni y’ is mo ing in he di-
ec ion o he owing uni ): ‘The big boa is coming’.
Re ugees: (nodding as a sign o unde s anding)
CM_4 (calming, showing humbs- up): ‘E e y hing is okay’.
While Re ugee_4_1 is poin ing in di ec ion o he ‘Uni y’, which is heading o he scene, all e ugees
calm down.
In his inal sensemaking s ep, escue c ew membe s use e bal and non- e bal
cues o dis ance e ugees om u he in ol emen . A he same ime, he c ew s ays

1251Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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igilan o displays o in ense emo ions and p oduces cues – simila o hose in he
‘emo i e aming (es ablishing a calm and a en i e s a e)’ and ‘emo i e aming (clos-
ing in e ac ion)’ sensemaking s ep – ha build a sha ed ep esen a ion o he si ua ion
wi h he e ugees and, hus, allow he c ew membe s o p oceed wi h hei wo k.
Table IV p o ides a summa y o he insigh s eme ging om ou da a. I also p o-
ides illus a ions o he escue c ew engaging in embodied sensemaking wi h he
e ugees.
Ou indings e eal he pa e ns o mul imodal communica ion ac o s use o o e come
challenges posed by cogni i e dispa i ies and dis ac ing emo ions in ex eme con ex s.
They indica e di e en s eps and in e dependencies and sugges ha he mul imodal
combina ion o e bal, non- e bal, and pa a- e bal communica ion di e s depending
on whe he i is emo ion- ela ed (emo i e aming) o ask- ela ed ( ask aming). Based
on hese indings, we de elop a p ocess model o mul imodal collec i e sensemaking in
ex eme con ex s.
A PROCESS MODEL OF MULTIMODAL COLLECTIVE SENSEMAKING
IN EXTREME CONTEXTS
These indings allow us o de elop a p ocess model – depic ed in Figu e 3 – ha add esses
ou esea ch ques ion. In con ex s whe e ac o s wi h cogni i e dispa i y and dis ac -
ing emo ions encoun e one ano he , collec i e sensemaking canno solely ely on e -
bal, ask- ocused in o ma ion exchange, which is wha mos p e ious esea ch s udying
sensemaking among expe s has ound (e.g., Ch is ianson, 2019; Fa aj and Xiao, 2006;
S eigenbe ge and Lübcke, 2022). Ins ead, in hese con ex s collec i e sensemaking in-
ol es an auxilia y p ocess, comp ising he dis inc ye in e dependen s eps o p epa ing
o in e ac ion, emo i e aming (es ablishing a calm and a en i e s a e), ask aming (in-
s uc ing ask pe o mance), emo i e aming (closing in e ac ion), and dis ancing (p o-
ec ing ask pe o mance)/emo i e aming ( e- es ablishing a calm and a en i e s a e),
each o which is di ec ed owa d enabling he co e collec i e sensemaking p ocess (cue
pe cep ion, cue in e p e a ion, and pu pose ul in e ac ion).
The auxilia y collec i e sensemaking s eps necessi a e mul imodal communica ion, wi h
he modali ies con ingen on whe he he goal is ei he an emo i e o a ask- ela ed one.
Emo i e aming helps ac o s o minimize dis ac ing emo ions and ( e- )es ablish he neces-
sa y calm, a en i e s a e so ha ask- ela ed cues can be e ec i ely ansmi ed. This ans-
mission o ask- ela ed cues is c ucial o b idging cogni i e dispa i y be ween ac o s and
c ea es he g ound o coo dina ed ac ion. By al e na ing be ween aming emo i e s a es
and p o iding ask- ela ed cues, mul imodal communica ion assis s ac o s in o e coming
challenges posed by cogni i e dispa i ies and dis ac ing emo ions – bo h common in ex-
eme con ex s – hus acili a ing collec i e sensemaking and subsequen ac ion.
Co e and Auxilia y S eps in he Collec i e Sensemaking P ocess
Ex eme con ex s o en equi e ha ac o s wi h dispa a e cogni i e ep esen a ions wo k
oge he (Dixon and Weeks, 2017; S eigenbe ge , 2016), and hese con ex s o en ig-
ge dis ac ing emo ions (Ca ino and Pa io a, 2013; Hällg en e al., 2018; O’Neill and
1252 T. Lübcke e al.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Jou nal o Managemen S udies published by Socie y o he Ad ancemen o Managemen S udies
and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Table IV. Mul imodali y in collec i e sensemaking [Colou able can be iewed a wileyonlinelib a y.com]
Auxilia y collec i e
sensemaking:
P epa ing o in e ac ion Emo i e aming
(es ablishing a calm and
a en i e s a e)
Task aming (ins uc -
ing ask pe o mance)
Emo i e aming (clos-
ing in e ac ion)
Dis ancing (p o ec ing ask pe o -
mance)/emo i e aming ( e- es ablishing
a calm and a en i e s a e)
Locus o
Sensemaking:
In a c ew (+ in e
c ew- e ugee)
In e c ew- e ugee In e c ew- e ugee In e c ew- e ugee In a c ew + (in e c ew- e ugee)
Focus o
Communica ion:
Focus on e bal ansmi -
ance o sensemaking
cues, accompanied by
non- e bal cues
Focus on non- e bal and
pa a- e bal cues o
ein o ce o mulaic
epe i ion o e bal
message
Focus on e bal
ansmi ance o
sensemaking cues,
illus a ed by non-
e bal and pa a-
e bal embodied
exp essions
Focus on non- e bal
and pa a- e bal
cues o ein o ce
o mulaic epe i ion
o e bal message
In a c ew: ocus on e bal ansmi -
ance o sensemaking cues, accompa-
nied by non- e bal cues
In e c ew- e ugee: ocus on non- e bal
and pa a- e bal cues o ein o ce o -
mulaic epe i ion o e bal message
Focus o
Sensemaking:
In a c ew: combina ion o
e bal and non- e bal
communica ion helps
o assess and adjus o
emo ions and si ua ion
among e ugees
In e c ew- e ugee: non-
e bal exp essions also
p o ide cues o bo h
c ew membe s and
e ugees ha collec i e
sensemaking wi h e u-
gees was imminen
Rein o cing o mulaic
e bal message (i.e.,
welcome and sa e y) by
non- e bal and pa a-
e bal communica ion
acili a es emo i e
aming o si ua ion
(i.e., minimizes dis-
ac ing emo ions,
calms e ugees, and
makes hem a en i e)
Illus a ion o
e bal message by
non- e bal and
pa a- e bal com-
munica ion helps
deli e messages o
pe o ming equi ed
ask (i.e., ins uc-
ions) p ope ly and
e ec i ely
Rein o cing o mulaic
e bal message (i.e.,
hanks and p aise)
wi h non- e bal and
pa a- e bal com-
munica ion acili a es
emo i e closing (i.e.,
join wo k comple ed
o e e yone’s sa is ac-
ion, lea ing o e all
posi i e emo i e
collec i e s a e)
In a c ew: combina ion o e bal and
non- e bal communica ion helps
c ew p oceed wi h egula (e acua-
ion) wo k
In e c ew- e ugee: non- e bal and
pa a- e bal exp essions also p o ide
cues o bo h c ew membe s and
e ugees ha collec i e sensemak-
ing wi h e ugees is o e / ein o cing
o mulaic e bal message (i.e., o
calming and sa e y) wi h non- e bal
and pa a- e bal communica ion
acili a es emo i e main aining (i.e.,
minimizes dis ac ing emo ions and
calms e ugees)
Communica ion
– Ve bal:
Ve bal communica ion
in na i e, p o essional
language on pe cei ed
cues ega ding si ua ion,
especially emo i e s a e,
on boa d he e ugee
boa
Ve bal o mulaic exp es-
sions o welcome and
sa e y
Ve bal communica ion
o gi e ins uc ions
on how o pe o m
equi ed ask
Ve bal o mulaic ex-
p essions o hanks
and app aisal
Ve bal communica ion in na i e, p o es-
sional language on egula e acua ion
wo k/ e bal o mulaic exp essions o
calming and sa e y
(Con inues)
1253Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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Communica ion
– Non- Ve bal:
Non- e bal communi-
ca ion accompanies
e bal communica ion:
p epa ing o e acua-
ion, poin ing a e ugee
boa , wa ing
Non- e bal communica-
ion ein o ces e bal
communica ion: ges-
u es (wa ing hands) o
signals ( humbs- up)
Non- e bal com-
munica ion helps
main ain a en ion
and illus a e e bal
communica ion: ak-
ing a isible posi ion,
using eye con ac ,
using illus a i e
ges u es
Non- e bal commu-
nica ion ein o ces
e bal communica-
ion: ges u es (high
i e) o signals
( humbs- up)
Non- e bal communica ion accom-
panies e bal communica ion: col-
lec i ely u ning away om e ugees,
p oceeding wi h egula wo k/non-
e bal communica ion ein o ces e -
bal communica ion: ges u es (calming
hand ges u es) o signals ( humbs- up)
Communica ion
– Pa a- Ve bal:
Pa a- e bal communica-
ion seems less ele an
o sensemaking and is
ele an only as a con-
as o one o oice in
ollowing episode: loud,
small- alk- like, sailo - like
one o oice in na i e
language
Pa a- e bal language
ein o ces e bal
language: iendly and
calm one o oice (in
s a k con as o one
o oice used du ing
in a- c ew membe
con e sa ions)
Pa a- e bal language
illus a es e bal
language: ins uc i e
one o oice, em-
phasizing key wo ds,
using onoma opoeia
Pa a- e bal language
ein o ces e bal lan-
guage: iendly and
calm one o oice (in
s a k con as o one
o oice used du ing
in a- c ew membe
con e sa ions)
Pa a- e bal communica ion seems less
ele an o sensemaking and only
becomes ele an as a con as o one
o oice in p e ious episode: loud,
sailo - like one o oice in na i e
language/pa a- e bal language ein-
o ces e bal language: iendly and
calm one o oice (in s a k con as
o one o oice used du ing in a-
c ew membe con e sa ions)
Illus a ion
No e: G ey columns e e o auxilia y collec i e sensemaking p ocesses ha a e p edominan ly in a- c ew. We do no p o ide illus a ions o hese p ocesses because hey in ol e limi ed
non- e bal and pa a- e bal communica ion.
Table IV. (Con inued)
1254 T. Lübcke e al.
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Ro hba d, 2017) – such as ea , anxie y, and ension (e.g., T aege , 2013). Cogni i e dis-
pa i y and dis ac ing emo ions ende collec i e sensemaking agile. To o e come his
agili y, expe s – such as he escue c ew we s udy, i e igh e s in a bu ning building,
police o ice s du ing a e o is a ack, o physicians du ing a disas e – need o es ablish
he condi ions o e ec i e collec i e sensemaking wi h he o he ac o s in ol ed – such
as e ugees in dis ess, esiden s in a bu ning building, ci ilians in a e o is a ack, o
ic ims o olun ee s a e a disas e .
This auxilia y collec i e sensemaking p ocess begins wi h a s ep in which ac o s p e-
pa e o he upcoming in e ac ion. They men ally app oach he ex eme si ua ion and
ag ee on he key pa ame e s; in pa icula , o he ac o s’ emo ional s a e and ask- ele an
cha ac e is ics. Once he p epa ing is comple e, expe s in ol e he o he ac o s, s a -
ing wi h a emp s o minimize dis ac ing emo ions and es ablish a calm and a en i e
collec i e s a e. In his ini ial s ep o emo i e aming, expe s shi he ‘ ela ional heme’
Figu e 3. Mul imodal collec i e sensemaking in ex eme con ex s
1255Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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(Nabi, 1999) o he si ua ion and p e en emo ionally dis ac ed ac o s om missing o
misin e p e ing impo an cues. Thus, emo i e aming es ablishes he p econdi ions o
he ask- aming s ep ha ollows.
In he nex s ep, expe s p o ide cues o o he ac o s. These cues p esen he basis o
ask aming o acili a e subsequen join ac ion. Task aming di e s om e bal exchange
among expe s in ha in his s ep hese expe ac o s do no discuss hei in e p e a ion
o he si ua ion, bu ins ead p o ide clea , simple, and p ecise cues ha allow ac o s wi h
less- elabo a e ep esen a ions o he si ua ion o pe o m he equi ed ac ions immedia ely.
Expe s, by con as , collec i ely make sense by engaging in a collec i e, e bal explo a ion
o he si ua ion (Ch is ianson, 2019; Fa aj and Xiao, 2006). Task aming is comple ed as
soon as cue pe cep ion, cue in e p e a ion, and pu pose ul (in e - )ac ion – ha is, co e col-
lec i e sensemaking – ha e led o he conce ed comple ion o he equi ed ask.
A u he emo i e aming s ep ollows, which aims a closing he join ask and lea ing an
o e all posi i e, calm, a en i e collec i e s a e. Closing he in e ac ion – and he subsequen
dis ancing – is impo an because ac o s wi h less- elabo a e ep esen a ions could po en ially
hinde necessa y ac ions by p e en ing expe s om comple ing hei wo k. In his closing
s ep, he expe s indica e ha no u he join ac ions beyond hose ha we e ini ia ed in
he ask- aming s ep a e equi ed o encou aged. This dis ancing is suspended only when
dis ac ing emo ions seem o jeopa dize hei wo k, and in such a si ua ion ac o s engage
in emo i e aming again o e- es ablish and main ain he calm and a en i e emo i e s a e.
We sugges ha his p ocess allows ac o s in ex eme con ex s o o e come he sensemaking
challenges posed by cogni i e dispa i y and emo i e dis ac ion.
Mul imodal Communica ion in he Collec i e Sensemaking P ocess
Ou model (Figu e 3; see also Table IV) e eals he dis inc ways in which he di e en
communica i e modali ies – e bal, pa a- e bal, and non- e bal – a e used o acili a e
collec i e sensemaking. The emo i e- aming s eps (i.e., es ablishing a calm and a en i e
s a e, closing in e ac ion, and e- es ablishing a calm and a en i e s a e) di e clea ly and
sys ema ically om he ask- aming s ep in e ms o how ac o s use he di e en com-
munica ion modali ies hey ha e a ailable.
Emo i e aming is cha ac e ized by a ocus on non- e bal and pa a- e bal commu-
nica ion. Non- e bal communica ion includes emo ional displays (Pa kinson, 1996) ha
no only exp ess pe sonal emo ions bu also in luence o he s’ emo ional expe iences
(Bonaccio e al., 2016; Vaughan- Johns on e al., 2021). Pa a- e bal elemen s (i.e., how
some hing is said) also ha e g ea po en ial o shaping emo ional expe iences, in e -
sec ing wi h bu also dis inc om he e bal aspec (i.e., wha is said) (Pell e al., 2009).
These elemen s use p osodic cues o exp ess and in luence basic emo ions. Bo h non-
e bal (open o closed pos u es, ges u es, and signals) and pa a- e bal ( iendly and calm
one o oice) cues can shape he ela ional heme o he si ua ion in a way ha e bal
communica ion alone would be unable o do. When ac o s mi o he ges u es and one
o oice o o he ac o s, hey unde sco e he in luence ha non- e bal and pa a- e bal
communica ion has on collec i e sensemaking.
Task aming, in con as , is domina ed by e bal communica ion, wi h non- e bal
and pa a- e bal elemen s playing only a suppo ing ole. Non- e bal and pa a- e bal

1256 T. Lübcke e al.
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
communica ion (e.g., desc ip i e ges u es and exp essi e sounds) a e used o illus-
a e he e bal ansmission o ask- ela ed cues. This elemen o ou model es-
ona es wi h p e ious esea ch on e bal communica ion in expe s’ sensemaking
(Ch is ianson, 2019; Fa aj and Xiao, 2006; S eigenbe ge and Lübcke, 2022), ye ,
as explained abo e, because in ou se ing i in ol es ac o s wi h less- elabo a e ep-
esen a ions, he communica ion is la gely unidi ec ional, simpli ied, and wi hou
explana ions.
Taken oge he , ou model (Figu e 3) shows he di e en oles ha he h ee com-
munica ion modes play and how ac o s use hem. I also highligh s he c i ical ole o
he body and all o i s exp essions in collec i e sensemaking in ex eme con ex s – no
only o pe cei ing and in e p e ing cues (de Rond e al., 2019; Se gee a e al., 2020),
bu also o con eying cues and in luencing and acili a ing cue p ocessing in hese
con ex s.
DISCUSSION
On 14 June 2023, a ishing boa wi h an es ima ed 750 e ugees on boa d sank abou 47
nau ical miles o he coas o Pylos, G eece. I sank du ing an e acua ion a emp by
he G eek Coas Gua d, and o e 600 people died. The cause o his disas e is unclea ,
as he e is no ideo oo age o o he objec i e epo s. The G eek Coas Gua d a gued
ha he e ugee boa capsized because he e ugees, collec i ely, mo ed o one side o he
boa . This mo emen , seemingly a odds wi h ma i ime expe ise, migh be explained by
he e ugees’ ea o dehyd a ion, as i ook place a e bo les o esh wa e had been
ossed owa d he e ugee boa . Acco ding o media epo s, su i o s epo ed ha he
a emp o es ablish a owing line be ween he e ugee boa and he coas gua d c uise
ailed, leading o he boa capsizing (CNN, 2023). Sensemaking esea ch has ex ensi ely
s udied such ca as ophic e en s, e ealing he agili y o collec i e sensemaking in ex-
eme con ex s. Ye he puzzle o how ac o s o e come his agili y emains unexplained.
Ou s udy helps sol e his puzzle. The p ocess model we in oduce con ex ualizes
collec i e sensemaking, signi ican ly ex ending ex an wo k in sensemaking esea ch
ha has la gely ocused on sensemaking among expe s (Ch is ianson, 2019; Fa aj and
Xiao, 2006; Mai lis and Ch is ianson, 2014). Fo he mos pa , expe s make sense using
e bal language, g ounded in a deep unde s anding o he challenges a hand; hey an-
cho hei in e p e a ion o a si ua ion in he eme ging collec i e sensemaking accoun ;
and engage in pu pose ul (in e - )ac ion (Fa aj and Xiao, 2006). Howe e , in an ex eme
con ex , when ac o s wi h less- elabo a e ep esen a ions need o be in ol ed o coo di-
na e ac ion, his e bal app oach o en alls sho , as demons a ed by he igne e abo e
and by ex an wo k on sensemaking ailu es (Co nelissen e al., 2014; Oli e e al., 2017;
Weick, 1993). The model we in oduce heo izes how ac o s use an auxilia y sensem-
aking p ocess o o e come dis ac ing emo ions and cogni i e dispa i ies in collec i e
sensemaking in ex eme con ex s.
Ou lining he impo ance o embodied communica ion, ou model ex ends heo y
on he ole o he body in sensemaking esea ch. Sensemaking esea ch has acknowl-
edged – ye so a has unde heo ized – he ole o bodily and ca nal p ocesses (de
1257Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
Rond e al., 2019; Kudesia, 2021; Weick e al., 2005; Whi le e al., 2023). Ex an wo k
has showed ha he body is impo an bo h as a sou ce o cues and as he physical and
ma e ial ins umen h ough which cues a e pe cei ed and p ocessed, subjec o physical
and spa ial ci cums ances (Co nelissen e al., 2014; de Rond e al., 2019; S eigenbe ge
and Lübcke, 2022). Ou esea ch ex ends his pe spec i e, ou lining how he body also
a ec s o he s’ sensemaking. Speci ically, we show how he body p o ides cues no only
o he sensemake (de Rond e al., 2019) bu also o o he s, which helps b idge cogni i e
dispa i y and minimize dis ac ing emo ions.
We also u he expand he li e a u e on communica ion and emo ions in ex eme
con ex s (Co nelissen e al., 2014; Kudesia, 2021; Weick e al., 2005). Ex an li e a u e
has demons a ed ex ensi ely ha emo ions in luence ac o s’ beha iou in ex eme con-
ex s, showing ha emo ions can bo h os e and hinde success ul wo k. Fo example,
Locke (1996) desc ibes how some doc o s use humou o alle ia e nega i e emo ions
ha hei pa ien s, su e ing om li e- h ea ening diseases, expe ienced. Rauch and
Ansa i (2022) explo e how mili a y d one pilo s na iga e he emo ional ambi alence
caused by hei wo k o main ain ocus and iden i ica ion. Fa ny e al. (2019) discuss
he ela ionship be ween collec i e emo ions and ins i u ional e- c ea ion ollowing a
disas e . Ou s udy expands his li e a u e by in oducing heo y on how ac o s man-
age he emo ions o o he s in ex eme con ex s. Ou model shows how ac o s e oke a
o m o emo ional con agion (e.g., Ba sade, 2002; Ba sade e al., 2018), displaying he
emo ions hey wan o he s o expe ience; in pa icula , low- ac i a ion posi i e a ec .
Bo h nega i e and posi i e a ec s high in ac i a ion end o na ow a en ional scope
– inc easing he likelihood ha ac o s ocus on i ele an cues – while by con as low-
ac i a ion a ec s b oaden he a en ional scope (Gable and Ha mon- Jones, 2010a;
Gable and Ha mon- Jones, 2010b; Ha mon- Jones and Gable, 2009; Yang e al., 2022).
The beha iou exhibi ed by he ac o s in ou s udy also esona es wi h ex an esea ch
in communica ional psychology showing ha non- e bal and pa a- e bal cues play a
mo e- signi ican ole han e bal language in e ec i ely ansmi ing emo i e s a es be-
ween indi iduals. Fo example, Meh abian (1972) ound ha non- e bal ( acial exp es-
sions: 55 pe cen ) and pa a- e bal ( one: 38 pe cen ) cues ha e he s onges impac
on an indi idual’s emo ional unde s anding o he o he pa y. In con as , e bal lan-
guage con ibu es a me e 7 pe cen o his unde s anding. The p ocesses o emo ional
con agion la gely ope a e subconsciously and au oma ically, and a e exp essed when
o he s mimic acial exp essions and body mo emen s (Dimbe g e al., 2000; Ha ield
e al., 1994; Hess and Fische , 2014). In eg a ing hese communica ional p inciples in o
he ex eme- con ex s li e a u e helps us unde s and how ac o s can manage emo ions
and – i hose emo ions a e dis ac ing – how o minimize hem, an issue so a no ully
heo ized. In doing so, ou s udy also esponds di ec ly o calls o ake mundane com-
munica ion se iously (de Rond e al., 2019; Weick e al., 2005; Whi le e al., 2023). I
also in o ms linguis ic esea ch in ex eme con ex s, which has unde sco ed he impo -
ance o communica ion o handling emo i e dis ac ions (e.g., Die ich, 2003; Dunn
e al., 2002; Unge e , 2004) bu has no ye add essed collec i e sensemaking.
We also ex end ou cu en unde s anding o how ac o s o e come cogni i e dispa i y
in ex eme con ex s. P e ious esea ch (e.g., Co nelissen e al., 2014; Dwye e al., 2023;
Oli e e al., 2017; Schakel e al., 2016; Weick, 1993) has highligh ed he issue o
1258 T. Lübcke e al.
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
sensemaking and coo dina ion b eakdowns as consequences o non- elabo a e cogni-
i e ep esen a ions, ye ex an wo k has emphasized how such cogni i e disc epancies
can be a oided a he han on how hey can be compensa ed o du ing missions and
assignmen s. Speci ically, esea ch has p oposed me hods including ica ious lea ning
h ough s o y elling (Mye s, 2022), in a- o ganiza ional o in e - o ganiza ional aining
(S eigenbe ge , 2016), deb ie ings and ‘sa e y huddles’ (F anklin e al., 2020), and e o -
lea ning (Ca ino and Pa io a, 2013). Howe e , hose me hods necessi a e in e ac ions
be o e and a e ‘ho ’ si ua ions. They a e he e o e unsui ed o o e come he hind ances
caused by cogni i e dispa i ies du ing such si ua ions. Ou s udy con ibu es heo y o ex-
plain how ac o s in such si ua ions combine e bal and onoma opoe ic elemen s o p o-
ide pe cep ible and easy- o- p ocess cues in collec i e sensemaking. Wi h hese insigh s,
we expand ou unde s anding o how o add ess p oblems oo ed in cogni i e dispa i y
ha canno be esol ed h ough lea ning.
In sum, ou s udy con ibu es a dynamic emo i e and bodily pe spec i e on collec i e
sensemaking in ex eme con ex s. This pe spec i e expands he co e model o collec i e
sensemaking, consis ing o cue pe cep ion, cue p ocessing, and pu pose ul (in e - )ac ion
(Ch is ianson, 2019; Mai lis and Ch is ianson, 2014), by in oducing auxilia y collec i e
sensemaking p ocesses. Much o he exis ing wo k assumes ha ac o s needing o coo -
dina e al eady ha e he cogni i e ep esen a ions o he si ua ion necessa y o e ec i e
coope a ion, and does no p oblema ize dis ac ing emo ions (Ch is ianson, 2019; Fa aj
and Xiao, 2006; S eigenbe ge and Lübcke, 2022). Ou model con ex ualizes collec i e
sensemaking heo y, mo ing beyond hese implici s ic assump ions.
Finally, ou s udy has impo an implica ions o ex eme- con ex wo k in p ac ice.
Expe s wo king in such en i onmen s o en ha e o coo dina e ac ions wi h ac o s who
ha e less- de eloped cogni i e ep esen a ions o a si ua ion and/o a e a ec ed by dis-
ac ing emo ions. The con as be ween he wo igne es in ou pape – he one in
he In oduc ion in which he e acua ion is success ul, and he o he ha opens ou
Discussion sec ion and ha ends in agedy – unde sco es he impo ance o he col-
lec i e sensemaking model we in oduce. We encou age ex eme- con ex p ac i ione s
o inco po a e an in o med and a ge ed use o mul imodal communica ion in o hei
epe oi e – bo h in aining p og ams and in he ield.
Fu u e Resea ch Di ec ions and Limi a ions
We p opose a enues o u u e esea ch o add ess some o he limi a ions o ou s udy.
Fi s , ou s udy ou lines he mul imodal na u e o collec i e sensemaking in ex eme
con ex s. Howe e , due o he explo a o y na u e o ou inqui y, we do no p o ide
an in- dep h es o he e ec s o speci ic pa e ns o e bal, pa a- e bal, and bodily
exp essions in he momen - o- momen un olding o a dialogue. We in i e esea ch-
e s wi h an in e es in mul imodal communica ion in sensemaking o use discou se
analy ical me hods (e.g., Chia, 2000) o de elop mo e- ine- g ained heo y. Such e-
sea ch could also p o ide a b idge in o o he ele an in e pe sonal phenomena, such
as he de elopmen o us be ween expe s and o he ac o s in ex eme con ex s.
T us – de ined as he willingness o accep ulne abili y (Rousseau e al., 1998) – is
conside ed an impo an coo dina ion mechanism when ac o s engage in conce ed
1259Mul imodal Collec i e Sensemaking
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and John Wiley & Sons L d.
ac ion o pe o m a join ask (Okhuysen and Bechky, 2009). The ac o s in ol ed o en
ha e o de elop us qui e quickly – jus as in he ex eme si ua ion we in es iga ed.
Examining he momen - o- momen un olding o a dialogue could e eal he pa ic-
ula e bal, isual, o acous ic cues used o p omo e he de elopmen o such swi
in e pe sonal us (Schilke and Huang, 2018) o mo e- gene alized ins i u ional us
(Bachmann and Inkpen, 2011) when ime is o he essence and ac o s canno ely on
a sha ed his o y o collabo a ion. The ocus on us de elopmen p o ides ano he
po en ially in e es ing angle: While he need o e ugees o us he escue c ew is
appa en , he escue c ew also mus place us in hose hey a e escuing, meaning
ha hey need o pay a en ion o addi ional cues, since he escue c ew also is ulne -
able o e ugees’ ac ions – o example, hei no ollowing ins uc ions, hei ha ing o
ac ing on malicious in en ions, o hei ailing o comply – ha may lead o he escue
c ew ailing a hei ask, o e en pu ing hei own li es a isk.
Second, as discussed in he Me hods sec ion, ou da a inhe en ly p i ileges one g oup o
ac o s – he escue c ew – o e he o he g oup o ac o s – he e ugees. We acknowledge
ha his p i ileging c ea es an imbalance, as we a e unable o analyse he communica ion
on boa d he e ugee boa . We also ecognize ha he sha p and s able dis inc ion be ween
expe s and ac o s wi h less- elabo a e ep esen a ions o he ex eme con ex is no always
a gi en. The expe ole can be mo e luid o can shi in he cou se o an ex eme si u-
a ion, esul ing in he o ma ion and changing o g oups o subg oups whose collec i e
sensemaking is supp essed by emo i e dis ac ions and cogni i e dispa i y. To add ess bo h
issues, we encou age u u e esea ch o build on ou wo k and ha e all ac o s in ol ed in
ex eme con ex s wea ideo eco ding equipmen . Fo example, should e hical conside -
a ions pe mi , u u e esea ch could explo e he pe spec i e o bo h local esiden s and
i e igh e s who issue e acua ion o de s amid a looming na u al disas e . This explo a ion
would b oaden he scope o pe spec i es co e ed, as exempli ied by Dye e al.’s (2014)
s udy on he decision- making p ocesses su ounding e acua ions in he wake o hu icane
wa nings. Such u u e esea ch would deepen ou unde s anding o how cogni i e dis-
pa i ies and emo i e dis ac ions a ec collec i e sensemaking in ex eme con ex s. This
esea ch could also in es iga e he dynamic use o mul imodal communica ion.
Finally, we sugges ha ou knowledge on emo ions in ex eme con ex s can be u -
he ad anced by mo e- sys ema ically aking in o accoun insigh s on emo ion egula ion
ob ained in non- ex eme se ings (e.g., Sco e al., 2020; Vuo i and Huy, 2022). While
ou da a was no sui ed o s udy in a- indi idual emo ion egula ion, u u e wo k migh
de elop deepe insigh s in o how ac o s make sense o hei emo ions – ha is, con ol,
supp ess, o exp ess hem – in ex eme con ex s, which could lead o u he ele an
insigh s in o he condi ions, p ocesses, and consequences o collec i e sensemaking in
ex eme con ex s mo e gene ally.
CONCLUSION
In ex eme con ex s, ac o s o en need o coo dina e in si ua ions cha ac e ized by consid-
e able cogni i e dispa i y and emo ional dis ac ions. When coo dina ed ac ion is equi ed,
ac o s mus engage in collec i e sensemaking o encou age necessa y ac ions and p e en
unnecessa y ones, hus enabling conce ed ask pe o mance. The model we de elop in his