Be ge , Michelle; Gimpel, Henne ; Schnaak, Feline; Wol , Linda
A icle — Published Ve sion
Can eedback nudges enhance use sa is ac ion? Kano
analysis o di e en eco- eedback nudge ea u es in a
sma home app
Elec onic Ma ke s
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Sp inge Na u e
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Be ge , Michelle; Gimpel, Henne ; Schnaak, Feline; Wol , Linda (2025) : Can
eedback nudges enhance use sa is ac ion? Kano analysis o di e en eco- eedback nudge
ea u es in a sma home app, Elec onic Ma ke s, ISSN 1422-8890, Sp inge , Be lin, Heidelbe g, Vol.
35, Iss. 1,
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RESEARCH PAPER
Can eedback nudges enhance use sa is ac ion? Kano analysis
o di e en eco‑ eedback nudge ea u es inasma home app
MichelleBe ge 1,2,3 · Henne Gimpel1,2,3 · FelineSchnaak1,2 · LindaWol 1,2,4
Recei ed: 30 Janua y 2024 / Accep ed: 20 Janua y 2025
© The Au ho (s) 2025
Abs ac
Digi al nudging in sma home apps p omo es ene gy conse a ion beha io in e e yday li e, helping o mi iga e clima e
change. P io esea ch demons a es he p omising e ec o he digi al nudging elemen eco- eedback suppo ing beha -
io al change. Howe e , he e ec depends on adop ing and using sma home apps wi h eco- eedback in eg a ed. Hence,
in es iga ing use p e e ences conce ning eco- eedback nudges is c ucial in de eloping sma home apps ha sa is y use s.
Conside ing he eco- eedback nudge ea u es de i ed om a s uc u ed li e a u e e iew, we conduc ed wo use su eys
app oxima ely one yea apa and assessed use sa is ac ion using he Kano model. The Kano model ca ego izes hese ea u es
acco ding o whe he he use expec s he ea u e o no , and whe he he ea u e has a posi i e e ec on use sa is ac ion
when implemen ed o a nega i e e ec when no implemen ed. As a esul , we examine he impac o di e en eco- eedback
nudge ea u es on use sa is ac ion. Ou s udy e alua es he obus ness o use sa is ac ion o e ime and he eby adds ano he
pe spec i e o he adi ional ocus on he e ec i eness o hese nudges. Combining bo h pe spec i es–e ec i eness and
use sa is ac ion–is aluable o de elope s and p o ide s o sma home apps o sugges which eco- eedback nudge ea u es
o inco po a e.
Keywo ds Digi al nudging· Feedback· Sma home app· Ene gy conse a ion beha io · Use sa is ac ion
JEL Classi ica ion C83 · D12 · D91· Q01· Q40
In oduc ion
Minimizing ene gy consump ion is an impe a i e s ep o mi -
iga e he challenges o clima e change and alle ia e poli ical
dependencies (In e na ional Ene gy Agency,2022). Because
households accoun o a subs an ial sha e o inal ene gy
consump ion (e.g., mo e han a qua e in Ge many (AGEB,
2023)), hey ep esen a signi ican a ea o imp o emen .
Technological ad ancemen s ha e made household appli-
ances mo e ene gy-e icien (Schleich, 2019). Howe e , he
use o hese echnologies o en leads o highe o e all ene gy
consump ion due o he ebound e ec , whe e e iciency
gains esul in inc eased usage (So ell, 2015). This issue
is exace ba ed by indi iduals unde es ima ing hei ene gy
consump ion due o a lack o comp ehensi e in o ma ion
(Calle y e al., 2021). To add ess his, beha io al change
is essen ial. In eg a ing conscious consump ion p ac ices is
c ucial o ensu ing ha e iciency imp o emen s lead o
genuine educ ions in ene gy usage, e ec i ely add essing
bo h en i onmen al and socio-poli ical challenges. Sma
Responsible Edi o : Ch is iane Leh e
* Feline Schnaak
[email p o ec ed]aunho e .de
Michelle Be ge
michelle.be [email p o ec ed]
Henne Gimpel
henne [email p o ec ed]
Linda Wol
linda.w[email p o ec ed]e .de
1 FIM Resea ch Cen e o In o ma ion Managemen , Al e
Pos weg 101, 86159Augsbu g, Ge many
2 B anch Business & In o ma ion Sys ems Enginee ing
o heF aunho e FIT, Al e Pos weg 101, 86159Augsbu g,
Ge many
3 Uni e si y o Hohenheim, Digi al Managemen , Schloss
Hohenheim 1, 70599S u ga , Ge many
4 Uni e si y o Bay eu h, Uni e si ä ss aße 30,
95447Bay eu h, Ge many
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 29 Page 2 o 21
home echnologies p esen a p omising app oach o acili-
a e his ans o ma ion by p o iding eal- ime eedback and
enabling be e ene gy managemen .
Sma homes ha enable, o ins ance, o s ee hea ing
o household de ices like washing machines a e al eady
widely a ailable, and hei use is inc easing (S a is a Inc.,
2023). The pene a ion a e o he global sma home ma -
ke inc eased by 53% om 2019 (9.3%) o 2022 (14.2%),
and acco ding o o ecas s, he pene a ion a e will g ow
wi h an inc easingly s eep cu e owa d 33.2% in 2028
(S a is a Inc., 2023). Nowadays, sma home de ices a e
o en expec ed as s anda d equipmen in new buildings and,
as such, a e a basic digi al echnology ha can and should
be a le e o ene gy conse a ion beha io (Hakimi &
Hasankhani, 2020; Hi & Allen, 2021; Pohl e al., 2021).
As de ined by G am-Hanssen and Da by (2018, p. 96), a
“sma home is one in which a communica ions ne wo k
links senso s, appliances, con ols, and o he de ices o
allow o emo e moni o ing and con ol […] o p o ide
equen and egula se ices o occupan s and o he elec-
ici y sys em.” Sma home apps acili a e e icien ene gy
managemen by enabling in o ma ion exchange be ween
ene gy p o ide s and consume s, op imizing de ice usage
o enewable ene gy u iliza ion o cos educ ion (Hakimi
& Hasankhani, 2020; Pohl e al., 2021). Fu he mo e, use s
can moni o and manage hei household appliances ia a
dedica ed app (sma home app), po en ially encou ag-
ing ene gy conse a ion beha io . In he con ex o ising
ene gy consump ion and simul aneously ising cos s, i is
inc easingly impo an o s udy beha io al in e en ions
o e ime o shape and in luence indi iduals’ ene gy con-
sump ion pa e ns in he long- e m, o which sma home
apps p o ide a good in e ace be ween he in o ma ion sys-
em (IS) and he use .
(Digi al) Nudging elemen s hold g ea p omise as a
beha io al in e en ion o posi i ely in luence use beha -
io , e.g., by e aming he decision en i onmen o gi ing
eedback ega ding he decision. These elemen s aim o
enhance decision-making wi hou al e ing economic incen-
i es o limi ing indi iduals’ eedom o choice (Hansen &
Jespe sen, 2013; Thale & Suns ein, 2008). P io s udies
demons a ed he e ec i e in eg a ion o nudging elemen s
o p omo e ene gy conse a ion beha io in physical se -
ings, such as deli e ing ene gy epo s ia pos al se ices
(C ago e al., 2020) and in digi al en i onmen s, e.g., sma
home apps (Be ge e al., 2022b). Sma home sys ems
can posi i ely in luence sus ainable beha io by in eg a ing
nudging elemen s in hei apps (Kü schne e al., 2024).
P e ious s udies show ha especially eedback nudges
can educe ene gy consump ion by 8 o 12% (Ka lin
e al., 2015). Howe e , he con igu a ion o eco- eedback
nudge ea u es, which we will e e o as “ ea u es” in his
pape , a ies. Resea ch has looked a ea u es like upda e
equency ( eal- ime s. weekly) and measu ing uni s (kWh
s. cos s).
While ce ain ea u es ha e p o en e ec i e, he e has
been limi ed esea ch on use sa is ac ion and accep ance o
hese ea u es (Fleu y e al., 2018; Gu e al., 2019), nei he
by ac ual no by po en ial use s o sma home apps. IS adop-
ion and use can be dis inguished in di e en phases ac oss
ime: adop ion phase and con inued use phase (also e med
pos -adop ion use) (Ka ahanna e al., 1999). Dis inguishing
be ween hese phases is essen ial o unde s anding and man-
aging he p ocess o IS adop ion and use o e ime. In bo h
phases, beha io depends on a i udes and subjec i e no ms
(Ka ahanna e al., 1999). In he adop ion phase, he po en ial
use s a e in luenced by no ma i e p essu es and inno a ion
cha ac e is ics (Ka ahanna e al., 1999). In he con inued use
phase, he con i ma ion o discon i ma ion o use expec a-
ions is pa icula ly impo an o use sa is ac ion and con-
inuance in en ion (Bha ache jee, 2001). Focusing on bo h
po en ial use s and ac ual use s is c ucial, as po en ial use s
(especially younge ones) also ha e g owing expec a ions o a
sma home app’s ea u es based on hei expe iences in digi-
al en i onmen s (Tam e al., 2020). Thus, use sa is ac ion
impac s he long- e m success o apps (Bha ache jee, 2001;
Gu e al., 2019; Thong e al., 2006). Bo h he ini ial adop ion
by p io non-use s, and he ea e he sus ained use o sma
home apps inco po a ing ea u es is essen ial o long- e m
ene gy sa ings. The e o e, i is c ucial o analyze he con-
igu a ion o hese ea u es in sma home apps o ensu e hey
sa is y bo h po en ial use s in he adop ion phase and use s in
he con inued use phase. Thus, ou i s esea ch ques ion is:
RQ1: How do po en ial and ac ual sma home app use s
e alua e a b oad se o eco‑ eedback nudge ea u es
designed o nudging owa ds ene gy conse a ion beha io ?
Th oughou a p oduc ’s o se ice’s li e cycle, use sa is ac ion
wi h ce ain ea u es can change; he longe a se ice exis s,
he less a ac i e i s ea u es may become (Kano, 2001). We
li e in a apidly changing wo ld, including a ans o ma ion o
ene gy supply and consump ion–wi h ising ene gy p ices,
inc easing p essu e o educe CO2 emissions quickly, and
poli ical dependencies impac ing ene gy supply. These issues
o en con on (po en ial) sma home app use s ia daily news.
As a esul , news can in luence ou a i udes owa d echnolo-
gies ha help us managing ou own ene gy beha io s. The e-
o e, we need o know whe he use sa is ac ion ega ding
hese echnologies may change o e a sho pe iod o ime,
o example, due o a ious ex e nal in luences. A apid shi
in use sa is ac ion would pose a challenge o app de elop-
e s, as his app oach may no suppo medium- e m p oduc
s a egies o app de elopmen . Thus, we aim o answe ou
second esea ch ques ion by collec ing and compa ing da a a
di e en poin s in ime:
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 Page 3 o 21 29
RQ2: Is he e alua ion o di e en eco‑ eedback nudge ea u es
o po en ial and ac ual sma home app use s obus o e ime?
An o e iew o ea u es in sma home apps om a s uc-
u ed li e a u e e iew is he basis o answe ing he esea ch
ques ions. We supplemen his wi h a b ie quali a i e analy-
sis o he use o ea u es in selec ed sma home apps ha a e
cu en ly in use. We employ he Kano model o assess use s’
pe cep ions o hese ea u es, de e mining whe he a ious
ea u es a e “mus -be,” “one-dimensional,” o “a ac i e,”
o i use s emain “indi e en .” We do his by su eying
po en ial and ac ual use s o sma home apps a wo poin s
in ime, app oxima ely one yea apa , o con i m esul s o e
ime and ac oss di e en g oups o people (use s s. non-
use s). Wi h he indings om bo h s udies, he pape holds
heo e ical implica ions conce ning eco- eedback nudging.
I highligh s he signi icance o conside ing use sa is ac ion
alongside e ec i eness in con igu ing and implemen ing
eco- eedback nudges. This s udy p o ides aluable insigh s
in o which ea u es p omo e use sa is ac ion and, he e o e,
may con ibu e o ene gy conse a ion beha io wi hin sma
home apps.1
Rela ed wo k
The esea ch ield o sma home apps
The apid ad ancemen o sma home echnologies and apps
has led o a dynamic and as -e ol ing ield, wi h new pos-
sibili ies eme ging cons an ly (Kü schne e al., 2024). These
echnological inno a ions ha e p omp ed signi ican esea ch
in e es , especially in he las i e yea s, as schola s seek o
explo e sma home echnology om a ious pe spec i es.
Recen s udies co e di e se aspec s such as he classi ica-
ion o sma home echnology (e.g., Hube e al., 2024), IS
secu i y (e.g., Nehme & Geo ge, 2022) and da a p i acy (e.g.,
Ge lach e al., 2022), use beha io (e.g., Hube e al., 2020),
and he design o sma home echnology (e.g., Tie enbeck
e al., 2019). The classi ica ion o sma home echnologies
wi hin he “sma ness” con ex s ela es o he unde s anding
o how sma home sys ems a e ca ego ized based on hei
in elligence and capabili ies (Hube e al., 2024). Sma ness
in he sma home con ex can be de ined by he capabili y o
sma de ices (e.g., de ices like washing machines o hea ing
sys ems) o in e ac wi h indi iduals and accommoda e hei
p e e ences (Hube e al., 2024). This classi ica ion empha-
sizes he impo ance o he sma home app use and his o
he p e e ences, which is cen al o ou esea ch endea o .
Resea ch on IS secu i y and da a p i acy consis -
en ly highligh s he h ea s posed o use s by sma home
echnologies, which collec and p ocess signi ican amoun s
o pe sonal da a. Ensu ing he secu i y o hese echnolo-
gies and p o ec ing use p i acy a e, he e o e, widely ecog-
nized as c i ical conce ns. While ou wo k does no di ec ly
ocus on secu i y and p i acy issues, i acknowledges ha
collec ing ene gy consump ion da a–a p emise o gi ing
eedback on ene gy consump ion beha io – aises p i acy
conside a ions. Common ac oss he li e a u e is he inding
ha use s who expe ience ea o pe cei e h ea s o hei
da a p i acy may a oid using sma home de ices (Bha i
e al., 2017; Nehme & Geo ge, 2022). Howe e , he e a e
di e ences in he p oposed solu ions: while some s udies
emphasize p i acy- iendly design equi emen s (Chhe i
& Gena o Mo i, 2022), o he s ocus on p inciples ailo ed
speci ically o pe sonal da a p ocessing in sma ene gy
se ices (Ge lach e al., 2022). These insigh s unde line
he impo ance o add essing p i acy conce ns o ensu e
use us . Fo ou esea ch, his highligh s he need o con-
side how use pe cep ions o IS secu i y and da a p i acy
may a ec hei sa is ac ion wi h app ea u es, such as hose
equi ing de ailed ene gy consump ion da a. Fo example,
p i acy conce ns could lead o dissa is ac ion wi h ea u es
ha use s pe cei e as in usi e.
Resea che s ha e ex ensi ely examined use beha io
and he e ec s o sma home echnology usage. Common
ac oss he li e a u e is he iden i ica ion o ac o s such as
he use ’s mo i a ion o sys em engagemen , pe cei ed
bene i s, and nudges ha po en ially ha e an impac on he
use o sma home echnology (Kü schne e al., 2024). A
key simila i y ac oss hese s udies is hei ocus on how
well-con igu a ed app ea u es can suppo use goals. Fo
ins ance, aming nudges ha e consis en ly been shown o
e ec i ely help use s educe ene gy consump ion (Be ge
e al., 2022b; Ghesla e al., 2019; Kim & Kaemingk, 2021).
Ou wo k builds on hese indings by explo ing no only he
e ec i eness o such ea u es bu also hei impac on use
sa is ac ion, con ibu ing o a deepe unde s anding o how
di e en con igu a ions in luences use expe ience. Addi ion-
ally, esea ch emphasizes he ole o pe sonaliza ion in sma
home apps as a key ac o o enhancing pe cei ed alue and
os e ing accep ance o sma home ecosys ems (Hagejä d
e al., 2023; Hube e al., 2020). These insigh s highligh he
signi icance o pe sonaliza ion and well-con igu a ed ea u es
o ensu ing sus ained use o IS, ein o cing he impo ance
o s udying a ious con igu a ions o app ea u es in sma
home applica ions.
P omo ing sus ainable beha io , such as educing ene gy
consump ion, is ano he a ea whe e esea ch has demon-
s a ed he e ec i eness o pe suasi e sys ems and digi al
nudging (e.g., She chuk e al., 2019; Tie enbeck e al.,
2019). In an expe imen employing eal- ime eedback on
esou ce consump ion du ing showe ing by Tie enbeck
e al. (2019), a ea men e ec o 11.4% in educing ene gy
1 This pape builds on he wo k by Be ge e al. (2022a).
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 29 Page 4 o 21
consump ion showcases how impac ul well-con igu a ed
ea u es can be in os e ing ene gy conse a ion. Simila ly,
Cellina e al. (2024) conduc ed a one-yea app-based elec-
ici y-sa ing in e en ion in 55 Swiss households, achie ing
an a e age ea men e ec o 4.95% du ing he ea men
pe iod. Howe e , while Tie enbeck e al. (2019) highligh
sho - e m gains, Cellina e al. (2024) emphasize he chal-
lenges o main aining beha io al change o e longe pe i-
ods. Fu he mo e, in line wi h Kü schne e al. (2024), we
ound ha s udies on he e ec i eness o design elemen s
o p omo ing sus ainable beha io in sma home con ex s
a y g ea ly in hei se ups. Fo ins ance, s udies ha e been
ca ied ou in di e en wo ld egions (e.g., Pos -So ie Eas -
e n Eu ope (Kim & Kaemingk, 2021); Swi ze land (Cellina
e al., 2024); Japan (Kim e al., 2020)), li ing en i onmen s
(e.g., households (Kim e al., 2020); s uden do ms (Mye s
& Souza, 2020)), and a y in he leng h (e.g., h ee mon hs
(Mye s & Souza, 2020) s. h ee-yea -long in e en ion
(Ruokamo e al., 2022)) and hei closeness o eal-wo ld
condi ions (e.g., ac ual usage o a sma home app in own
li ing en i onmen (Hagejä d e al., 2023); online expe i-
men wi h simula ed en i onmen (Fanghella e al., 2021)).
These di e ences p o ide aluable insigh s in o he design
and implemen a ion o in e en ions, ein o cing he impo -
ance o s udying a ious con igu a ions o app ea u es o
maximize hei impac on sus ainable beha io .
The su ge in academic a en ion highligh s he impo -
ance o add essing emaining ques ions o ensu e ha he
ull po en ial o sma home apps is ealized and emb aced
by use s. Fo his esea ch endea o , he scien i ic discou se
on he con igu a ion o sma home echnologies and use
beha io is pa icula ly impo an , as hey p o ide a aluable
ounda ion. P io wo k ocused on he e ec i eness o digi-
al nudging elemen s in p omo ing sus ainable beha io and
highligh ed he impo ance o pe sonaliza ion and he ca e ul
con igu a ion o ea u es in sma home apps. We complemen
his by analyzing whe he speci ic sma home app ea u es
may deligh o may e en be demanded by (po en ial) sma
home app use s o suppo adop ion and con inuous use o
sma home apps p omo ing ene gy conse a ion beha io .
Adop ion andcon inuous use o sma home apps
p omo ing ene gy conse a ion beha io
IS adop ion
Adop ion “ e e s o he s age be o e and igh a e a a ge
echnology implemen a ion/in oduc ion” (Venka esh e al.,
2016, p.345). Du ing he adop ion phase, use sa is ac ion is
no ye a ocus, as po en ial use s mus ini ially y and hen
con inuously use he echnology o become ac ual use s o ,
o example, a sma home app (Venka esh e al., 2016). In
he adop ion phase, expec a ions a e c ea ed and hen es ed
du ing he pos -adop ion phase. As use s begin o in e ac
wi h he sma home app, hey compa e hei ini ial expec a-
ions wi h hei ac ual expe iences, leading o (dis-)sa is ac-
ion, a ec ing con inuous use.
Po en ial adop e s o m expec a ions abou sma home
apps based on hei p e ious beha io ega ding ene gy
consump ion as well as expe iences wi h sys ems in o he
domains (e.g., Tam e al., 2020), s o ies om iends, social
media in luence s, use s, and p o ide s (e.g., Ka ahanna
e al., 1999; Kim e al., 2016). Addi ionally, hei a i udes
a e shaped by a b oad ange o inno a i e cha ac e is ics,
such as pe cei ed use ulness, ease o use, esul demons a-
bili y, isibili y, and ialabili y. These ac o s collec i ely
o m hei expec a ions and in luence hei decision o adop
he app (Ka ahanna e al., 1999).
These di e en phases o adop ion a e impo an o ou
esea ch, as he esea ch ques ions conside bo h po en ial
use s and ac ual use s. Fo hese g oups, he assessmen o
app ea u es ei he depends on expec a ions o expe iences.
Hence, he assessmen o di e en ea u es and hei impac
on sa is ac ion migh di e .
Use sa is ac ion incon inued ISuse
A e he IS adop ion, a use ’s a i ude is s ongly in luenced
by he app’s pe cei ed use ulness and he social image i
con eys (Ka ahanna e al., 1999). Fo example, once he
sma home app is adop ed, he use migh ocus on how
e ec i ely he app helps hem achie e hei ene gy conse a-
ion goals (use ulness) and how using he app enhances hei
image as an ene gy-conscious indi idual (image enhance-
men ). Use sa is ac ion is pi o al in con inuous IS use
(Bha ache jee, 2001; Thong e al., 2006). The signi icance
o inc easing ene gy conse a ion beha io h ough he
con inued use o a sma home app (e.g., acili a ed by he
digi al nudging elemen eedback) becomes pa amoun as
he use can ac i ely con ibu e o mi iga ing clima e change.
Fu he mo e, le e aging hese s a egies o ad e ising can
esul in compe i i e ad an ages, especially conside ing he
g owing en i onmen al awa eness among indi iduals. Gu
e al. (2019) ound ha use sa is ac ion exe s a conside -
able and bene icial in luence on he inclina ion o con inue
using sma home apps. The e o e, maximizing use sa is ac-
ion should be a goal (Bha ache jee, 2001; Chun-Hua e al.,
2016; Gu e al., 2019). This ele ance o use sa is ac ion is
a key mo i a ion o ou s udy. Howe e , i is unclea which
ea u es con ibu e o o hinde use sa is ac ion.
Me ely mee ing use s’ expec a ions does no gua an ee
use sa is ac ion. Use sa is ac ion is in luenced by a y-
ing expec a ions, which shape he pe cei ed e alua ion
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 Page 5 o 21 29
o a se ice o p oduc (Ma zle e al., 1996). We use he
Kano heo y o use sa is ac ion2 (Kano, 1984), which
helps esea che s and businesses unde s and how di e -
en p oduc o se ice ea u es a ec use sa is ac ion
in di e en ways, and was since hen ex ensi ely exam-
ined and implemen ed in a ious heo e ical and empi i-
cal in es iga ions (Fülle & Ma zle , 2008; Lö g en &
Wi ell, 2008). Mo eo e , he Kano model has been used
o assess use sa is ac ion wi h digi al p oduc s o se -
ices, such as mobile apps o di e se pu poses o use.
Fo ins ance, Gimpel e al. (2018) used he Kano model
o e alua e da a p i acy measu es acco ding o hei
implemen a ion needs and Wenninge e al. (2022) used
he Kano model, among o he s, o mo e p ecisely classi y
and p io i ize ea u es o p oac i e se ices o ma ch
hem o he p edominan pe sonali y ai o a cus ome .
Pu a and P iyan o (2021) explo e use s’ p e e ences o
an app designed o help eache s selec lea ning media
o hei cou ses. In he domain o heal h and i ness apps
whe e main aining heal hy beha io is bo h c ucial and
challenging, esea ch abou app ea u es (Gimpel e al.,
2021), app quali y p inciples (Malinka e al., 2022), and
gami ica ion elemen s (Yin e al., 2022; Yuan & Guo,
2021) used he Kano model o enhance use sa is ac-
ion and suppo indi iduals in managing hei heal h
and i ness. In imes o an aging socie y, use sa is ac-
ion becomes inc easingly impo an o encou aging he
adop ion and con inued use o IS by olde adul s whose
needs a e ypically no he ocus o app de elope s (Ho
& Tzeng, 2021; Yuan & Guo, 2021). The e o e, Ho and
Tzeng (2021) in es iga ed he ea u es o 14 mobile
eading apps in a su ey o pa icipan s aged 45yea s
o olde employing he Kano model. Conce ning his
pape ’s sma home echnology con ex , Li e al. (2024)
used a ques ionnai e based on he Kano model wi h he
unc ional a ibu es o a sma home o ind ou which
a ibu es may o e com o o he elde ly aged 60 o 70
and abo e. Fu he mo e, Xiong and Xiao (2021) s udied
he unc ional equi emen s o sma doo locks wi h he
help o he Kano model o p o ide design guidelines o
sma doo locks and o he sma p oduc s.
The Kano model comes along wi h a comp ehensi e
me hod o analyzing he impac o p oduc o se ice ea-
u es on use sa is ac ion. I p o ides a p ocedu e o ca -
ego iza ion applicable o heo e ical and p ac ical con ex s.
The Kano model explica es use sa is ac ion based on he
implemen a ion o a ailabili y o p oduc o se ice ea u es
(Kano, 1984). The model dis inguishes i e main ca ego ies
(Ma zle e al., 1996; Sha i Ullah & Tamaki, 2011):
• indi e en wi h no subs an ial e ec on use sa is ac ion
i he ea u e is implemen ed o no (i.e., use s a e indi -
e en ega ding he implemen a ion o he ea u e),
• a ac i e wi h a posi i e e ec on use sa is ac ion i he
ea u e is implemen ed and no subs an ial e ec i i is
no implemen ed (i.e., use s do no expec he implemen-
a ion o he ea u e),
• one-dimensional wi h a posi i e e ec i he ea u e is
implemen ed and a nega i e e ec i i is no imple-
men ed (i.e., use s explici ly demand he implemen a ion
o he ea u e),
• mus -be wi h no subs an ial e ec i he ea u e is imple-
men ed, bu a nega i e e ec i i is no implemen ed
(i.e., use s implici ly demand he implemen a ion o he
ea u e),
• e e se wi h a nega i e e ec on use sa is ac ion i he
ea u e is implemen ed and a posi i e e ec i i is no
implemen ed (i.e., use s a e a e se o he implemen a ion
o he ea u e).
Figu e1 g aphically depic s he in luence o he i e ca -
ego ies on use sa is ac ion.
While he Kano model is use ul o unde s anding
use sa is ac ion, i has no able c i icisms. Fi s , i elies
on su ey da a, which may no e lec pa icipan s’ ac ual
beha io . Use s’ esponses in su eys o en di e om
hei eal-wo ld ac ions, and he model does no accoun
o unconscious p e e ences. Ano he issue is i s igid ca -
ego iza ion in o i e disc e e g oups, lea ing no oom o
sub le g ada ions be ween ea u es (Yang, 2005). Fellow
esea che s also c i icize he ambiguous wo ding used o
he ca ego ies and he espec i e ques ions (Song, 2018).
Wi h a high numbe o ea u es, i is cumbe some o su -
ey pa icipan s o ill in a Kano ques ionnai e (Ma zle
e al., 2004), leading o po en ial dis ac ion. Fu he mo e,
he model ocuses on he majo i y opinion, po en ially o e -
looking indi idual di e ences and unique cus ome needs.
Addi ionally, i conside s ea u es in isola ion, igno ing
in e dependencies whe e ea u es may only become a ac-
i e when combined. Finally, i does no ac o in he imple-
men a ion cos o cus ome s’ willingness o pay, which a e
c ucial in eal-wo ld p oduc de elopmen decisions.
Despi e hese c i ics, we op ed o using he Kano
model, as i is a well-es ablished app oach ha p o ides
a comp ehensi e me hod and e eals use s’ sa is ac ion
wi h p oduc o se ice ea u es in a s aigh o wa d man-
ne (Gimpel e al., 2021; Koomsap e al., 2023; Li e al.,
2024). Fu he mo e, he Kano model allows o analysis
a he ea u e le el, di ec ly aligning wi h he c i ical deci-
sions app de elope s need o make du ing he de elopmen
p ocess (e.g., Yin e al., 2022). The model no only o e s
guidance on which ea u es d i e use sa is ac ion bu also
iden i ies ea u es ha con ibu e o use dissa is ac ion,
2 Ma ke esea ch usually e e s o cus ome sa is ac ion. Following
Gimpel e al. (2021) and conside ing ha his wo k examines a sma
home app, we use he e m use sa is ac ion.
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 29 Page 6 o 21
highligh ing hose ha may be supe luous o e en coun-
e p oduc i e o he app’s success (e.g., Malinka e al.,
2022; Pu a & P iyan o, 2021). I has p o en highly use ul
in o he con ex s o de i ing implemen a ion decisions
(e.g., Gimpel e al., 2021; Ho & Tzeng, 2021; Yin e al.,
2022). The c i ique o po en ially dis ac ed esponden s
due o leng hy ques ionnai es can be coun e ed wi h a en-
ion check ques ions.
Eco‑ eedback nudges
Nudging in ol es p edic ably in luencing people’s beha io s
by al e ing hei decision en i onmen wi hou es ic ing
hei eedom o choice o inc easing he cos s o al e na-
i es – in e ms o e o o ime (Hansen & Jespe sen, 2013;
Thale & Suns ein, 2008). Human beha io is ei he in ui i e
o e lec i e (E ans & S ano ich, 2013), o en e e ed o
as Wason and E ans’ (1974) dual-p ocess heo y. Heu is ics
(e.g., ule o humb) and cogni i e biases (e.g., loss a e sion)
can impac au onomous, in ui i e ou ines and non-au on-
omous, e lec i e decisions ha equi e wo king memo y.
Al hough heu is ics acili a e apid decision-making, hey can
in oduce e o s, leading o decisions ha may disad an age
he indi idual o socie y. Nudging u ilizes an unde s anding
o heu is ics and biases o cons uc decision en i onmen s
ha s ee beha io in desi ed di ec ions (Thale & Suns ein,
2008). An ins ance o nudging a ge ing au onomous, in ui-
i e decisions in ol es educing pla e sizes o lowe calo ie
in ake. In con as , nudging add esses e lec i e hinking by
p esen ing ene gy bills wi h social compa isons (Hansen &
Jespe sen, 2013). Consequen ly, nudges a e sui able o shap-
ing ou ine beha io s and delibe a e, in ica e decisions.
Weinmann e al. (2016) in oduced he concep o digi al
nudging, de ining i as he use o “use -in e ace design ele-
men s o guide people’s choices o in luence use s’ inpu s in
online decision en i onmen s” (p. 433). The ad an ages o
digi al nudging elemen s a e hei abili y o be swi ly imple-
men ed, e alua ed, and pe sonalized a a ela i ely low cos
(Weinmann e al., 2016). Fu he mo e, gi en he g owing
p e alence o indi idual decisions in digi al se ings, exem-
pli ied by he ising ele ance o sma home apps, digi al
nudging holds p omise o in luencing beha io al change.
P e ious esea ch showcases he encou aging e ec i eness
o digi al nudging elemen s in al e ing beha io owa d eco-
logical sus ainabili y (Be ge e al., 2022b, 2022c; Dema que
e al., 2015; Lehne e al., 2016; Zimme mann e al., 2021).
Indi e en
High deg ee o
use sa is ac ion
High deg ee o use
dissa is ac ion
Use expec a ions
exceeded
Use expec a ions
no ul illed
A ac i e
Mus -be
One-dimensional
1
2
4
3
Re e se
Fig. 1 G aphical depic ion o he i e Kano model ca ego ies based on Sha i Ullah and Tamaki (2011) (own ep esen a ion).No e: The numbe s
ep esen he change in ca ego iza ion acco ding o he Kano li ecycle heo y (Kano, 2001)
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 Page 7 o 21 29
Va ious digi al nudging elemen concep ualiza ions a e
discussed in scien i ic li e a u e (Lehne e al., 2016; Mi sch
e al., 2017; Weinmann e al., 2016). Among hese, eedback
nudges ha e been shown o be pa icula ly e ec i e in p o-
mo ing ene gy conse a ion beha io (Table4 in he supple-
men a y ma e ial). In his wo k, we ocus on eedback nudges
due o hei p o en e ec i eness in enhancing ene gy con-
se a ion beha io (Be ge e al., 2022c) as well as in o he
con ex s (e.g., H ibe nik e al., 2022; Leche meie e al.,
2020). In hei me a-analysis on eedback o p omo e ene gy
conse a ion, Ka lin e al. (2015) ind e ec s be ween 8 and
12%. This is in line wi h s udies like Cappa e al. (2020),
Emeaka oha e al. (2014), and G ønhøj and Thøge sen (2011)
who showcase he e ec i eness o eedback in hei expe i-
men s o he ene gy consump ion o esiden ial buildings.
Howe e , e ec i eness depends on he con igu a ion o he
eedback nudge, i.e., di e en ea u es (B andsma & Blasch,
2019; Schul z e al., 2015). Feedback p o iding no ma i e
in o ma ion and social compa ison was ound o be e ec-
i e (e.g., Tussyadiah & Mille , 2019; Wemyss e al., 2019),
whe eby he impo ance o con igu a ion could also be meas-
u ed (e.g., Loock e al., 2013; Schul z e al., 2015).
A eedback nudge p o ides indi iduals wi h in o ma ion
abou hei beha io , such as hei ene gy consump ion, ena-
bling hem o e lec on and po en ially adjus ha beha -
io (Cappa e al., 2020; Khanna e al., 2021). The e o e,
eedback su moun s ine ia and p oc as ina ion, making i
a aluable ool o mo i a ing indi iduals (Suns ein, 2014).
Examples include displaying indi iduals’ ene gy consump-
ion on sma home displays (Schul z e al., 2015) o p e-
sen ing he ene gy consump ion o simila consume s on a
web po al (Loock e al., 2012). Feedback nudges o p o-
mo e ene gy conse a ion beha io (eco- eedback nudges)
ha e been ex ensi ely s udied due o ad ancemen s in sens-
ing echnology and ene gy in as uc u e, enabling da a col-
lec ion, p ocessing, and apid dissemina ion o use s (Ka lin
e al., 2015; Loock e al., 2012). Ka lin e al. (2015) no ed
a ia ions in eedback nudge s udies, such as di e ences
in he equency o upda ed in o ma ion on ene gy con-
sump ion o he ene gy measu emen me hod. While he e
is empi ical e idence on he e ec i eness o indi idual ea-
u es (Table4 in he supplemen a y ma e ial), esea ch is
lacking in unde s anding he impac o an ex ensi e se o
ea u es on use sa is ac ion. By e alua ing whe he ea u es
may lead o use sa is ac ion, we add a new pe spec i e o
he cu en ocus on he measu emen o eedback nudges’
e ec i eness. By iden i ying ea u es ha a e seen as mus -
be o as a ac i e by (po en ial) sma home app use s, we
assume ha a use -cen ic de elopmen o sma home apps
combining e ec i eness in p omo ing ene gy conse a ion
beha io (e.g., B andsma & Blasch, 2019; Schul z e al.,
2015) and p omo ing con inuous use h ough use sa is ac-
ion can be enabled.
Changes inuse beha io anda i udes o e ime
Kano li ecycle heo y
The Kano li ecycle heo y speci ies ha he ca ego iza ions
change o e ime ollowing a li ecycle (Kano, 2001). Use s’
expe iences and changing expec a ions induce ca ego iza ion
change om indi e en (1) o a ac i e (2) o one-dimen-
sional (3) o mus -be (4) (see numbe ing in Fig.1). New
o p e iously unknown ea u es a e ypically ca ego ized as
indi e en (1) o a ac i e (2), as use s did no o m expec-
a ions wi hou p io use expe ience. Ca ego iza ion changes
when use s gain expe ience; ea u es become pa o use s’
expec a ions and nega i ely in luence use sa is ac ion i no
implemen ed (i.e., one-dimensional (3)). In he end, ea u es
become p e equisi es (i.e., mus -be (4)) because hey no
longe ha e he po en ial o deligh bu mus be implemen ed
(Kano, 2001). Resea che s con i med Kano li ecycle heo y
in hei s udies. Nilsson‐Wi ell& Fundin (2005) used he
Kano model o e alua e an e-se ice and ound ha cus om-
e s conside ed se ice a ibu es di e en ly depending on
hei expe ience le el. In hei s udy, ea ly adop e s al eady
ega ded e-se ices as one-dimensional o mus -be, while
o e all, use s ca ego ized hem as a ac i e. This inding is
backed by Gimpel e al. (2021), who used he Kano model o
e alua e mobile heal h app ea u es by Ge mans and Danes.
The ea u es’ ca ego iza ions o he Danish sample we e
mo e ma u e han hose o he Ge man sample, p esumably
as mobile heal h apps we e in oduced ea lie in Denma k,
and, hus, Danes al eady gained mo e expe ience. Nilsson‐
Wi ell& Fundin (2005) poin ou he alue o Kano li ecycle
heo y in helping o ganiza ions es ima e how a a se ice
has p oceeded in i s li ecycle and when i will no longe be
able o deligh cus ome s indica ing he need o o ganiza-
ions o o e new se ices o se ice a ibu es o u he
succeed in he ma ke . Wi h RQ2, we in es iga e i and how
as he ea u es mo e along Kano’s p edic ed li ecycle.
Se ice quali y model
A sma home app is a se ice ha p o ides con enience and
au oma ion o use s in managing hei homes (Kü schne
e al., 2024). As wi h any se ice, use s ha e ce ain expec a-
ions ega ding pe o mance and capabili ies. Howe e , dis-
c epancies may a ise be ween pe cei ed se ice quali y and
ac ual pe o mance, esul ing in use dissa is ac ion. Hence,
he p ima y objec i e is o p o ide a se ice ha ul ills and
su passes use expec a ions, culmina ing in heigh ened use
sa is ac ion. These a ising disc epancies a e add essed in
he gap heo y o he well-es ablished se ice quali y model
“SERVQUAL” (Pa asu aman e al., 1985, 1988). The gap
heo y concep ualizes se ice quali y as he di e ence
be ween cus ome s’ expec a ions and cus ome s’ pe cep ion
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 29 Page 8 o 21
o he ac ual pe o mance o he se ice, which is compa -
ible wi h he Kano heo y and highligh s he impo ance o
pe cei ed quali y (and no he objec i e quali y) measu ed
h ough he ex en o which he o e ed se ice pe o mance
ul ills cus ome expec a ions. Pa asu aman e al. (1985) ou -
line cus ome expec a ions as mode a ed by pe sonal needs,
wo d o mou h, and pas expe iences.
As he usage o sma home apps inc eases and ech-
nology ad ances, expec a ions o hese echnologies
cons an ly e ol e. I is essen ial o conside he dynamic
na u e o pe sonal needs, wo d o mou h, and pas expe i-
ences o measu ing he po en ial changes in expec a ions
o e a sho ime. Indi iduals’ pe cep ions and equi e-
men s may shi as hey in e ac wi h sma home apps and
encoun e new expe iences. Fo example, someone who
used o ca e abou con enience and au oma ion may alue
ene gy e iciency and sus ainabili y mo e because o ex e -
nal ac o s such as he shi o enewable ene gy sou ces,
global wa ming, and ising ene gy cos s. Such ex e nal
ac o s can a ec pe sonal needs and p io i ies. P io s ud-
ies showed ha pe sonal expe ience signi ican ly impac s
ene gy conse a ion beha io (e.g., Xu e al., 2021).
The e o e, i is c ucial o assess and e alua e whe he
and how expec a ions o sma home apps change in a
ela i ely sho pe iod o ime. By conside ing possible
changes we can gain insigh s in o he dynamic na u e o
expec a ions and be e unde s and he e ol ing demands
o use s. This unde s anding will be aluable o de elop-
e s and p o ide s o sma home apps o adap hei o e -
ings o use s’ changing expec a ions and equi emen s. I i
was he case ha cu en ex e nal ac o s, such as ongoing
discussions abou he ene gy ansi ion, clima e change,
and ising ene gy p ices, could cause subs an ial and apid
changes in he Kano ca ego iza ions, knowing he ca ego-
iza ion would no be help ul o sma home app p o id-
e s because hey would ha e o change hei ea u e se
equen ly. Howe e , i he ca ego iza ions we e ela i ely
s able o e ime, de elope s could build an app acco ding
o hese ca ego iza ions o appeal o use s. The e o e, we
in end o add ess obus ness o Kano ca ego iza ions o e
ime wi h ou second esea ch ques ion.
Resea ch p ocess
Iden i ica ion o eco‑ eedback nudge ea u es
S uc u ed li e a u e e iew
The ele an ea u es esul om a s uc u ed li e a u e
e iew. This s uc u ed li e a u e e iew adhe ed o he
guidelines by Webs e and Wa son (2002) and om B ocke
e al. (2015), in ol ing h ee phases: (1) li e a u e sea ch,
including he sea ch s ing and da abases u ilized, (2)
selec ion, and (3) syn hesis.
The sea ch s ing was delibe a ely b oad o p o ide
a comp ehensi e o e iew o exis ing esea ch on eco-
eedback nudges and ga he insigh s abou all nudging
elemen s employed o p omo ing ene gy conse a ion
beha io (Fig.2). This s uc u ed li e a u e e iew con-
i med ha eedback nudges we e he mos ele an ype o
nudging elemen s o al e ing beha io owa d ecological
sus ainabili y, an assump ion no e i ied be o e (Table4
in he supplemen a y ma e ial). Among he 58 a icles
analyzing nudging elemen s, only six did no concen a e
on eco- eedback nudges o hei combina ion wi h o he
nudging elemen s. The e o e, eco- eedback nudges eme ge
as he mos esea ched nudging elemen s o ene gy con-
se a ion beha io , making hem highly ele an o ana-
lyzing use sa is ac ion.
The sea ch p ocess esul ed in 52 a icles (Fig.2) ha
con ained 25 ea u es. The ea u es and he scien i ic s ud-
ies ha examined each ea u e a e lis ed in Table5 in he
supplemen a y ma e ial.Following he app oach p oposed
by Scha e & Fang (2018), hese ea u es we e clus e ed
in o o e a ching dimensions. To c ea e a dimension, we
concen a ed on he p ima y cha ac e is ics o ea u es and
g ouped hem acco ding o hei simila i ies. The alidi y o
he iden i ied dimensions was con i med using closed ca d
so ing, a me hod allowing adjus men s o p ede e mined
dimensions bu no adding new ones (Maida e al., 2012). As
a esul , we iden i ied six dis inc dimensions, allowing each
o ou 25 ea u es o be ca ego ized. Fo u he de ails on
he li e a u e e iew, he ca ego iza ion, and he ca d so ing,
see Be ge e al. (2022a). Table5 in he supplemen a y ma e-
ialgi es an o e iew o he 25 ea u es iden i ied, including
a de ini ion, as well as an o e iew which pape s p esen
which ea u e in he scien i ic discou se, ca ego ized in o
he six dimensions A–F. Gene ally, ea u es a e no mu ually
exclusi e and can be implemen ed in combina ion.
Analysis o con empo a y sma home apps
To e i y he ele ance o he ea u es p esen ed in his
pape , we analyzed con empo a y sma home apps on he
ma ke . We combined ques ionnai es and in e iews wi h
use s, join analysis o app ea u es wi h use s, and a e iew
o online documen a ion o six sma home apps. I is
impo an o no e ha he a ailable ea u es in sma home
apps s ongly depend on he connec ed de ices and his o ic
da a. Consequen ly, engaging use s o es he apps was nec-
essa y, as analyzing hem wi hou co esponding connec ed
de ices and his o ic da a only shows a subse o ea u es.
This also explains he subs an ial a ia ion in ea u es o e ed
ac oss apps, depending on no only he inden ed pu pose
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 Page 15 o 21 29
a e consis en wi h Kano li ecycle heo y (Kano, 2001) as
hey show how people ini ially did no ecognize he alue
o seeing hei ene gy consump ion displayed in di e en
ways, which changed in s udy 2. Fu he mo e, i leads o he
conclusion ha wi h ime, as use s ge mo e expe ienced,
hey expec an inc easing numbe o ea u es. When mus -be
ea u es a e no implemen ed, hey lead o use s’ dissa is ac-
ion, which may esul in he discon inua ion o sma home
app use. In his con ex , i should be no ed ha use expec-
a ions a e likely o be d i en no only using sma home
apps, bu ha such a change can also be ans e ed om
o he domains o he equi emen s o a sma home app.
Fo example, i can be gene ally obse ed ha eal- ime
eedback has become mo e ele an in ecen yea s, no only
in he sma home app domain (e.g., H ibe nik e al., 2022;
Leche meie e al., 2020), pa ly because o he inc easing
a ailabili y o eal- ime da a (e.g., Tie enbeck e al., 2019).
The e o e, po en ial use s may al eady ha e expec a ions
simila o hose o ac ual use s. Fo ins ance, a pe son using
a wea he app which p o ides eal- ime wea he o ecas s o
high quali y migh no be easily deligh ed by a ea u e only
upda ing ene gy consump ion on a weekly basis (pe iodi-
cally) and may a he see his as a mus -be, while o he s
wi h less compa able expe ience migh ca ego ize pe iodi-
cally upda ed in o ma ion as a ac i e. Howe e , as only o
one o 25 ea u es a change in ca ego iza ion is subs an ial
and signi ican , we e ain om claiming empi ical suppo
o Kano li ecycle heo y. Ins ead, we es ic he in e p e a-
ion o saying ha he ca ego iza ions o he ea u es emain
mos ly he same om s udy 1 o s udy 2.
In addi ion, o many ea u es, he ca ego y s eng hs
inc eased om s udy 1 o s udy 2. We explain his phe-
nomenon wi h he help o he SERVQUAL app oach by
Pa asu aman e al. (1994), as pe sonal needs, wo d o
mou h, and pas expe iences may mode a e hese changes.
Fo example, he ca ego y s eng h o pe iodically upda e
equency (A2) ca ego ized as mus -be inc eased om 8 o
35% (Table2). This means ha mo e pa icipan s expec
he ea u e and ake i o g an ed, sugges ing ha , o
example, mo e people a e looking o be e in o ma ion
o be e con ol hei ene gy consump ion as o example
especially young app use s end o ha e highe expec a-
ions in he ea u es o new apps based on hei pool o
expe iences in digi al en i onmen s (Tam e al., 2020).
Fo display o en i onmen al impac (B6), also ca ego-
ized as mus -be, he ca ego y s eng h also inc eases om
14 o 21% (Table2). Hence, o (po en ial) sma home
app use s, ene gy consump ion and knowing abou he
en i onmen al impac go hand in hand. This s eng hens
he a gumen ha sus ainable beha io can be p omo ed
h ough digi aliza ion. The display o inancial sa ings
(E2) is ca ego ized as a ac i e a bo h imes and gains in
ca ego y s eng h. E en hough he ea u e is no explici ly
demanded, i shows ha mo e (po en ial) use s a e in e -
es ed in po en ial sa ings.
Discussion
The ca ego iza ion o ea u es acco ding o Kano ac o s
o bo h po en ial and ac ual sma home app use s answe s
RQ1, see Table2 in sec ionResul s and Table9 in he sup-
plemen a y ma e ial. The ac ha he ca ego iza ions o he
ea u es emain mos ly he same om s udy 1 o s udy 2 wi h
only one ea u e showing a signi ican change in ca ego iza-
ion con i ms he use ulness o he applied me hod by show-
ing he obus ness o he esul s, answe ing RQ2.
Fo hose ea u es wi h iden ical Kano ca ego iza ions
in bo h s udies, i is possible o deduce o e a ching ecom-
menda ions. Beginning wi h ea u es classi ied as mus -
be quali y, hese a e conside ed essen ial o sma home
apps, as hei absence leads o use dissa is ac ion, making
hem c i ical o ul illing use expec a ions. O e all, h ee
ea u es we e assigned as mus -be quali ies: pe iodically
upda e equency (A2), display in kWh (B4), and display
o he en i onmen al impac (B6). Addi ionally, isualiza-
ion o e ime (B1) is assigned o bo h ca ego ies, mus -
be and one-dimensional quali y in he o e all e alua ion.
Bo h ca ego ies lead o use dissa is ac ion i no imple-
men ed and should he e o e be in ocus. The e o e, all
ou ea u es (A2, B4, B6, and B1) should be implemen ed
o p e en use dissa is ac ion, which can ad e sely a ec
con inued app usage (Bha ache jee, 2001). Use s see
hese ea u es as basic, which is why mos o he ea u es
a e commonly ega ded as s anda d ea u es in esea ch
(Cha zigeo giou & And eou, 2021) and in s a e-o - he-
a sma home apps (see Table5 in he supplemen a y
ma e ial).
Then, he e a e ea u es ca ego ized as a ac i e quali y.
Use s may no expec hese ea u es, bu hei inclusion can
pleasan ly su p ise hem, o e ing an oppo uni y o enhance
use sa is ac ion. A ac i e quali y ea u es cons i u e he
la ges g oup (11 ou o 25), emphasizing he impo ance o
allowing use s o pe sonalize he app based on hei indi id-
ual p e e ences and wha hey ind appealing (e.g., imple-
men ing a compa ison wi h simila housing si ua ion (B3)
o push no i ica ion on high ene gy consump ion (D1)). Ou
indings, he e o e, unde sco e he signi icance o indi idu-
aliza ion and pe sonaliza ion, aligning wi h insigh s om
p io esea ch (Hube e al., 2020). The app could ei he
enable use s o cus omize ea u es hemsel es o au oma i-
cally adjus based on use da a, such as hei p io expe i-
ence wi h sma home apps. Di e en ia ing be ween ac ual
and po en ial use s may be ad an ageous in his con ex .
Finally, he en ea u es classi ied as indi e en quali y do
no impac use sa is ac ion, meaning use s show no in e es
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 29 Page 16 o 21
in including hem in a pe sonalized ea u e se o a sma
home app. Howe e , ou indings o e aluable insigh s in o
which ea u es should be p io i ized i hey posi i ely in lu-
ence ene gy conse a ion beha io and a e easy o imple-
men . Ou o he en indi e en ea u es, eigh belong o
he dimension social compa ison (F). E en hough hese
ea u es a e well-es ablished in esea ch (e.g., B ülisaue
e al., 2020; Nema i & Penn, 2020), Table5 in he supple-
men a y ma e ial shows ha hese a e ba ely implemen ed
in s a e-o - he-a sma home apps, po en ially due o he
da a p i acy and IS secu i y issues add essed by Nehme and
Geo ge (2022) and Ge lach e al. (2022), which would esul
om sha ing in o ma ion on sma home app use s’ ene gy
consump ion.
Fo una ely, none o he ea u es was ca ego ized as
being o e e se quali y. I implemen ed, hese ea u es
would ha e had a nega i e e ec on use sa is ac ion,
while he absence o hese ea u es would ha e a posi i e
e ec on use sa is ac ion. This would ha e been he case
when sma home app use s expe ience ea and see hei
da a p i acy h ea ened and hus would ha e a oided he
app’s use (Nehme & Geo ge, 2022).
Theo e ical con ibu ions
Wi h his esea ch endea o , we con ibu e o scien i ic li -
e a u e on sma home apps. While Be ge e al. (2022b)
ocus on aming nudges and de aul se ings o p omo e
ene gy conse a ion beha io in sma home apps, we add a
pe spec i e on eedback nudging. To p o ide a aluable con-
ibu ion, we used esea ch on eedback nudging in he sma
home con ex such as Tie enbeck e al. (2019) and Kim e al.
(2020) as inpu o ou ea u es. Tying in wi h Hube e al.
(2020) and Hagejä d e al. (2023), we also unde line he
impo ance o pe sonaliza ion o ea u es in he con igu a-
ion o sma home ecosys ems and apps, as (po en ial) use s
o sma home apps in ou s udies p esen ed di e en needs.
Compa ed o p io esea ch, we app oached digi al nudg-
ing elemen s o p omo e ene gy conse a ion beha io om
a di e en angle. P e ious endea o s aimed a esea ching
he e ec i eness o single digi al nudging elemen s (e.g.,
Asma e e al., 2021; Calle y e al., 2021) o o combina-
ions o mul iple digi al nudging elemen s (e.g., Be ge
e al., 2022b; B andsma & Blasch, 2019; Cellina e al.,
2024) in a ious expe imen al con ex s such as uni e si y
esiden ial buildings (e.g., Jo gensen e al., 2021), p i a e
households (e.g., Ma angoni & Ta oni, 2021), o e ia y
buildings (e.g., Casado-Mansilla e al., 2020; Tie enbeck
e al., 2019). Measu ing he e ec i eness o using digi al
nudging elemen s o p omo e ene gy conse a ion beha io
is an es ablished app oach (Kü schne e al., 2024), which
is why we we e able o build upon insigh ul and seminal
me a-analyses such as Ka lin e al. (2015) and Khanna e al.
(2021). We ocused on eedback as one speci ic digi al nudg-
ing elemen which has al eady p o en o be e ec i e and can
be employed wi h a a ie y o con igu a ions (e.g., Nema i &
Penn, 2020). Feedback is exp essed in di e en sma home
app ea u es as shown in he li e a u e e iew and he analy-
sis o con empo a y sma home apps. As we assumed ha
hese di e ences in con igu a ion may mani es in di e en
deg ees o use sa is ac ion, we applied he Kano me hod on
he ea u es. Hence, we ex end he exis ing body o esea ch
by enabling use -cen ic de elopmen o sma home apps
combining e ec i eness in p omo ing ene gy conse a ion
beha io (e.g., B andsma & Blasch, 2019; Schul z e al.,
2015) and p omo ing adop ion and con inuous sma home
app use by suppo ing use sa is ac ion.
By applying he Kano me hod o e alua e use sa is ac-
ion wi h ea u es a wo dis inc poin s in ime, we could
con i m he signi icance o ou esul s o bo h s udies on
he one hand and he use ulness o he Kano me hod in he
gi en con ex on he o he hand. Since mos o he ca ego-
iza ions we e con i med by he second use su ey, we can
demons a e ha he esul s o he use su eys a e eliable
and, hus, sui able o p ac ical implica ions. Ou esul s sup-
po ed Kano li ecycle heo y o he wo ea u es wi h chang-
ing ca ego iza ions be ween su eys (Kano, 2001). Hence,
i is impo an o keep an eye on such ansi ions o e ime.
Ne e heless, we show ha hese ansi ions a e no o e ly
as o in ense. We hus con ibu e o he g owing body o
measu ing use sa is ac ion in digi al en i onmen s (e.g.,
Gimpel e al., 2021; Malinka e al., 2022; P. Li e al., 2024).
The ac ha he socie al discou se abou ene gy con-
sump ion is on he ise (e.g., due o inc easing and a i-
able ene gy p ices in be ween ou su eys in ea ly 2022 and
2023), he wo poin s o measu emen allowed us o obse e
changes on use s’ p e e ences o eco- eedback nudging. Ou
esul s show ha use p e e ences a e somewha esis an
h oughou he pe iod o app oxima ely one yea includ-
ing he gi en ex e nal ac o s. Howe e , he sligh changes
ega ding he ca ego y s eng h ha canno be di ec ly a ib-
u ed o Kano li ecycle heo y (Kano, 2001) suppo he ind-
ings o Pa asu aman e al. (1988), who desc ibed he impac
o pe sonal needs, wo d o mou h, and pas expe iences on
use s’ expec a ions o se ice quali y.
P ac ical implica ions
Wi h he g owing p e alence o sma home de ices, he e
is a need o analyze and enhance he con igu a ion o sma
home apps ha con ol hese echnologies o in luence
ene gy conse a ion beha io .
Fi s ly, he indings o his pape show ha no ea u e
is ca ego ized as con ibu ing o dissa is ac ion ( e e se
ca ego iza ion). This is consis en wi h he ac ha sma
homes and he use o sma home apps a e on he ise as hey
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 Page 17 o 21 29
p omo e con enience, such as u ning o he hea when you
ha e al eady le he house o u ning on he hea when you
a e on you way home so ha he ooms a e com o able and
wa m whene e you need i . In his case, digi aliza ion can
help imp o e he use expe ience and encou age sus ainable
beha io . In many o he cases, his is coun e in ui i e, as
p omo ing sus ainable beha io may mean sac i icing con-
enience, e.g., in ins ances whe e aking public anspo
akes mo e ime han d i ing a p i a e ca .
Secondly, conduc ing use su eys a wo dis inc poin s in
ime enhances he pape ’s alue o p ac i ione s, such as app
de elope s. The s able ca ego iza ion o ea u es indica es
eliable use sa is ac ion esul s, and any changes in ca ego-
iza ion signi y inc easing impo ance ollowing he Kano
li ecycle ( e e o heChanges in use beha io and a i udes
o e ime sec ion). The e o e, he indings a e usable in he
long- e m. Since ea u es can en ail signi ican implemen a-
ion challenges, pa icula ly conce ning empo al esolu ion
and da a p i acy issues (such as compa ing indi iduals’ al-
ues wi h neighbo s), conduc ing a empo al in es iga ion is
essen ial o making in o med con igu a ion decisions.
Thi dly, ou esea ch emphasizes he impo ance o a oid-
ing excessi e implemen a ion o ea u es in sma home
apps. Ou indings ecommend a cu a ed selec ion o ea-
u es bes o e ed as op ional ea u es wi hin a pe sonalized
a ea, empowe ing use s o ac i a e hem based on hei p e -
e ences ( ea u es wi h a ac i e ca ego iza ion). In his con-
ex , ou esul s need o be analyzed in conjunc ion wi h he
exis ing li e a u e on e ec i eness. We see his as an impo -
an s ep, conside ing ha sma home apps ha a e cu en ly
a ailable in app s o es and ha a e in usage in sma homes
al eady employ di e en eedback con igu a ions as digi al
nudging elemen and a e lec ion on employed ea u es may
lead o a mo e e ec i e and a ac i e p omo ion o ene gy
conse a ion beha io .
Limi a ions and u u e esea ch
Resea che s and p ac i ione s should be mind ul o he ol-
lowing limi a ions. Due o he online na u e o ou use
su ey app oach, i may lack eal-wo ld consequences and
con ex . Du ing he su ey, pa icipan s had o en ision he
ea u es, which migh lead o di e en in e p e a ions o
he p o ided ea u e desc ip ions. In ou se up, pa icipan s
e alua ed each ea u e only once. In eal-li e si ua ions,
whe e use s a e nudged by he ea u e e e y ime hey open
he app, he esul s migh a y compa ed o ou se up. To
compa e he esul s o s udy 1 and s udy 2, ha ing a simila
sample o people was impo an . The e o e, we ec ui ed
pa icipan s again ia e-mail and social media. Howe e , ou
sample di e s om he Ge man popula ion, e.g., in e ms o
age s uc u e (mean age is 33.2 and 31.5yea s in s udies 1
and 2, compa ed o 44.6yea s o he popula ion (Des a is,
2023)). This means ha he esul s do no e lec hose o he
en i e popula ion. Al hough people wi hou in e ne access
may no be he mos c ucial a ge g oup o sma home
apps, we did no include hem in ou s udy. Fu he mo e, we
discussed ha using he Kano model also has disad an ages.
In u u e esea ch, we highligh ou key a eas o ocus.
Fi s ly, while we op ed o he use o he Kano model,
we also see po en ial in combining he Kano model wi h
o he me hods like clus e analysis o compensa e o i s
weaknesses. Secondly, we measu ed he agg ega ed use
sa is ac ion o 25 ea u es. The e o e, ou analysis did no
accoun o di e ences based on pa icipan s’ cha ac e is-
ics. Gi en ou indings indica ing di e se indi idual pe -
cep ions, u u e esea ch can del e deepe by examining
a ious subg oups wi hin he pa icipan pool. Thi dly, o
now, he wo s udies show ha ea u es emain essen ial,
and in some cases a e becoming mo e c i ical, o use
sa is ac ion. Fo u u e esea ch, i would be in e es ing o
e alua e whe he he e is a pe iod o ce ain expe ience o
ex e nal e en s ha igge use s’ ca ego iza ion changes.
Fou hly, when ex ac ing ea u es om he li e a u e, we
ocused on ea u es wi h heo e ical and empi ical suppo
o a posi i e e ec on ene gy conse a ion beha io . How-
e e , we did no u he s udy he ea u es’ e ec i eness
bu ocused on use sa is ac ion. A combined analysis o
e ec i eness and use sa is ac ion would be an essen ial
nex s ep o achie e he goal o p omo ing ene gy conse -
a ion beha io in addi ion o con inuous use.
Conclusion
The e is a g owing u gency o p omo e ene gy conse a-
ion beha io h ough beha io change. The inc easing use
o sma home de ices p o ides an excellen oppo uni y
o use digi al nudging elemen s in a sma home app. P e-
ious esea ch has explo ed eco- eedback o educe ene gy
consump ion and es ed di e en ea u es. Al hough he e
is knowledge abou he e ec i eness o ce ain ea u es,
he e is a lack o in o ma ion abou use expec a ions and
p e e ences o hese ea u es. Unde s anding hese p e e -
ences is c i ical o ensu ing IS adop ion and use sa is ac-
ion o con inuous app usage. To add ess his gap, we con-
duc ed wo su eys wi h ac ual and po en ial sma home
app use s, app oxima ely one yea apa , o ca ego ize 25
ea u es iden i ied om a s uc u ed li e a u e e iew and
e i ied by an analysis o con empo a y sma home apps.
Wi h hese use su eys, we examine he impac o di e -
en ea u es on use sa is ac ion and conside whe he pos-
sible changes in Kano ca ego iza ion a e disce nible. Ou
s udy adds a pe spec i e o use sa is ac ion o e ime o
accoun o po en ial changes, in addi ion o he adi ional
Elec onic Ma ke s (2025) 35:29 29 Page 18 o 21
ocus on he e ec i eness o hese nudges. The indings
sugges which ea u es a e essen ial as hei ca ego iza-
ion leads o dissa is ac ion i no implemen ed and which
ea u es a e op ional ega ding con inuous use and should
be e alua ed o e ec i eness.
Fu he mo e, since bo h s udies p oduce almos iden i-
cal esul s o ollow he Kano li ecycle heo y – whe e
ea u es become p e equisi es o e ime – his esea ch
con i ms p e ious indings. I illus a es he use ulness
o ca ego iza ion o p ac i ione s. The ca ego iza ion is
eliable and, he e o e, bene icial o app de elopmen .
Acco dingly, ou esul s enhance he unde s anding o
using beha io al in e en ions in his s udy as eedback
nudges in sma home app con igu a ion o p omo e ene gy
conse a ion beha io in he con ex o digi iza ion ends.
By ocusing on use sa is ac ion o con inuous app usage,
we aim o con ibu e o he long- e m goal o p omo ing
ene gy conse a ion beha io .
Supplemen a y In o ma ion The online e sion con ains supplemen-
a y ma e ial a ailable a h ps:// doi. o g/ 10. 1007/ s12525- 025- 00763-1.
Acknowledgemen s We g a e ully acknowledge he inancial suppo
o he Fede al Minis y o Economic A ai s and Clima e Ac ion o
he P ojec Clus e Fu u e-iQ (G an No. 03EN3071A).
Funding Open Access unding enabled and o ganized by P ojek
DEAL.
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FJ4AU. Please no e ha aw da a has been collec ed in Ge man.
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