The COVID-19 pandemic and firms' e-learning use: Implications for inequality in training opportunities

Mülle , Ch is oph
A icle
The COVID-19 pandemic and i ms' e-lea ning use:
Implica ions o inequali y in aining oppo uni ies
Jou nal o Labou Ma ke Resea ch
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Ins i u e o Employmen Resea ch (IAB)
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Mülle , Ch is oph (2024) : The COVID-19 pandemic and i ms' e-lea ning use:
Implica ions o inequali y in aining oppo uni ies, Jou nal o Labou Ma ke Resea ch, ISSN
2510-5027, Sp inge , Heidelbe g, Vol. 58, Iss. 1, pp. 1-15,
h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s12651-024-00382-x
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Mülle J Labou Ma ke Res (2024) 58:23
h ps://doi.o g/10.1186/s12651-024-00382-x
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
The COVID-19 pandemic and i ms’
E-lea ning use: implica ions o inequali y
in aining oppo uni ies
Ch is oph Mülle 1*
Abs ac
This pape in es iga es whe he he adop ion o E-lea ning by i ms con ibu ed o o se he dec ease in i m-
sponso ed aining du ing he COVID-19 pandemic. Using a no el i m le el su ey linked wi h adminis a i e da a
on he uni e se o wo ke s wi hin hose i ms, I s udy he ole o E-lea ning in i ms’ aining ac i i ies du ing he c isis.
I ind ha he COVID-19 pandemic subs an ially dec eased i m-sponso ed aining by up o 11 pe cen age poin s.
Howe e , i ms’ abili y o use E-lea ning nulli ies his nega i e e ec . Fu he mo e, he di e en ial capabili ies o i ms
o apply E-lea ning migh exace ba e al eady p e alen inequali ies in aining oppo uni ies.
Keywo ds Inequali y in i m- inanced aining, Labo ma ke inequali y, COVID-19 pandemic
JEL Classi ica ion I240, L230, D230
1 In oduc ion
The COVID-19 pandemic p o ided a massi e shock o
Ge man i ms, as no e en 6mon hs wen by om he
i s epo s on he i us o he lockdown du ing he i s
wa e in Ma ch 2020. The c isis equi ed go e nmen s o
es ic con ac be ween indi iduals as much as possible
and hus, a imes, cancel all social in e ac ions no abso-
lu ely necessa y, which led o a - eaching implica ions
o social li e bu also widely a ec ed he labo ma ke by
changing he mode o wo king oge he om ace- o- ace
con ac o he i ual ealm.
As p e ious economic c ises demons a ed, economic
decline comes wi h educed aining ac i i ies (Co des
and Haa en 2015). The COVID-19 pandemic was like-
wise ma ked by a subs an ial dec ease in aining due o
he economically cons aining na u e o he c isis (Jos
and Lebe 2021). Howe e , he COVID-19 pandemic
di e s om p e ious economic c ises by addi ion-
ally impeding he conduc o aining while es ic ions
on ace- o- ace con ac s emained. This la e mecha-
nism is unique o he COVID-19 pandemic and di e s
om he a o emen ioned economic mechanism, as e en
i ms wi hou economic es ic ions migh ha e been
unable o conduc aining ac i i ies. The easibili y o
aining measu es hus depended no only on he eco-
nomic si ua ion o i ms bu also on he ans e abili y
o aining measu es o he i ual space. While he eco-
nomic mechanism is known o a ec he supply o i m-
sponso ed aining om p e ious economic c ises, he
ole o E-lea ning in i ms’ abili y o main ain aining
du ing he c isis is a he unclea . In addi ion, he pan-
demic a ec ed males and emales di e en ly, as he pos-
sibili y o ex e nalize ca e ac i i ies dec eased, exposing
especially emales o he double bu den o ca e and job
esponsibili ies (Illing e al. 2022). This aises he ques-
ion o demand-d i en changes in aining ac i i ies du -
ing he pandemic, as emales migh ha e been less able o
pa icipa e in aining compa ed o males due o inc eas-
ing ca e esponsibili ies.
Open Access
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Jou nal o Labou Ma ke Resea ch
*Co espondence:
Ch is oph Mülle
[email p o ec ed]
1 Ins i u e o Employmen Resea ch: Ins i u u A bei sma k - und
Be u s o schung, Nu embe g, Ge many
23 Page 2 o 15
C.Mülle
Assessing he ela ionship be ween he COVID-19
pandemic and aining, his a icle ocuses on he mos
common o m o aining in Ge many: i m-sponso ed
non- o mal u he aining, i.e., compa a i ely sho
aining cou ses ha do no lead o a ecognized edu-
ca ional deg ee (Ehle 2017). I a gue ha he abili y o
i ms o main ain aining ac i i ies du ing he c isis
hinged on bo h supply-side and demand-side ac o s. On
he supply side, he economic si ua ion du ing he pan-
demic and he abili y o i ms o e ec i ely apply E-lea n-
ing a e impo an mechanisms media ing he e ec o
he pandemic on aining. On he demand side o ain-
ing, he gende o employees migh ha e d i en changes
in i ms’ aining ac i i ies, as especially emale employ-
ees we e con on ed wi h addi ional ca e esponsibili ies.
The e o e, I con ibu e o he li e a u e on he pandemic
by s udying he ela ionship be ween he COVID-19
pandemic and i ms’ aining ac i i ies, conside ing
he supply- and demand-side wi hin aining egimes. I
in es iga e whe he i ms’ use o E-lea ning can mi iga e
he exogenous shock o he c isis on aining. Addi ion-
ally, I in es iga e he impac o he pandemic on aining
and whe he he ole o E-lea ning is gende -speci ic.
Based on he mos ecen wa e o he IAB-ZEW-Labo
Ma ke 4.0-Es ablishmen Su ey (Haneb ink e al. 2021),
I s udy he e ec o he COVID-19 pandemic on i ms
aining ac i i ies and he ole o E-lea ning adap a ion
o his exogenous shock. Using ixed e ec s eg es-
sions a he i m le el, I eg ess aining sha es wi hin
i ms o he yea s 2019 and 2020 on a ca ego ical a i-
able o i ms’ economic si ua ion du ing he COVID-19
pandemic and dummies indica ing i ms’ abili y o use
E-lea ning and gende sha es. I link he es ablishmen -
le el su ey da a wi h adminis a i e da a p o iding i m
cha ac e is ics (bhp_7520_m06_ 1) and he uni e se o
wo ke s wi hin hose i ms (IAB Employmen His o y
10.07.00-202112). To measu e i ms’ access o E-lea n-
ing, I use a ime-in a ian a iable on he impo ance o
E-lea ning o i ms’ aining ac i i ies measu ed based
on i ms’ ag eemen wi h he ollowing s a emen consid-
e ing hei aining ac i i ies du ing he las 5yea s: “We
a e inc easingly using E-lea ning o aining”. As his
i em only in o ms on he impo ance o E-lea ning wi hin
i ms bu no on he ac ual E-lea ning ake-up du ing he
pandemic, I link he wo king om home (WFH) easibil-
i y (Alipou e al. 2023) o wo ke s and compu e an es ab-
lishmen -le el WFH easibili y. This allows o iden i y
which i ms a e likely o be mo e able o e icien ly apply
E-lea ning o ain hei wo k o ce.
Resul s show a subs an ial decline in i ms’ aining
ac i i ies o a ound 7 pe cen age poin s. While he eco-
nomic si ua ion o i ms can explain pa o his decline,
e en i ms acing a posi i e p oduc demand subs an ially
educe aining. Only i ms ha could e icien ly use
E-lea ning main ained aining ac i i ies du ing he pan-
demic. Fu he analyses p o ide e idence ha he decline
in i ms’ aining ac i i ies is no only d i en by supply-
side ac o s ( i ms’ economic si ua ion and E-lea ning
use) bu also likely by demand-side ac o s: Fi ms wi h
p edominan ly emale employees show mo e se e e
dec eases in aining ac i i ies, hin ing a a double bu -
den o women du ing he pandemic due o employmen
and ca e esponsibili ies. Mo eo e , hese i ms bene i ed
mo e om he use o E-lea ning.
This s udy makes a h ee- old con ibu ion o he li -
e a u e. Fi s , i desc ibes he ela ion be ween he
COVID-19 pandemic and i ms’ aining ac i i ies and
in es iga es impo an he e ogenei ies alongside he eco-
nomic si ua ion o i ms du ing he pandemic and hei
use o E-lea ning in a longi udinal esea ch design. Sec-
ond, building on a no el linked employe -employee da a-
se , he s udy p o ides e idence ha he e is subs an ial
a ia ion in he abili y o i ms o make use o E-lea ning
and ha his is consequen ial o he decline in aining
du ing he pandemic. Thi d, he s udy p o ides desc ip-
i e e idence esona ing wi h he no ion ha he COVID-
19 pandemic migh ha e exace ba ed exis ing inequali ies
in aining pa icipa ion.
2 Resea ch on aining and heCOVID‑19
pandemic
P e ious economic c ises demons a ed ha he eco-
nomic decline o i ms is associa ed wi h a educ ion in
i m-sponso ed aining (Co des and Haa en 2015). Eco-
nomic decline and economic unce ain y equi e i ms o
cu cos s. Dec easing i m-sponso ed aining ac i i ies is
easily implemen ed o a ec ed i ms, as i ms can educe
aining ac i i ies immedia ely and wi hou a ec ing hei
capaci y o s ay p oduc i e in he sho un. Desc ip i e
s udies show ha he COVID-19 pandemic was likewise
ma ked by a subs an ial dec ease in i ms’ aining ac i i-
ies due o he economically cons aining na u e o he
c isis (Jos and Lebe 2021). Besides he economic si u-
a ion, es ic ions on ace- o- ace con ac impeded ain-
ing measu es, equi ing i ms o emodel he conduc o
aining measu es.
The es ic ion o ace- o- ace con ac esul ed in a
huge ise in wo king om home (WFH) whe e e pos-
sible wi h ega d o he ans e abili y o asks and he
a ailabili y o necessa y in as uc u e (Bick e al. 2023).
This change in wo k mode also equi ed a change in
aining mode om ace- o- ace aining o conduc -
ing aining in a digi al o ma whe e e possible. While
echnical ba ie s impeded he implemen a ion o WFH,
mos employees who we e able o wo k om home also
made use o i (F ode mann e al. 2021). He eby, he e
Page 3 o 15 23 The COVID‑19 pandemic and i ms’ E‑lea ning use: implica ions o inequali y in aining…
is conside able a ia ion ac oss indus ies in he use o
WFH, as WFH is mo e common in indus ies wi h be -
e educa ed and be e paid wo ke s (Ba ik e al. 2020).
These changes in wo k mode we e accompanied by he
digi al ans o ma ion o p oduc ion p ocesses (Kudyba
2020), especially a ge ed a enabling WFH (Bloom e al.
2021). The change o echnology-in ensi e ope a ional
modes also p omo ed i m-sponso ed aining in i ms
(Ga hmann e al. 2023).
While he ela ionship be ween he COVID-19 pan-
demic and WFH is well unde s ood, ew s udies ha e
in es iga ed he de e minan s o he ela ionship be ween
he COVID-19 pandemic and i ms’ aining ac i i ies.
Wo ldwide, he COVID-19 pandemic dis up ed skill
o ma ion (In e na ional Labou O ice 2021). In Ge -
many, aining in wo kplaces expe ienced a cen u y low
in 2020 (Jos and Lebe 2021). Simila o access o WFH,
he decline in aining also shows subs an ial a ia ion
ac oss indus ies and wo ke ypes, sugges ing ha dis-
ad an aged and low-skilled wo ke s especially missed
ou on aining oppo uni ies (Pacio ek e al. 2021). The
decline o aining ac i i ies du ing he COVID-19 pan-
demic in Ge many amoun s o a ound 30 pe cen (Flake
e al. 2021), conside ing all ypes o oca ional aining,
o 60 pe cen (Jos and Lebe 2021), conside ing aining
in wo kplaces. A he i m-le el, he necessi y o es ic
ace- o- ace con ac du ing he c isis is he p ima y ea-
son o cancel aining ac i i ies, leading o a hi d o
i ms using E-lea ning o he i s ime in he COVID-19
pandemic and o e 40 pe cen o i ms expanding hei
use o E-lea ning (Bellmann e al. 2020). This esona es
wi h s udies on indi idual le el, inding an expansion o
E-lea ning, especially o highe -quali ied wo ke s du ing
he COVID-19 pandemic (Kleine e al. 2021).
The a o emen ioned s udies poin ou mechanisms o
he supply side o i m-sponso ed aining. Fi ms expe i-
encing economic unce ain y and less access o E-lea n-
ing should show s onge dec eases in aining. Howe e ,
he pandemic also a ec ed he demand side o aining,
e.g., by exposing indi iduals o inc easing ca e esponsi-
bili ies. Based on digi al ace da a, a US. s udy inds ha
he majo i y o child ca e cen e s closed h oughou he
pandemic, many e en o e p olonged pe iods (Lee and
Pa olin 2021). In Ge many, closu es o schools and child
ca e acili ies likewise led o addi ional bu dens, espe-
cially o mo he s p o iding ex a child ca e du ing he
pandemic (Illing e al. 2022). While longi udinal s udies
obse e a sho and small shi o a mo e egali a ian di i-
sion o ca e wo k wi hin couples, his di usion o ca e
wo k is d i en by couples whe e mo he s expe ience a
high employmen in ensi y and a e unable o wo k om
home (Boll e al. 2023). This gende biased inc ease in
ca e esponsibili ies esul ed in a educ ion in wo king
hou s mos p onounced o mo he s wi h young chil-
d en (Collins e al. 2021). This addi ional bu den and he
esul ing dec ease in wo king hou s o emales migh
also ansla e o a de e io a ion in aining pa icipa ion.
T aining can suppo i ms du ing he pandemic by
ensu ing ha wo ke s emain p oduc i e h oughou
changes in wo kplace loca ion, echnology use, and wo k
o ganiza ion (Ga hmann e  al. 2023). Howe e , he e
a e ew s udies ha ha e in es iga ed he pa icipa ion
o wo ke s in aining du ing he c isis by conside -
ing he ole o E-lea ning in enabling i ms o main ain
aining ac i i ies. T aining is known o yield posi i e
mone a y e u ns (Konings and Vano melingen 2015)
and inc ease ca ee s abili y (Dieckho 2007). How-
e e , wo ke s wi h highe skills o educa ional a ain-
men a e a mo e likely o access aining sponso ed by
hei i ms (O’Connell and By ne 2012), making he ole
o he COVID-19 pandemic o i ms’ aining ac i i ies
a p essing opic. A ecen s udy p o ides e idence ha
he COVID-19 pandemic migh indeed ha e changed
inequali ies in he pa icipa ion in aining (Kleine and
Zoch 2023). I con ibu e o his li e a u e on he e ec o
he COVID-19 pandemic on aining by s udying sup-
ply- and demand-side ac o s a ec ing i ms aining
ac i i ies. Fu he mo e, his s udy p o ides desc ip i e
e idence on he ela ionship be ween he e ec o he
COVID-19 pandemic on aining and inequali y in ain-
ing oppo uni ies.
3 The COVID‑19 pandemic and i ms’ aining
ac i i ies
The COVID-19 pandemic a ec ed bo h he supply- and
demand-side o aining. On he demand-side, his a icle
ocuses on wo mechanisms. The i s mechanism is he
de e io a ion o he economic si ua ion and he inc eas-
ing economic unce ain y o i ms. P e ious economic
c ises showed ha he economic si ua ion o i ms is an
impo an de e minan o aining ac i i ies. Fi ms ha
expe ience economic decline and economic unce ain y
du ing a c isis can educe aining ac i i ies o sa e cos s.
The e o e, i ms’ aining ac i i ies should dec ease mo e
i hei economic si ua ion is impac ed mo e se e ely by
he pandemic:
H1 Dec eases in he demand o i ms’ p oduc s and
se ices du ing he COVID-19 pandemic a e associ-
a ed wi h s onge dec eases in i ms’ aining ac i i-
ies.
The second mechanism on he supply-side o ain-
ing is he abili y o i ms o apply E-lea ning o main ain
aining ac i i ies. The COVID-19 pandemic necessi a ed
he educ ion o ace- o- ace con ac , equi ing he use o
E-lea ning o shi aining o he i ual space. The e o e,
23 Page 4 o 15
C.Mülle
i ms using E-lea ning a e a an ad an age in he cou se
o he pandemic in e ms o aining ac i i ies:
H2 Fi ms wi h a high abili y o use E-lea ning o
aining show smalle dec eases in aining ac i i ies
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic.
On he demand-side, he pandemic led o he closu e
o child ca e acili ies, esul ing in a gende biased ca e
bu den, especially a he expense o women. I espec i e
o access o E-lea ning, wo kplaces wi h a high sha e o
emale employees migh ha e been less able o main ain
aining due o he addi ional bu den o employees wi h
ca e esponsibili ies:
H3 Fi ms wi h p edominan ly emale employees
show mo e p onounced dec eases in aining ac i i-
ies du ing he COVID-19 pandemic.
The ole o E-lea ning in he gende -speci ic e ec s o
he pandemic on aining is a p io i unclea . E-lea ning
migh ha e p o ided aining oppo uni ies o employees
wi h addi ional ca e esponsibili ies, as E-lea ning o e s
mo e lexibili y o pa icipan s wi h espec o ime and
space. Howe e , he addi ional ca e esponsibili ies as
well as he educ ion o wo king hou s o employees wi h
ca e esponsibili ies migh coun e ac his posi i e e ec .
The e o e, while s ill in es iga ing he ole o E-lea ning
o i ms wi h p edominan ly emale employees, his
a icle does no o mula e a di ec ed hypo hesis on his
ela ionship.
4 Da a, measu es, ands a is ical models
4.1 Da a
To s udy he e ec o he COVID-19 pandemic on i ms’
aining ac i i ies, his a icle uses he second wa e o
he IAB-ZEW-Labo Ma ke 4.0-Es ablishmen Su ey
(Haneb ink e al. 2021). The i s wa e o he su ey was
collec ed in 2016, and he second wa e was collec ed
be ween Augus 2021 and June 2022. This da ase is a
ep esen a i e employe su ey on he use o digi iza ion
and au oma ion echnologies in Ge man es ablishmen s,1
including bo h manu ac u e s and se ice p o ide s. The
su ey also includes in o ma ion abou i ms’ aining
ac i i ies in he yea s 2016, 2019, and 2020 su eyed e -
ospec i ely. Fi m-sponso ed non- o mal u he aining
bes desc ibes he aining ac i i ies eco ded wi hin he
su ey, i.e., compa a i ely sho aining cou ses ha do
no lead o a ecognized educa ional deg ee. The su ey
also p o ides a sel -assessmen o he economic si ua ion
du ing he COVID-19 pandemic and he impo ance o
E-lea ning o conduc ing aining. The i m su ey is a
andom sample o all Ge man es ablishmen s egis e ed
a he Ge man Fede al Employmen Agency, s a i ied by
sec o , es ablishmen size, and loca ion.
I link his su ey da ase o he Es ablishmen His-
o y Panel (BHP; Ganze e  al. 2021), which p o ides
yea ly in o ma ion on all es ablishmen s wi h a leas one
employee liable o social secu i y o a leas one ma ginal
pa - ime employee on June 30 h. The BHP con ains
es ablishmen in o ma ion abou indus y, loca ion, num-
be s, and wages o employees by a ious cha ac e is ics,
employee lows, and ounda ion and closu e da es, allow-
ing o con olling a ious es ablishmen -le el a iables.
Fu he mo e, I link he uni e se o employees o he
es ablishmen s included in he su ey using he social
secu i y eco ds In eg a ed Employmen Biog aphies
(IEB V16.01.00-202112) p o ided by he Ins i u e o
Employmen Resea ch (IAB). The da ase includes in o -
ma ion on all Ge man employees liable o social secu i y
con ibu ions, bene i ecipien s, unemployed sea ching
o employmen , and pa icipan s in ac i e labo ma -
ke policy measu es, hus excluding sel -employed, ci il
se an s, and s uden s. Based on he occupa ional codes
o employees p o ided in he IEB da a, I link a measu e
on he WFH easibili y o occupa ions gi en by Alipou
e al. (2023) o be able o iden i y which i ms can e i-
cien ly apply E-lea ning. To assess he easibili y o WFH
in occupa ions, he s udy by Alipou e al. (2023) asked
employees whe he WFH is gene ally possible in hei
wo kplace. A e he linkage o hese da a sou ces, I end
up wi h an analysis sample o 1555 i ms and 3110 i m-
yea s o he mul i a ia e analyses ocusing on he yea s
2019 and 2020.
4.2 Measu es
To measu e i ms’ access o E-lea ning, I use a ime-
in a ian a iable on he impo ance o E-lea ning o
i ms aining ac i i ies. Figu e1 shows he ag eemen
wi h he ollowing s a emen conside ing i ms’ aining
ac i i ies du ing he las 5 yea s: “We a e inc easingly
using E-lea ning o aining”. While his does no p o-
ide he le el o E-lea ning use, i se es as a p oxy a i-
able o ac ual E-lea ning use.
Compa ing he esponses om he i s wa e o BIZA
in 2016 (g ay ba s) o he esponses om he second
wa e o BIZA in 2021/22 (black ba s), we clea ly ind
ha i ms shi ed o E-lea ning. This shi o E-lea ning
be ween he p e-COVID wa e and he second wa e in
2021/22 is in line wi h o he su ey e idence, inding an
E-lea ning up ake du ing he pandemic (Bellmann e al.
2020). In 2021/22, only a ound a hi d o i ms s ongly
disag eed, disag eed, o nei he disag eed no ag eed
wi h he s a emen ha he use o E-lea ning o aining
1 Th oughou he ex , I use es ablishmen and i m in e changeably. The
le el o measu emen in he da ase s is a he wo kplace. This is no always
equal o he i m le el, as i ms can consis o mul iple es ablishmen s.

Page 5 o 15 23 The COVID‑19 pandemic and i ms’ E‑lea ning use: implica ions o inequali y in aining…
has inc eased o hei aining ac i i ies du ing he las
5 yea s. A ound 40 pe cen o i ms ag eed wi h he
s a emen , and a ound 30 pe cen s ongly ag eed. I use
i ms ha s ongly ag eed o he s a emen in he su ey
o 2021/22 ( igh mos black ba ) o iden i y i ms whe e
E-lea ning is an impo an measu e o i ms o conduc
aining ac i i ies.
The E-lea ning a iable allows o iden i y i ms whe e
he use o E-lea ning is impo an bu does no p o ide
he sha e o aining measu es ha a e conduc ed ia
E-lea ning. To iden i y i ms whe e E-lea ning is plau-
sibly able o co e he majo i y o aining measu es, I
use an index on he easibili y o WFH conside ing he
occupa ional composi ion o a i m in 2019. Fi ms wi h
an occupa ional s uc u e allowing hem o implemen
WFH a e also able o use E-lea ning mo e e icien ly o
conduc aining ac i i ies. I use a measu e by Alipou
e al. (2023) ha is based on i ems o he 2018 BIBB/
BAuA su ey asking wo ke s whe he WFH is possi-
ble in hei job (see bo om sec ion o Table S-1 o he
unde lying su ey i ems). WFH easibili y hus cap u es
whe he i is echnologically easible o pe o m a job a
leas pa ly om home. Using he occupa ional codes
o he uni e se o wo ke s wi hin he su eyed i ms, I
agg ega e he WFH easibili y a he i m le el. Based on
he sample mean o he WFH measu e in 2019, I con-
s uc a ime-in a ian indica o o i ms wi h low and
high WFH easibili y. I combine his WFH measu e wi h
he E-lea ning measu e, ca ego izing i ms as E-lea n-
e s i hey ha e high WFH easibili y and s ongly ag ee
wi h E-lea ning being impo an . This allows me o s udy
i ms ha can be expec ed o e icien ly use E-lea ning o
main ain aining ac i i ies du ing he COVID-19 pan-
demic: hose wi h inc easing use o E-lea ning and high
WFH easibili y o he majo i y o he i m’s employees.
As a u he impo an supply-side de e minan o
aining du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, I use he eco-
nomic si ua ion o i ms du ing he c isis. I measu e his
based on a su ey ques ion, whe he he demand o
p oduc s o se ices he i ms o e dec eased, emained
unchanged, o inc eased du ing he COVID-19 pan-
demic. Table1 shows a c oss- abula ion o he E-lea ning
measu e and changes in p oduc demand du ing he pan-
demic. 9.88 pe cen o i ms acing dec easing demand,
12.71 pe cen o i ms acing unchanged demand, and
18.07 pe cen acing inc easing demand o he p oduc s
o se ices hey o e a e in he E-lea ning g oup. Table
0 10 20 30 40 50
Pe cen
s ongly
disag ee
disag ee nei he ag ee s ongly
ag ee
2016 2021/22
We a e inc easinglyusing E-lea ning o aining
Fig. 1 Sel -assessmen o i ms’ E-lea ning use in 2016 and 2021/22. Da a a e weigh ed wi h c oss-sec ional weigh s. The ba s show he esponses
o he su ey i em on he impo ance o E-lea ning as a measu e o conduc aining. The g ay ba s show he esponses om he i s wa e
o he su ey in 2016 o i ms ha pa icipa ed in he i s and second wa es o he su ey. The black ba s show he esponses o he second
wa e o he su ey in 2021/22 o i ms ha pa icipa ed in he second wa e o he su ey. Sou ce: Own calcula ions using he second wa e
o IAB-ZEW-Labo Ma ke 4.0-Es ablishmen Su ey
23 Page 6 o 15
C.Mülle
S-1 in he appendix p o ides an ex ensi e desc ip ion o
all he unde lying su ey i ems.
To measu e he ole o demand-side mechanisms, I
conside he ole o gende composi ion wi hin wo k-
places. Based on i ms’ emale sha e in 2019, I cons uc
a ime-in a ian indica o o i ms wi h low and high
emale sha es. This allows me o s udy i ms wi h p e-
dominan ly emale employees (mo e han 50 pe cen
emale employees).
4.3 Analy ical s a egy
To iden i y he e ec o E-lea ning on i ms’ aining
ac i i ies, I use an analy ical s a egy gi en by he ollow-
ing o mulas:
in e ac ion e m
(Co id
×
Demandi)
in model M2 es s
hypo hesis H2 on he ole o he economic si ua ion o
i ms. The coe icien
β2
in model M2 p o ides he di -
e ence in he change in aining sha e o i ms wi h
unchanged o inc easing demand in e e ence o i ms
wi h dec easing p oduc demand.
ELi
in model M3 is a
dummy a iable indica ing i ms’ abili y o use E-lea n-
ing. The in e ac ion e m
(Co id
×
ELi)
in model M3
es s hypo hesis H3 on he ole o E-lea ning use. The
coe icien
β2
in model M3 p o ides he di e ence in he
change in aining sha e compa ing i ms wi h low ( e -
e ence) and high abili y o use E-lea ning. The h ee-way
in e ac ion
(Co id
×
ELi
×
Demandi)
in model M4 p o-
ides he he e ogeneous e ec o he pandemic on i ms
aining sha es, bo h by E-lea ning and he economic si -
ua ion o i ms. The coe icien
β1
in model M4 p o ides
he change in aining o he e e ence g oup o i ms
wi h dec easing demand and low abili y o use E-lea n-
ing. The coe icien s
β2
,
β3
, and
β4
in model M4 p o ide
he di e ence o he e e ence g oup by he E-lea ning
and demand cha ac e is ics o i ms. The coe icien
β1
in
model M5 p o ides he change in aining o he e e -
ence g oup o i ms wi h high emale sha es
(β1)
, while
coe icien
β2
in model M5 epo s he di e ence be ween
i ms wi h low emale sha es and he e e ence g oup. The
h ee-way in e ac ion

Co id ×ELi×low emalesha ei

in model M6 p o ides he he e ogeneous e ec o he
pandemic on i ms aining sha es, bo h by E-lea ning
and he emale sha e o i ms. The coe icien
β1
in model
Table 1 E-lea ning use by changes in p oduc demand du ing
he COVID-19 pandemic
Da a a e weigh ed wi h c oss-sec ional weigh s. Column 1 p o ides he sha es
o i ms whe e E-lea ning is no impo an o aining and ha ha e aced
dec easing ( ow 1), unchanged demand ( ow 2), and inc easing demand ( ow
3) o he se ices and p oduc s hey o e since he COVID-19 pandemic began.
The E-lea ne g oup a e i ms ha s ongly ag eed wi h he s a emen ha hey
inc easingly use E-lea ning o aining and ha e a high easibili y o WFH
Sou ce: Own calcula ions using he second wa e o IAB-ZEW-Labo Ma ke
4.0-Es ablishmen Su ey
Demand change Compa ison E-lea ne To al
% %
Dec ease 90.12 9.88 392
Unchanged 87.29 12.71 577
Inc ease 81.93 18.07 586
To al 1116 439 1555
Equa ion Model
T ain
i =
β
0+
β
1
Co id
+
X
i +
µ
i+
ǫi
M1: Raw COVID e ec
T ain
i =
β
0+
β
1
Co id
+
β
2
(Co id
∗
Demand
i
)
+
X
i +
µ
i+
ǫi
M2: by demand
T aini
=
β0
+
β1Co id
+
β2(Co id
∗
ELi)
+
Xi
+
µi
+
ǫi
M3: by EL
T aini
=
β0
+
β1Co id
+
β2(Co id
∗
Demandi)
+
β3(Co id
∗
ELi)
+
β4(Co id
∗
ELi
∗
Demandi)
+
Xi
+
µi
+
ǫi
M4: by demand * EL
T aini
=
β0
+
β1Co id
+
β2(Co id
∗
low emale sha ei)
+
Xi
+
µi
+
ǫi
M5: by emale sha e
T aini
=
β0
+
β1Co id
+
β2(Co id
∗
low emale sha ei)
+
β3(Co id
∗
ELi)
+
β4(Co id
∗
ELi
∗
low emale sha ei)
+
Xi
+
µi
+
ǫi
M6: by EL * emale
sha e
The dependen a iable
T aini
deno es he sha e o
ained wo ke s in i m
i
a yea
.
Co id
has he alue
0 o all i m-yea s in 2019 and swi ches o 1 in 2020.
The coe icien
β1
in model M1 p o ides he change in
he aining sha e wi hin i ms be ween he yea s 2019
and 2020. Model M2 p o ides he change in aining
sha e be ween 2019 and 2020 due o i ms’ economic
si ua ion du ing he pandemic.
Demandi
is a ime-in a -
ian ca ego ical a iable indica ing whe he i ms expe i-
enced dec easing, unchanged, o inc easing demand o
hei se ices and p oduc s du ing he pandemic. The
M6 p o ides he change in aining o he e e ence
g oup o i ms wi h a low abili y o use E-lea ning and a
high emale sha e. The coe icien s
β2
,
β3
, and
β4
in model
M6 p o ide he di e ence o he change o he e e ence
g oup by he E-lea ning and emale sha e cha ac e is ics
o i ms. When es ima ing ixed e ec s eg essions wi h
o dina y leas squa es, he sums o he espec i e be a
coe icien s a e equal o he ma ginal e ec s o i ms
wi h di e en cha ac e is ics wi h espec o he eco-
nomic si ua ion, E-lea ning, and he emale sha e. To
ease he in e p e a ion, I also epo ma ginal e ec s o
Page 7 o 15 23 The COVID‑19 pandemic and i ms’ E‑lea ning use: implica ions o inequali y in aining…
i ms wi h di e en cha ac e is ics, epo ing he change
in aining be ween 2019 and 2020 o he espec i e
combina ion o cha ac e is ics. I epo es s o s a is i-
cal signi icance o he di e ences be ween coe icien s in
Tables S-5 and S-6 in he appendix.
Xi
is a se o i m
le el con ols,
µi
deno es he i m ixed e ec and
ǫi
he
idiosync a ic e o e m.
While he i s equa ion (M1) in es iga es a simple
di e ence in i ms’ aining sha es be ween he pe iod
be o e and du ing he COVID-19 pandemic, he sub-
sequen equa ions p o ide a mo e complex se ing. In
a di e ence in di e ence se up, he ou come o in e -
es should end in pa allel compa ing he ea men
and con ol g oups (Ang is and Pischke 2009, p. 171 ).
Applied o ou case, aining sha es o i ms wi h inc eas-
ing demand should e ol e in pa allel wi h aining sha es
o i ms wi h unchanged o dec easing demand (M2).
T aining sha es o i ms wi h a high abili y o use E-lea n-
ing should e ol e in pa allel o sha es o i ms wi h a
low abili y o use E-lea ning (M3), and aining sha es o
i ms wi h low sha es o emale employees should e ol e
in pa allel o hose o i ms wi h high sha es o emale
Table 2 De elopmen o aining sha es by i m cha ac e is ics
Da a a e weigh ed wi h c oss-sec ional weigh s. The aining sha es wi hin i ms a e shown in column 1 o he yea 2016, column 2 o 2019, and column 3 o 2020,
when he COVID-19 pandemic began in Ma ch 2020 in Ge many. Column 4 shows he di e ence be ween he aining sha e in 2020 and 2019 in pe cen age poin s.
The igh mos column 5 shows his di e ence in pe cen ages. The sum o , e.g., columns 4 and 2 can sligh ly di e om he alue in column 3 due o ounding o he
s a is ics
Sou ce: Own calcula ions using he second wa e o IAB-ZEW-Labo Ma ke 4.0-Es ablishmen Su ey
Sha e o ained wo ke s (%) (1) 2016 mean (2) 2019 mean (3) 2020 mean (3)–(2) Di . PP Dec ease in %
O e all 35.81 35.78 27.73 − 8.04 22.48
P oduc demand du ing COVID
Dec ease 32.27 30.88 19.74 − 11.14 36.08
Unchanged 39.98 38.63 30.55 − 8.09 20.93
Inc ease 34.13 36.24 30.31 − 5.93 16.36
E-lea ning use
Compa ison 33.91 33.38 24.54 − 8.84 26.49
E-lea ning use 47.99 50.45 47.32 − 3.14 6.22
Female sha e wi hin i ms
Low 28.10 28.33 21.31 − 7.02 24.77
High 40.79 40.41 31.73 − 8.68 21.48
E-lea ning use s: P oduc demand du ing COVID
Dec ease 37.30 37.22 26.65 − 10.58 28.42
Unchanged 41.96 40.58 32.02 − 8.57 21.11
Inc ease 40.22 42.37 36.70 − 5.67 13.39
Compa ison: P oduc demand du ing COVID
Dec ease 24.59 21.55 9.58 − 11.97 55.56
Unchanged 34.71 33.07 26.35 − 6.72 20.32
Inc ease 21.84 22.88 16.40 − 6.48 28.32
E-lea ning use s: Female sha e wi hin i ms
Low 33.72 34.86 27.05 − 7.81 22.40
High 44.21 43.82 35.85 − 7.98 18.20
Compa ison: Female sha e wi hin i ms
Low 17.72 15.87 10.36 − 5.51 34.73
High 33.18 32.44 22.12 − 10.33 31.83
Ra io EL/Compa ison: P oduc demand du ing COVID
Dec ease 1.52 1.73 2.78 1.05 − 61.06
Unchanged 1.21 1.23 1.22 − 0.01 0.99
Inc ease 1.84 1.85 2.24 0.39 − 20.83
Ra io EL/Compa ison: Female sha e wi hin i ms
Low 1.90 2.20 2.61 0.41 − 18.89
High 1.33 1.35 1.62 0.27 − 19.99
23 Page 8 o 15
C.Mülle
employees (M5). Equa ions M4 and M6 co espond o
a iple di e ence es ima o , whe e i is no equi ed o
all unde lying ends o be pa allel o he es ima o o be
unbiased. This es ima ion s a egy only equi es one pa -
allel end assump ion in a ios o he ou come be ween
g oups (Olden and Møen 2022). Applied o equa ion M4,
we assume ha he a io o aining sha es be ween he
E-lea ne s and he compa ison g oup e ol es in pa allel
wi hin demand g oups. Fo equa ion M6, pa allel ends
should hold o he a io o aining sha es be ween
E-lea ne s and he compa ison wi hin i ms wi h low and
high sha es o emale employees. All desc ip i e ends
a e epo ed in Table2, including he a ios o aining
sha es by E-lea ning s a us.
As epo ed in he subsequen sec ion, he a iables on
he economic si ua ion du ing he c isis, he E-lea ning
use, and he emale sha e a e ime cons an . The e o e,
he models do no include he main e ms o hese a i-
ables, as hese a e canceled ou in ixed e ec s eg es-
sions o a iables wi hou wi hin-uni change. Table S-3
in he appendix p o ides be ween and wi hin s anda d
de ia ions o he dependen and independen a iables o
he es ima ion sample consis ing o a balanced panel o
1555 es ablishmen s o he yea s 2019 and 2020. While
he dependen a iable
T aini
a ies be ween and wi hin
i ms, he independen a iable
Co id
only a ies wi hin
i ms, and he independen a iables
Demandi
,
ELi
, and
low emalesha ei
only a y be ween i ms. To ease he
in e p e a ion o he esul s, I epo ma ginal e ec s on
he aining sha e. I es ic he sample o he yea s 2019
and 2020, as I am in e es ed in he change in aining
igh be o e and a e he COVID-19 pandemic began,
bu use he in o ma ion o aining sha es in he yea
2016 o obus ness checks.
5 Resul s
5.1 Desc ip i e esul s
Table2 shows he de elopmen o he sha e o ained
wo ke s wi hin i ms om 2016 o 2020.2 Columns 1–3
p o ide he pe cen age o all employees wi hin a i m
who pa icipa ed in a leas one aining cou se o he
yea s 2016, 2019, and 2020. Column 4 p o ides he di -
e ence in aining sha e be ween he yea s 2020 (column
3) and 2019 (column 2). The igh mos column p o ides
he ela i e change in aining be ween 2020 and 2019. In
he ows, Table2 epo s hese s a is ics by se e al i m
cha ac e is ics.
The o e all sha e o ained wo ke s in he i s ow o
Table2 was a ound 36 pe cen in 2016 and 2019. In 2020,
a he beginning o he COVID-19 pandemic, he sha e
o ained wo ke s dec eased by 8.04 pe cen age poin s
o 27.73 pe cen . This is a subs an ial dec ease o 22.48
pe cen associa ed wi h he COVID-19 pandemic and
desc ip i e e idence o an o e all dec ease in he ain-
ing ac i i ies o i ms du ing he pandemic. Table2 p o-
ides desc ip i e e idence o a demand-d i en change
in aining, as i ms ha aced dec easing demand o he
p oduc s o se ices hey o e educed aining by 36.08
pe cen compa ed o i ms ha aced inc easing demand
wi h a 16.36 pe cen dec ease. While his p o ides i s
desc ip i e e idence o hypo hesis 1 ha a i m’s eco-
nomic si ua ion is a media o o he e ec o he COVID-
19 pandemic on aining ac i i ies, e en hose i ms ha
expe ienced posi i e economic de elopmen du ing he
COVID-19 pandemic subs an ially educed hei aining
ac i i ies.
To conside he ole o E-lea ning in changes in aining
du ing he pandemic, Table2 shows he aining de elop-
men o i ms ha ha e a low abili y o use E-lea ning
(“Compa ison”) and o i ms ha ha e a high abili y o
use E-lea ning o ain hei wo k o ce. The compa ison
g oup aced a dec ease in aining o 26.49 pe cen , while
he E-lea ning g oup educed aining by only 6.22 pe -
cen . This p o ides desc ip i e e idence o hypo hesis
2 ha i ms using E-lea ning a e mo e able o main ain
aining.
Also, Table2 epo s he aining sha e o i ms wi h
low and high emale sha es. Fi ms wi h low emale sha es
educed aining by 24.77 pe cen be ween 2019 and
2020. Wi h a dec ease o 21.48 pe cen in aining, i ms
wi h p edominan ly emale employees show a simila
pa e n, e en hough he absolu e dec ease in pe cen age
poin s is highe o his g oup.
As desc ibed in Sec .4.3, he main unde lying assump-
ion o he analy ical s a egy is he pa allel ends
assump ion. Wi h espec o he ends be o e 2020,
Table2 shows ha o e all, aining sha es emained con-
s an be ween 2016 and 2019 a a ound 35.80 pe cen .
Conside ing i ms’ p oduc demand du ing COVID, he
aining sha es o i ms wi h dec easing and unchanged
demand aced small dec eases o a ound 1.40 pe cen age
poin s, while he aining sha e o i ms wi h inc easing
p oduc demand shows an inc ease o 2.11 pe cen age
poin s be ween 2016 and 2019. Wi h espec o i ms’
E-lea ning use, he compa ison g oup shows a mino
dec ease in aining sha e o 0.53 pe cen age poin s,
while he E-lea ning g oup shows a 2.46 pe cen age poin
2 The aining sha e is measu ed e ospec i ely, which migh lead o meas-
u emen bias. Fo i ms ha ook pa in bo h wa es o he su ey (wa e 1
in 2016 and wa e 2 in 2021/22), I can compa e he aining sha e o 2016
e ospec i ely measu ed in wa e 2 o he ac ual aining sha e measu ed
in wa e 1. Wi h a ound 33.15 pe cen , he ac ual aining sha e su eyed in
wa e 1 is a ound 1.73 pe cen age poin s highe han he e ospec i e sha e
measu ed in wa e 2, wi h a ound 31.41 pe cen . Howe e , using a - es , his
di e ence is no s a is ically signi ican . Fu he mo e, as he yea 2016 is
excluded in he mul i a ia e analysis because I in es iga e he di e ence in
aining sha e be ween 2019 and 2020, ecall bias is likely o be e en smalle
as he su ey ook place in 2021/22.
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Publishe ’s No e
Sp inge Na u e emains neu al wi h ega d o ju isdic ional claims in pub-
lished maps and ins i u ional a ilia ions.