Global case studies of social dialogue on AI and algorithmic management

Doellgas , Vi ginia; Appalla, Sh u i; Ginzbu g, Dina; Kim, Jeonghun; Thian, Wen Li
Wo king Pape
Global case s udies o social dialogue on AI and
algo i hmic managemen
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 144
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Doellgas , Vi ginia; Appalla, Sh u i; Ginzbu g, Dina; Kim, Jeonghun; Thian, Wen
Li (2025) : Global case s udies o social dialogue on AI and algo i hmic managemen , ILO Wo king
Pape , No. 144, ISBN 978-92-2-042168-0, In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
h ps://doi.o g/10.54394/VOQE4924
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XGlobal case s udies o social
dialogue on AI and algo i hmic
managemen
Au ho s / Vi ginia Doellgas , Sh u i Appalla, Dina Ginzbu g, Jeonghun Kim, Wen Li Thian
July / 2025
ILO Wo king Pape 144
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Sugges ed ci a ion:
Doellgas , V., Appalla, S., Ginzbu g, D., Kim, J., Thian, W. 2025. Global case s udies o social di-
alogue on AI and algo i hmic managemen , ILO Wo king Pape 144 (Gene a, ILO). h ps://doi.
o g/10.54394/VOQE4924
01 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Abs ac
Employe s a e adop ing and e ining a i icial in elligence (AI) and algo i hm-based ools in he
wo kplace, wi h wide- anging implica ions o wo k and employmen . This wo king pape exam-
ines case s udies o social dialogue on AI a na ional, egional, sec o al, company, and wo kplace
le els in Eu ope, No h Ame ica, Asia, Sou h Ame ica and he Ca ibbean, and A ica. Findings
a e o ganized a ound h ee dis inc ‘ac ion ields’ in which wo ke ep esen a i es ha e sough
o in luence s a egies and ou comes associa ed wi h he g owing use o AI and algo i hms in
he wo kplace. These include he employmen and skill impac s o AI, algo i hmic managemen
p ac ices, and wo king condi ions and igh s in AI alue chains. Ac oss hese ac ion ields, social
dialogue is playing a c ucial ole in encou aging an al e na i e, high oad app oach o AI in es -
men s and uses, based on complemen ing a he han eplacing wo ke skills, empowe ing a h-
e han con olling he wo k o ce, and embedding a he han displacing new jobs in labo and
social p o ec ions. Compa a i e indings sugges ha hese social dialogue ini ia i es a e mo e
e ec i e whe e he e a e cons ain s on employe exi , suppo o collec i e wo ke oice, and
s a egies o inclusi e labo solida i y.
Key wo ds: AI, algo i hms, algo i hmic managemen , social dialogue, labo unions, skills, job
quali y, su eillance, global alue chains, ou sou cing
Abou he au ho s
Vi ginia Doellgas is he Anne E ans Es ab ook P o esso o Employmen Rela ions and Dispu e
Resolu ion in he ILR School a Co nell Uni e si y. She is cu en ly P esiden o he Socie y o he
Ad ancemen o Socio-Economics (SASE), a Senio Resea ch Fellow a he a he WSI-Hans Böckle
S i ung, and Co-Edi o o he ILR Re iew. He esea ch ocuses on he compa a i e poli ical econo-
my o labo ma ke s and labo unions, inequali y, p eca i y, and democ acy a wo k. Publica ions
include Exi , Voice, and Solida i y (Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2022), Disin eg a ing Democ acy a Wo k
(Co nell Uni e si y P ess, 2012), In e na ional and Compa a i e Employmen Rela ions (Sage, 2021),
and Recons uc ing Solida i y (Ox o d Uni e si y P ess, 2018).
Sh u i Appalla is a PhD s uden in he ILR School a Co nell Uni e si y. She s udies he impac o
eme ging echnologies on wo ke s and i ms in global supply chains. She has p e iously been
a P edoc o al Fellow in Economics and holds a mas e ’s deg ee in public policy om Na ional
Law School, India.
Dina Ginzbu g is an MS Labo Resea ch and Policy s uden in he ILR School a Co nell Uni e si y.
She s udies labo policy, union s a egy, and collec i e ac ion.
Jeonghun Kim is a PhD s uden in he ILR School a Co nell Uni e si y. His esea ch explo es how
p eca i y is gene a ed h ough new wo k a angemen s and echnologies, and how wo ke s build
solida i y o egula e hem. He has conduc ed a compa a i e s udy o wo unions’ o ganizing
s a egies in he Sou h Ko ean ood deli e y pla o m sec o . Fo his disse a ion, he is wo king
on a p ojec ha compa es call cen e unions in he public heal h insu ance sec o in Sou h Ko ea
and he Uni ed S a es, ocusing on how hey espond o he challenges posed by AI adop ion.

02 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Wen Li Thian is a PhD s uden in he ILR School a Co nell Uni e si y. He esea ch ocuses on
mechanisms o labo con ol, he labo p ocess, and echnologies a wo k. She has done esea ch
on he li ed expe iences o ac o y wo ke s and pla o m gig wo ke s in Singapo e. She holds a
mas e ’s deg ee in Sociology om he Na ional Uni e si y o Singapo e.
03 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
XIn oduc ion 07
Analy ical amewo k 08
Case selec ion and esea ch app oach 12
X1 In e na ional, na ional, and egional social dialogue 14
1.1. Eu ope 14
1.1.1. Social dialogue a EU-le el 14
1.1.2. Social dialogue a na ional le el 17
1.2. No h Ame ica 20
1.3. Asia 24
1.4. Sou h Ame ica and he Ca ibbean 26
1.5. A ica 28
1.6. Summa y 28
X2 Sec o al, company, and wo kplace social dialogue 31
2.1. Social dialogue o e employmen and skill impac s o AI: om labo eplacing o labo
complemen ing 31
2.1.1. Eu ope 32
2.1.2. No h Ame ica 36
2.1.3. Asia, Sou h Ame ica, and A ica 42
2.2. Social dialogue o e algo i hmic managemen : F om labo con olling o labo empowe ing 45
2.2.1. Eu ope 46
2.2.2. No h Ame ica 51
2.2.3. Asia, Sou h Ame ica, he Ca ibbean, and A ica 54
2.3. Social dialogue o e wo king condi ions and igh s in AI-enabled issu ing: F om labo
displacing o labo embedding 57
2.3.1. Re-embedding he AI alue chain 58
2.4. Summa y 64
XConclusion 66
Annex 1. Lis o in e iews and email communica ion 69
Re e ences 71
Table o con en s
04 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Acknowledgemen s 87
05 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Lis o Figu es
Figu e 1: Suppo ing social dialogue on AI h ough cons ain s on exi , suppo o oice,
and s a egies o solida i y 11
Figu e 1: Suppo ing social dialogue on AI h ough cons ain s on exi , suppo o oice,
and s a egies o solida i y 66
12 ILO Wo king Pape 144
bias ha e a disp opo iona e impac on women and mino i y e hnic g oups.11 Success ul social
dialogue in his a ea hus depends on a b oad and inclusi e app oach ha ep esen s he in e -
es s and conce ns o he mos ulne able wo ke s in a company, indus y, o socie y.
Finally, social dialogue ha a ge s he social ‘embedding’ o jobs ha ha e been c ea ed o
es uc u ed h ough labo -displacing AI inno a ions is likely o be mos success ul whe e i
s eng hens cons ain s on employe exi h ough s a egies o inclusi e labo solida i y. E o s
o imp o e condi ions o wo ke s ac oss he AI supply chain ha e concen a ed on s eng hen-
ing basic employmen igh s and p o ec ions ha make i mo e di icul o ea wo ke s a he
bo om o ha chain as a p eca ious and disposable wo k o ce. Social dialogue is s eng hened
whe e hese wo ke s ac in solida i y wi h es ablished labo unions and o he o ganiza ions ha
can d aw on mo e es ablished ins i u ional o labo ma ke powe .
Ou analysis o case s udies below illus a es a wide a ie y o app oaches o social dialogue in
each o hese ac ion a eas, which d aw on di e en combina ions o esou ces, bu also ace a -
ied cons ain s. O e all, we a gue hese e o s a e mos success ul in encou aging a mo e social-
ly equi able and sus ainable app oach o AI adop ion and deploymen whe e labo unions a e
able o d aw on s onge cons ain s on employe exi , suppo o collec i e wo ke oice, and
s a egies o inclusi e labo solida i y. We e u n o his amewo k in ou conclusion, o s uc-
u e ou discussion o he compa a i e indings.
Case selec ion and esea ch app oach
Na ional, indus y, and company cases and in e iewees o his epo we e iden i ied h ough
con e ences and mee ings ocused on social dialogue o e AI, as well as h ough snowball sam-
pling, ia ecommenda ions om con ac s wo king on hese opics in indus y and policy oles.
We p o ide mo e in-dep h analysis on a subse o na ional cases, whe e we conduc ed mul iple
in e iews wi h wo ke ep esen a i es. These include: Ge many, he Uni ed S a es, Sou h Ko ea,
and India. In o he cases, we conduc ed o d aw on a smalle numbe o in e iews o email com-
munica ions, including F ance, Spain, Sweden, Canada, Japan, B azil, he Dominican Republic, and
Kenya. In B azil, we in e iewed ep esen a i es o employe associa ions. Examples om o he
coun ies discussed in he epo a e based p ima ily on a chi al sou ces. We also conduc ed in-
e iews o email communica ions wi h academics wi h expe ise in social dialogue o e AI, and
wi h union ep esen a i es a he global union ede a ion UNI Global Union,12 which p o ided
con ex and illed ou de ails on some o he cases. In o al, we conduc ed 19 egula in e iews
and 7 email communica ions o email-based in e iews be ween Augus 2024 and Janua y 2025.
13
The au ho s o his epo also all pa icipa ed in a con e ence a Co nell Uni e si y on AI and
he Fu u e o Wo k o ganized join ly wi h he Communica ions Wo ke s o Ame ica (CWA), he
AFL-CIO Tech Ins i u e, and UNI Global Union. A ound 30 union ep esen a i es and o ganiz-
e s a ended om he US, Canada, Ge many, Sweden, Spain, and he Dominican Republic. They
p esen ed and discussed hei expe iences o ganizing a ound and nego ia ing o e AI and al-
go i hms in di e en indus y and na ional se ings. This con e ence was o ganized join ly wi h
an academic con e ence, and in ol ed exchange be ween in e na ional esea che s and unions.
11 Kim, S., Oh, P., & Lee, J. (2024). Algo i hmic gende bias: in es iga ing pe cep ions o disc imina ion in au oma ed decision-making.
Beha iou & In o ma ion Technology, 43(16), 4208-4221. Ko dzadeh, N., & Ghasemaghaei, M. (2022). Algo i hmic bias: e iew, syn he-
sis, and u u e esea ch di ec ions. Eu opean Jou nal o In o ma ion Sys ems, 31(3), 388-409.
12 UNI Global Union ep esen s o e 20 million se ice wo ke s wo ldwide, including in ca e, comme ce, inance, gaming, g aphical and
packaging, ICT and ela ed se ices, media, en e ainmen & a s, pos & logis ics, and p ope y se ices. h ps://uniglobalunion.o g/
13 See Appendix 1 o de ails on ou in e iews

13 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Ou knowledge o and insigh s on many o he case s udies discussed in his epo bene i ed
om hese p esen a ions and discussions.
Repo s published by he UC Be keley Labo Cen e , UNI Eu opa, he F ied ich Ebe S i ung, and
he OECD desc ibe and analyze case s udies o social dialogue, including collec i e ba gaining,
o e AI and digi aliza ion, and a e ecommended o mo e in o ma ion on ag eemen s o ini i-
a i es.14 In addi ion, wo da abases p o ide mo e de ailed language om collec i e ag eemen s
add essing echnologies and hei wo k o ce consequences: he Public Se ices In e na ional
(PSI) Digi al Ba gaining Hub and he UNI Eu opa Da abase o AI and Algo i hmic Managemen
in Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen s.15
We now u n o ou case s udy indings.
14 K esge, L. (2020). Union Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen S a egies in Response o Technology. UC Be keley Labo Cen e . K esge, L.
(2023) Nego ia ing Wo ke s’ Righ s a he F on ie o Digi al Wo kplace Technologies in 2023. Be keley Labo Cen e Blog. B unne o á, S.,
D. Ceccon, B. Holubo á, M. Kahanco á, K. Lukáčo á, G. Medas (2024) Collec i e Ba gaining P ac ices on AI and Algo i hmic Managemen
in Eu opean Se ices Sec o s. UNI Eu opa and F ied ich Ebe S i ung. Rol , S. (2024) AI and Algo i hmic Managemen in Eu opean
Se ices Sec o s: P e alence, unc ions, and a guide o nego ia o s. UNI Eu opa and F ied ich Ebe S i ung. Global Deal (2024), Social
Dialogue and he Use o A i icial In elligence in he Wo kplace. OECD (2023), OECD Employmen Ou look 2023: A i icial In elligence and
he Labou Ma ke , OECD Publishing, Pa is, h ps://doi.o g/10.1787/08785bba-en.
15 Digi al Ba gaining Hub - PSI - The global union ede a ion o wo ke s in public se ices, h ps://publicse ices.in e na ional/ digi-
al-ba gaining-hub; A da abase o AI and algo i hmic managemen in collec i e ba gaining ag eemen s - UNI Eu opa, h ps://www.
uni-eu opa. o g/news/a-da abase-o -ai-and-algo i hmic-managemen -in-collec i e-ba gaining-ag eemen s/
14 ILO Wo king Pape 144
X1 In e na ional, na ional, and egional social
dialogue
Union in ol emen in social dialogue on AI a na ional and in e na ional le els can ake di e en
o ms. F amewo k ag eemen s be ween employe s and unions, o en wi h he in ol emen o
go e nmen bodies, ha e es ablished guiding p inciples conce ning he de elopmen and adop-
ion o AI-based ools, hei employmen and skills impac s, psychosocial heal h impac s, da a
p i acy igh s, and consul a ion o ba gaining igh s. Labo unions also a e in ol ed in consul-
a ion bodies o commi ees ha ad ise on laws and policies es ablishing clea guidelines and
alloca ing esou ces o en o cemen o inno a ion and in es men . Ano he o m o social dia-
logue a hese le els is ia o ganizing and lobbying, as labo unions build coali ions wi h o he
ci il socie y g oups, o wi h employe s, o shape policy decisions.
1.1. Eu ope
1.1.1. Social dialogue a EU-le el
The mos obus examples o in e na ional social dialogue on AI and algo i hms can be ound
wi hin he Eu opean Union. This is due o he EU’s ins i u ionalized o ums o ipa i e nego-
ia ion and consul a ion, h ough bo h he amewo k ag eemen s signed be ween social pa -
ne s and he p ocess o de eloping and app o ing EU-le el legisla ion o di ec i es. Chagny and
Blanc obse e ha AI go e nance in Eu ope is based on h ee o ms o egula ion: by o mal
laws o di ec i es ( o example, he AI Ac ); h ough bodies aimed a s anda dizing ma ke ools,
such as he In e na ional O ganiza ion o S anda diza ion (ISO) and Eu opean s anda diza ion
o ganiza ions; and h ough so law, o sel - egula ion h ough cha e s, mani es os, o e hics
commi ees.16
The 2020 Eu opean Social Pa ne s F amewo k Ag eemen on Digi aliza ion is an example o so-
cial dialogue a he EU le el, be ween he Eu opean T ade Union Con ede a ion (ETUC) and he
majo c oss-sec o al employe s’ associa ions Business Eu ope, SME Uni ed, and CEEP, wi h he
pa icipa ion o he Eu opean Commission.17 The ag eemen add esses ou a eas: ‘digi al skills
and secu ing employmen ’, ‘modali ies o connec ing and disconnec ing’, ‘a i icial in elligence
and gua an eeing he human in con ol p inciple’, and ‘ espec o human digni y and su eil-
lance’. Sugges ed measu es include aining unds, lea ning accoun s, and compe ence de el-
opmen plans; as well as schemes such as sho - ime wo k. The ag eemen also ecommends
ha na ional a ilia es should espec a se ies o p inciples when deploying AI sys ems, including
16 Chagny, O., & Blanc, N. (2024) Social dialogue as a o m o bo om-up go e nance o AI: he expe ience in F ance. In A i icial
In elligence, Labou and Socie y. A. Ponce del Cas illo (Ed.). ETUI. 197-205. P.200. h ps://www.e ui.o g/si es/de aul / iles/2024-03/
A i icial%20in elligence%2C%20labou %20and%20socie y_2024.pd #page=199
17
Eu opean Social Pa ne s F amewo k Ag eemen on Digi alisa ion. June 2020. h ps://www.e uc.o g/sys em/ iles/documen / ile2020-
06/Final%2022%2006%2020_Ag eemen %20on%20Digi alisa ion%202020.pd F amewo k ag eemen s a e non-binding, and hus do
no include o mal mechanisms o ensu ing compliance. Howe e , hey p o ide ag eed p inciples and ecommended measu es ha
can be e e enced in mo e o mal collec i e nego ia ions o policy ini ia i es. The ex o he F amewo k Ag eemen s a es: ' In he
con ex o a icle 155 o he T ea y [on he unc ioning o he Eu opean Union (TFEU)], his au onomous Eu opean amewo k ag ee-
men commi s he membe s o BusinessEu ope, SMEuni ed, CEEP and ETUC (and he liaison commi ee EUROCADRES/ CEC) o p o-
mo e and o implemen ools and measu es, whe e necessa y a na ional, sec o al and/o en e p ise le els, in acco dance wi h he
p ocedu es and p ac ices speci ic o managemen and labou in he Membe S a es and in he coun ies o he Eu opean Economic
A ea. The signa o y pa ies also in i e hei membe o ganisa ions in candida e coun ies o implemen his ag eemen .' p.13
15 ILO Wo king Pape 144
‘human in con ol’, p e en ion o ha m, and a oiding bias and disc imina ion h ough isk as-
sessmen , anspa ency, and ai ness.18 Special p o isions a e called o whe e AI is used in hu-
man esou ce decisions and analysis, including wo ke s’ igh s o eques human o e sigh and
o con es he decision.
In 2022, an ag eemen on digi aliza ion o cen al go e nmen s was concluded by he Eu opean
Fede a ion o Public Se ice Unions (EPSU) and Eu opean Public Adminis a ion Employe s (EUPAE)
- again, wi h he pa icipa ion o he Eu opean Commission.19 I includes igh s o aining, o
elewo k, o disconnec , o pe sonal da a p o ec ion, and o heal h and sa e y, commi ing em-
ploye s o conduc heal h isk assessmen s in consul a ion wi h labo unions. Simila o he 2020
digi aliza ion ag eemen , i also encou ages a ‘human-in-command’ app oach o AI.
Sec o al ag eemen s be ween EU social pa ne s add ess simila hemes. A 2020 amewo k
ag eemen in elec ici y be ween EPSU, Indus iAll, and Eu elec ic includes commi men s o
join ac ions on aining and li elong lea ning associa ed wi h digi aliza ion, as well as s a egies
o p e en psychosocial isks.20 Also in 2020, he EU social pa ne s in he elecom sec o , UNI
Eu opa ICTS and ETNO, signed a Join Decla a ion on A i icial In elligence, which ou lines ag eed
p inciples conce ning e hical AI and he need o p io i ize in es ing in digi al skills and aining
wi hin he elecoms indus y, in he ech and elecoms ecosys ems, and h ough policy and go -
e nmen ac ion.21 Mo e ecen ly, EU social pa ne s in he banking sec o issued a 2024 EU Join
Decla a ion on Employmen Aspec s o A i icial In elligence, which s a es ha social dialogue,
including collec i e ba gaining, is impo an o managing isks and oppo uni ies associa ed
wi h AI in he indus y.22 These include AI’s employmen and skill impac s, occupa ional sa e y,
and p o ec ion o digi al igh s.23 The Decla a ion encou ages social dialogue o de elop and pu
in place join ac ions o suppo job ansi ion and o ensu e e- o up-skilling oppo uni ies when
job p o iles a e a ec ed by he g owing use o AI and o he digi al echnologies.
EU legisla ion and di ec i es p o ide impo an ools o wo ke ep esen a i es in di e en
Eu opean coun ies o ha e in o ma ion and ba gaining igh s conce ning new echnologies, and
ha e o en been de eloped h ough o in luenced by ipa i e consul a ion. The 1989 F amewo k
Di ec i e on occupa ional sa e y and heal h (OSH) includes p o isions equi ing ha wo ke s o
hei ep esen a i es a e consul ed in ‘ he planning and in oduc ion o new echnologies o he
wo kplace’; and equi es employe s o conduc isk assessmen s p io o pu chasing new sys-
ems.24 In addi ion, he 2018 Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion (GDPR) includes equi emen s
conce ning he collec ion, s o age, and use o pe sonal da a, and i s p o isions a e en o ced
h ough na ional da a p o ec ion au ho i ies. Bo h a eas o legisla ion ha e been impo an ools
o wo ke ep esen a i es con es ing he use o algo i hmic managemen ools.25 Using GDPR
p o isions, union ep esen a i es can block employe s om p ocessing employees’ pe sonal da a
18 Voss, E., & Be ossa, D. (2022). Collec i e Ba gaining and Digi aliza ion: A Global Su ey o Union Use o Collec i e Ba gaining o
Inc ease Wo ke Con ol o e Digi aliza ion. New England Jou nal o Public Policy, 34(1), 10.
19 EPSU (2022) EU Social Pa ne s signed new ag eemen on digi aliza ion o cen al go e nmen . h ps://www.epsu.o g/a icle/eu-
social-pa ne s-signed-new-ag eemen -digi alisa ion-cen al-go e nmen
20 Voss and Be ossa (2022), ibid, p.15
21 The Telecom Social Dialogue Commi ee (2020) Join Decla a ion on A i icial In elligence. h ps://www.uni-eu opa.o g/old-
uploads/2020/12/20201130_UE-ETNO-decla a ion-AI.pd
22 Join Decla a ion on Employmen Aspec s o A i icial In elligence by he Eu opean Social Pa ne s in he Banking Sec o . 14 May 2024.
h ps://www.uni-eu opa.o g/wp-con en /uploads/si es/3/2024/05/Join -Decla a ion-on-Employmen -Aspec s-o -A i icial-In elligence_
BankSD.pd
23 Email communica ion, Massimo Mensi, UNI Global Union, Decembe 9, 2024.
24 Ce aliello, A. and J. Popma. (2024) How can wo ke s p o ec hemsel es agains he isks o new echnologies? HesaMag 29 (Win e ):
14-17, pp.15-16.
25 Aloisi, A. (2024). Regula ing algo i hmic managemen a wo k in he Eu opean Union: Da a p o ec ion, non-disc imina ion and col-
lec i e igh s. In e na ional Jou nal o Compa a i e Labou Law and Indus ial Rela ions, 40(1).
16 ILO Wo king Pape 144
o analyze and p edic hei beha io , including hei pe o mance.26 The GDPR also includes he
possibili y o Membe S a es o p o ide, by law o in collec i e ag eemen s, mo e speci ic ules
o ensu e he p o ec ion o he igh s and eedoms o employees wi h ega d o he p ocessing
o pe sonal da a in he con ex o employmen (A icle 88).
Mo e ecen ly, he EU’s 2024 AI Ac and 2024 Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e ha e s eng hened wo ke
igh s associa ed wi h digi aliza ion, AI, and algo i hmic managemen . Ponce Del Cas illo obse es
ha bo h ‘a e no able examples o success ul ade union in luence’ in he egula o y domain –
wi h imp o emen s in wo ke igh s made h ough dialogue wi h and he ad ocacy o unions.27
P o isions in he AI Ac suppo building wo ke s’ AI li e acy and in ol emen in de elopmen
o codes o conduc and design and de elopmen o AI sys ems. The AI Ac also equi es AI p o-
ide s (i.e. de elope s and selle s) o iden i y and analyze ‘known and o eseeable isks’, in cas-
es whe e an AI sys em is conside ed high- isk – and hen o communica e his in o ma ion o
wo ke s and hei ep esen a i es.28 These include algo i hmic managemen applica ions, such
as p omo ion, dismissal, ask alloca ion, moni o ing, and pe o mance e alua ion. Ce ain ap-
plica ions, such as sen imen analysis ools widely used in moni o ing sys ems, a e p ohibi ed
in wo kplace and educa ional se ings.
Labo unions such as UNI Eu opa29 and Indus iALL30 ha e aised conce ns wi h he AI Ac ’s eli-
ance on olun a y compliance, i s neglec o gene al-pu pose AI, and exemp ions o loopholes
conce ning ce ain algo i hmic managemen ools. The Eu opean T ade Union Con ede a ion
(ETUC) has called on he EU o de elop a ange o new egula ions and p o ec ions o wo ke s,
including a dedica ed di ec i e on algo i hmic sys ems a wo k ha ensu es human o e sigh o
AI-d i en decision-making, an AI liabili y di ec i e o ensu e ha wo ke s ope a ing AI sys ems
a e no held liable when AI causes ha m, s eng hened egula ion o global digi al alue chains
ensu ing ai labo no ms and e hical sou cing p ac ices in AI de elopmen , and copy igh p o ec
-
ions o c ea i e wo ke s ha ensu e in o med consen , anspa ency, and ai emune a ion.31
The ETUC is also coo dina ing he wo k o na ional labo unions o de elop s anda ds o op-
e a ionalize he legal obliga ions in he AI Ac , including ‘es ablishing a isk managemen sys-
em, main aining a da a go e nance p og amme, d awing up echnical documen a ion, keeping
26 Le Bonniec, T. (2024) Ano he Pa h o AI Regula ion: Wo ke Unions and Da a P o ec ion Righ s. I alian Labou Law e-jou nal, 17 (2),
pp.115-131. 10.6092/issn.1561-8048/20870. p.126.
Acco ding o he ex o he GDPR -h ps://eu -lex.eu opa.eu/eli/ eg/2016/679/oj/eng - Analyzing and p edic ing employee beha -
io h ough da a p ocessing is conside ed ‘p o iling’, and equi es addi ional jus i ica ion and anspa ency (A icle 4). Union ep e-
sen a i es can po en ially challenge and po en ially block employe s om p ocessing employee pe sonal da a o analyze and p edic
hei beha io , including pe o mance, by le e aging he ' igh o objec ' p o ision (A icle 21), which allows indi iduals o oppose
p ocessing o hei da a when i in ol es ‘p o iling’, especially i such p ocessing is conside ed excessi e o in usi e, and could be
seen as disp opo iona e o he s a ed business pu pose. A icle 22 gi es he ‘da a subjec ’ ‘ he igh no o be subjec o a decision
based solely on au oma ed p ocessing, including p o iling, which p oduces legal e ec s conce ning him o he o simila ly signi i-
can ly a ec s him o he .’
27 Ponce Del Cas illo, A. (2024) AI and ade unions: om apid esponses o p oac i e s a egies. HesaMag 29 (Win e ): 31-34. Pp. 32-
33.
28 The AI Ac elies on p o ide s o high- isk AI sys ems o sel -assess and sel -ce i y hei p oduc s’ compliance, which has been c i i-
cized o no allowing o su icien o e sigh by ex e nal bodies such as labo unions. Özkizil an, D. and F. Landini (2025) T us wo hy
and Human-Cen ic? The New Go e nance o Wo kplace AI Technologies unde he EU’s A i icial In elligence Ac . T ans e , Issue 4.
29 UNI Eu opa (2021) AI Ac - Ou submission o he EU Commission. June 30, 2021. h ps://www.uni-eu opa.o g/news/ai-ac -ou -submission-
o- he-eu-commission/
30 Indus iALL (2024) Indus iALL adop s a ade union s a egy o ackle AI a wo k. Decembe 4, 2024.h ps://news.indus iall-eu ope.
eu/A icle/1176
31 ETUC (2025) A i icial In elligence o Wo ke s, No Jus o P o i : Ensu ing Quali y Jobs in he Digi al Age. Adop ed a he Execu i e
Commi ee mee ing o 04-05 Ma ch 2025. h ps://e uc.o g/en/documen /a i icial-in elligence-wo ke s-no -jus -p o i -ensu ing-quali y-
jobs-digi al-age
17 ILO Wo king Pape 144
au oma ic logs, p o iding ins uc ions o use and being anspa en o downs eam deploye s
and use s, and ensu ing human o e sigh , obus ness and cybe -secu i y’.32
The Pla o m Wo k Di ec i e simila ly a ge s algo i hmic anspa ency, empowe ing wo ke s by
equi ing pla o ms33 o p o ide in o ma ion o wo ke s, hei ep esen a i es, and ‘compe en
na ional au ho i ies’ conce ning how and why hey a e using algo i hmic managemen sys ems
(as well as hei limi a ions).
1.1.2. Social dialogue a na ional le el
The e a e a numbe o examples o na ional-le el social dialogue in Eu ope ha a ge simila is-
sues. The No dic coun ies ha e a wide ange o such ini ia i es.34 In Denma k, go e nmen -led
commissions on digi aliza ion and AI opics wi h ipa i e ep esen a ion ha e included he
Dis up ion Council (2017), he Da a E hics Council (2019), he Sha ing Economy Council (2019),
and he Digi aliza ion Pa ne ship (2021).35 The Swedish go e nmen simila ly es ablished a i-
pa i e Digi aliza ion Commission in 2012, which was eplaced by a Digi aliza ion Council in 2017.
The Swedish p ime minis e es ablished an AI commission in 2023 wi h business, academic, me-
dia, and union ep esen a i es - wi h a ocus on ‘assu ing AI de elopmen ha os e s common
good’ and suppo ing social mobili y and eskilling.36 In bo h coun ies, unions and employe s
ha e also been in ol ed in consul a ions o e legisla ion ela ing o AI and digi aliza ion, includ-
ing he ecen AI Ac .
In Ge many, he go e nmen ’s AI S a egy was de eloped h ough expe bodies ha included
employe and labo union ep esen a i es, such as he Ge man Bundes ag’s 2018 Commission
‘A i icial In elligence – Social Responsibili y and Economic, Social and Ecological Po en ials’.
37
This
S a egy includes a go e nmen pledge ‘ o pu equal emphasis on he wo ke s’ and companies’
in e es s, highligh ing he impo ance o skills de elopmen , social secu i y, heal h and sa e y,
socie al pa icipa ion, and co-de e mina ion o he wo ke s in he ans o ma ion p ocess’.38 I
has been implemen ed h ough, o example, a 2019 Na ional Skills S a egy ha suppo s in-
es men in AI-speci ic skills; he Obse a o y o A i icial In elligence in he Wo ld o Wo k o
conduc esea ch and in o m policy; and he Ci ic Inno a ion Pla o m, which seeks o include
ep esen a i es om ci il socie y in AI applica ion de elopmen ‘ o social good’.39
Ge man unions ha e also been in ol ed in ipa i e ini ia i es ocused on ‘AI s anda diza ion’ o
‘de elop s anda ds o AI da a models, secu i y, c i icali y and quali y c i e ia’.40 A wo king g oup
on algo i hmic managemen (AM) was es ablished in 2023 by he Ge man Fede al Minis y o
Labo and Social A ai s (BMAS) and he me al wo ke s’ union IG Me all.41 This es ablished ou
32 Ponce Del Cas illo (2024), Ibid, p.33.
33 A digi al pla o m is a so wa e based in as uc u e ha allows use s o in e ac and conduc ansac ions o e he in e ne . Pla o m
wo k is ‘a o m o employmen in which o ganisa ions o indi iduals use an online pla o m o access o he o ganisa ions o indi idu-
als o sol e speci ic p oblems, o o p o ide speci ic se ices in exchange o paymen . ’ Eu opean Council (2025) EU ules on pla o m
wo k. h ps://www.consilium.eu opa.eu/en/policies/pla o m-wo k-eu/
34 Ilsøe, A., La sen, T. P., Ma hieu, C., & Rolandsson, B. (2024). Nego ia ing abou algo i hms: Social pa ne esponses o AI in Denma k
and Sweden. ILR Re iew, 77(5), 856-868.
35 Ilsøe e al. (2024) Ibid. p. 859.
36 Ilsøe e al. (2024) Ibid. p. 863. Fo he inal epo o he AI commission, see: Rege ingskanslie (2024) AI-kommissionens Fä dplan ö
S e ige h ps://www. ege ingen.se/ appo e /2024/11/ai-kommissionens- a dplan- o -s e ige/
37 K zywdzinski, M., Ge s , D., & Bu ollo, F. (2023). P omo ing human-cen ed AI in he wo kplace. T ade unions and hei s a egies o
egula ing he use o AI in Ge many. T ans e : Eu opean Re iew o Labou and Resea ch, 29(1), 53-70. Pp.59-60.
38 Özkizil an, D. (2024). Go e ning Engels’ pause: AI and he wo ld o wo k in Ge many. ILR Re iew, 77(5), 846-856. p.849.
39 Özkizil an, D. (2024). Ibid, p. 850.
40 K zywdzinski e al. (2023), Ibid, p. 60.
41 Wo schack, P., Bu ollo, F., & Hellbach, L. (2024). Algo i hmic managemen and democ acy a wo k in Ge many. Incoding Policy B ie ,
2024. h ps://ddd.uab.ca / eco d/290693

18 ILO Wo king Pape 144
main ac ion a eas: 1) in eg a ed AM sys em planning wi h wo ke pa icipa ion; 2) anspa ency
on da a and unc ion o AM sys ems; 3) building knowledge o assessing e ec s on wo k p o-
cesses and condi ions; and 4) knowledge-based change managemen wi h goal se ing, e al-
ua ion, and eedback.42 A pa icula ly no ewo hy legisla i e de elopmen was he 2021 Wo ks
Council Mode niza ion Ac , which in oduced AI-speci ic e isions o he ‘Wo ks Cons i u ion Ac ’
- he majo legisla ion egula ing wo ks councils’ pa icipa ion igh s a company and wo kplace
le el.43 New p o isions ex end wo ks councils’ consul a ion igh s on new echnologies o plans
o adop AI, and cla i y ha co-de e mina ion igh s o e selec ion guidelines o hi ing, ans e s
and e mina ions include si ua ions in which AI is used. Companies a e also equi ed o und an
expe (engaged by he wo ks council) o consul on p oposed changes o policies in ol ing AI.
In F ance, he 2022 F ench Digi al Council (CNNum) in ol ed consul a ion wi h labo unions, em-
ploye s, ci izens, and ep esen a i es om business, esea ch, and go e nmen .44 The commission
de eloped ‘ oadmaps’ in h ee a eas: comba ing online iolence, digi al ansi ions a wo k, and
digi al inclusion, wi h ecommended legisla ion in each a ea. The 2024 na ional AI Commission
included a ep esen a i e om he F ench Democ a ic Con ede a ion o Labo (CFDT). The com-
mission de eloped ecommenda ions ha included he ole o social dialogue in supe ising
digi al ans o ma ion a wo k, in es men s in aining, e alua ing algo i hms, and inc easing
en i onmen al anspa ency.45 T ipa i e dialogue in F ance is also impo an o ansla ing EU-
le el ag eemen s and di ec i es in o na ional law, h ough na ional in e p o essional ag eemen s
(ANI).46 Fo example, he Eu opean Ag eemen on Digi aliza ion could be implemen ed h ough
an ANI wi hin F ance.47
One in e es ing p ojec is he Social Dialogue on AI (DIAL-IA) ini ia i e, which aims o bo h aise
awa eness o and esou ces suppo ing social dialogue a company and wo kplace le els in
F ance.48 I is coo dina ed by he Ins i u e o Social and Economic Resea ch (IRES), a non-p o i o -
ganiza ion un by six labo unions, in collabo a ion wi h he Na ional Agency o he Imp o emen
o Wo king Condi ions (ANACT). On he union side, i is led by CFDT, CFE-CGC, FO-Cad es and
UGICT-CGT (la e joined by CFTC). DIAL-IA b ough oge he a ound 50 pa icipan s om unions,
employe s, and he public sec o o e 18 mon hs. The p ojec p oduced a join mani es o o
‘ echnological social dialogue49 and a pla o m wi h ools o implemen his dialogue, launched
in Janua y 2025.
42
A bei sg uppe 'Algo i hmisches Managemen ' (2023): A bei spapie : Da en und Gu e A bei – Algo i hmisches Managemen im Fokus
h ps://www.denk ab ik bmas.de/ ileadmin/Downloads/Publika ionen/ba ie e ei_BMAS_DF_Man el_Algo i hmis ches_Managemen .
pd
43 Özkizil an, D. (2024). Go e ning Engels’ pause: AI and he wo ld o wo k in Ge many. ILR Re iew, 77(5), 846-856.p.849. BMAS
(Bundesminis e ium ü A bei und Soziales) 2025.Be iebs ä emode nisie ungsgese z.
h ps://www.bmas.de/DE/Se ice/Gese ze-und-Gese zes o haben/be iebs ae emode nisie ungsgese z.h ml
44 Chagny, O., & Blanc, N. (2024) Social dialogue as a o m o bo om-up go e nance o AI: he expe ience in F ance. A i icial
In elligence, Labou and Socie y. A. Ponce del Cas illo (Ed.). ETUI. 197-205. h ps://www.e ui.o g/si es/de aul / iles/2024-03/A i icial%20
in elligence%2C%20labou %20and%20socie y_2024.pd #page=199 CNR Numé ique - Mé hode, enseignemen s e euilles de ou e.
h ps://cnnume ique. /annonce/cn -nume ique-me hode-enseignemen s-e - euilles-de- ou e
45 CFDT (2024) Commission de l'IA : Fai e des a ailleu s les ac eu s de ans o ma ions numé iques jus es e esponsables. h ps://
www.c d . /sin o me /communiques-de-p esse/commission-de-lia- ai e-des- a ailleu s-les-ac eu s-de- ans o ma ions-nume iques-
jus es-e - esponsables# . Commission de l’In elligence A i icielle (2024) IA: No e Ambi ion Pou La F ance. h ps://www.in o.gou .
/upload/media/con en /0001/09/4d3cc456dd2 5b9d79ee75 eea63b47 10d75158.pd
46 Na ional in e p o essional ag eemen s (ANI) a e ipa i e ag eemen s ha a e signed by he social pa ne s, and co e di e en a -
eas o employmen and social policy. Mos ANIs need o be ansposed in o legisla ion be o e hey can be implemen ed. F ench law
equi es he go e nmen o o ganize a dialogue p io o in oducing a bill o Pa liamen in ce ain a eas o e o m, al hough excep-
ions can be made o ‘u gen ci cums ances’. Vincen , C. (2019). F ance: The ush owa ds p io i ising he en e p ise le el. In Collec i e
Ba gaining in Eu ope: Towa ds an Endgame. T. Mülle , & J. Wadding on (Eds.). B ussels: Eu opean T ade Union Ins i u e. 217-238.
47 In e iew, F anca Salis-Manidie , CFDT, Janua y 13, 2025
48 DIAL IA Pla o m (2025) h p://dial-ia. /
49 DIAL-IA (2025) Pou un dialogue social au se ice des bons usages de l’IA e d’une nou elle é ape de p og ès social dans les en e-
p ises e les adminis a ions. h ps://www.ac uel- h. /si es/de aul / iles/a icle- iles/dialia_mani es e.pd
19 ILO Wo king Pape 144
In addi ion, Eu opean labo unions ha e been in ol ed in aming na ional legisla ion. In Spain, he
2021 Ride s Law (La Ley Ride ) was de eloped h ough a ipa i e ag eemen be ween he Wo ke s’
Commissions (CC.OO.) and he Gene al Union o Wo ke s (UGT) and he Spanish Con ede a ion o
Employe s’ O ganiza ions (CEOE) and he Spanish Con ede a ion o Small and Medium En e p ises
(CEPYME). I was pionee ing in ecognizing pla o m-based ood deli e y cou ie s (“ ide s”) as
employees a he han independen con ac o s (unde ce ain condi ions), and equi ing pla -
o ms o disclose in o ma ion o ide s on how algo i hms and AI a e used in hi ing decisions,
layo s, wo ke p o iles; and hei impac s on wo king condi ions – wi h equi emen s ha wo k-
e ep esen a i es a e in o med o he algo i hm’s ‘pa ame e s, ules, and ins uc ions’.50
T ipa i e nego ia ions ha las ed 5 mon hs in Spain also con ibu ed o e ising o he Wo ke s’
S a u e Law o inco po a e he igh o algo i hmic anspa ency, which equi es e e y ype o pla -
o m o in o m wo ks councils abou he inne wo kings o he algo i hm ‘ ha may a ec wo k-
ing condi ions, access o and main enance o employmen , including he c ea ion o p o iles.’51
In o he cases, na ional ag eemen s ha e es ablished key p inciples o guidelines o ba gaining
on digi aliza ion a lowe le els. In Spain, he 2023 Ag eemen o Employmen and Collec i e
Ba gaining, nego ia ed be ween he unions CC.OO. and UGT and he employe o ganiza ions
CEOE and CEPYME, includes equi emen s ha sec o and company ag eemen s es ablish p o-
cedu es o in o ming wo ke s o digi aliza ion p ojec s and hei impac s on employmen , skills,
and wo king condi ions. I also includes a sec ion on AI wi h clea equi emen s ha AI sys ems
‘ ollow he p inciple o human con ol’ and ha companies p o ide wo ke ep esen a i es wi h
‘ anspa en and unde s andable in o ma ion on p ocesses based on AI in human esou ces
p ocedu es (hi ing, e alua ion, p omo ion and dismissal) and ensu e ha he e is no p ejudice
o disc imina ion.’52
Ano he example he e is he Basic Ag eemen in No way, nego ia ed a he na ional le el be-
ween he Con ede a ion o No wegian En e p ise (NHO) and he No wegian Con ede a ion o
T ade Unions (LO). I includes p o isions o suppo wo ke p i acy, bias p e en ion, and wo ke
ep esen a i e in ol emen in decision-making associa ed wi h AI ools in he wo kplace.53 The
ag eemen also makes e e ence o na ional legisla ion, including he Wo king En i onmen Ac
(on he need o consul wi h shop s ewa ds on changes) and he Da a P i acy Ac (on he collec-
ion and s o age o pe sonal da a).
While he UK is no longe in he EU, much o i s legisla ion is o mally ha monized wi h EU
Di ec i es and Laws, including he UK GDPR. The T ades Union Cong ess (TUC) se up i s own
ask o ce and d a ed he ‘AI Regula ion and Employmen Righ s Bill’ in 2024, wi h he s a ed pu -
pose o egula e ‘ he use o a i icial in elligence sys ems by employe s in ela ion o wo ke s,
employees and jobseeke s o p o ec hei igh s and in e es s in he wo kplace’.54 I includes
p o isions suppo ing union igh s ega ding employe s’ use o AI sys ems and isk mi iga ion
associa ed wi h AI alue chains. A Special Ad iso y Commi ee p o ided inpu , including ep e-
sen a i es om uni e si ies, esea ch ins i u es, employe o ganiza ions, and labo unions, and
50 Eu o ound (2021), Ride s’ law(Ini ia i e), Reco d numbe 2449, Pla o m Economy Da abase, Dublin, h ps://apps.eu o ound.eu opa.
eu/pla o meconomydb/ ide s-law-105142.
51 Eu opean Agency o Sa e y and Heal h a Wo k. (2022). Spain: The ‘ ide s’ law’, new egula ion on digi al pla o m wo k. In OSHA
Eu opa. h ps://osha.eu opa.eu/si es/de aul / iles/2022-01/Spain_Ride s_Law_new_ egula ion_digi al_pla o m_wo k.pd
52 BOE-A-2023-12870 Resolución de 19 de mayo de 2023, de la Di ección Gene al de T abajo, po la que se egis a y publica el V
Acue do pa a el Empleo y la Negociación Colec i a. (2023). Minis y o Labo and Social Economy. h ps://www.boe.es/dia io_boe/
x .php?id=BOE-A-2023-12870
53 B unne o á e al. (2024), Ibid, p. 20.
54
TUC (2024) A i icial In elligence (Regula ion and Employmen Righ s) Bill. h ps://www. uc.o g.uk/ esea ch-analysis/ epo s/a i icial-
in elligence- egula ion-and-employmen - igh s-bill
20 ILO Wo king Pape 144
membe s o pa liamen . While he Bill was ne e o mally in oduced in pa liamen , i s aming
encou aged dialogue on hese opics, es ablishing a common union posi ion and leade ship.
In Wales, he ipa i e Wo k o ce Pa ne ship Council, a o um o public se ices wo k o ce
issues, eleased a se o p inciples o ‘managing he ansi ion o a digi al wo kplace’ – includ-
ing a ocus on p omo ing ‘a social pa ne ship app oach o he in ol emen , pa icipa ion and
consul a ion o ade unions’.55 Following he ecommenda ion o he Wo k o ce Pa ne ship
Council, he Welsh Go e nmen adop ed new guidelines on algo i hmic managemen and wo k-
e s igh s.56 The union con ede a ion TUC Cym u also wo ked in collabo a ion wi h he o gan-
iza ion Connec ed by Da a o de elop a oolki o empowe ing wo ke oice and public sec o
p ocu emen o da a and AI.57
1.2. No h Ame ica
T ipa i e social dialogue is less ins i u ionalized in No h Ame ica compa ed o in Eu ope. Howe e ,
he e a e many examples o union-led ini ia i es a na ional and egional o local (e.g. s a e, p o -
ince, ci y) le els, in which labo unions ha e sough o o mula e models and shape legisla ion on
AI and algo i hms. These a e o en o ganized in coali ion wi h o he ci il socie y o ganiza ions o
in consul a ion wi h employe s and poli icians o go e nmen ep esen a i es.
In he Uni ed S a es, social dialogue a he na ional le el in ol es lis ening sessions, mee -
ings wi h policy-make s, and lobbying o o ganizing e o s ocused on in luencing he con en
o speci ic policies o hei implemen a ion h ough agencies. In 2023, he Whi e House con-
duc ed a Lis ening Session wi h Union Leade s on Ad ancing Responsible A i icial In elligence
Inno a ion, which included ep esen a i es om he Ame ican Fede a ion o Labo - Cong ess
o Indus ial O ganiza ion (AFL-CIO) Tech Ins i u e, Ame ican Fede a ion o S a e, Coun y and
Municipal Employees (AFSCME), Ame ican Fede a ion o Teache s (AFT), Communica ions Wo ke s
o Ame ica (CWA), Sc een Ac o s Guild–Ame ican Fede a ion o Tele ision and Radio A is s (SAG-
AFTRA), In e na ional Alliance o Thea ical S age Employees (IATSE), In e na ional B o he hood
o Teams e s (IBT), Na ional Educa ion Associa ion (NEA), Uni ed Au o Wo ke s (UAW), Uni ed
Food and Comme cial Wo ke s In e na ional Union (UFCW), and W i e s Guild o Ame ica (WGA)
Eas .58 In 2023, Vice P esiden Ha is con ened a sepa a e mee ing o consume p o ec ion, la-
bo , and ci il igh s leade s o discuss AI-based isks.59 These cons i u ed in o mal consul a ions
wi h labo unions and ci il socie y o ganiza ions, in a con ex whe e unions, business leade s,
and echnology de elope s we e also p o iding w i en s a emen s and ad ice. Fo example, he
Whi e House O ice o Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) pu ou a Reques o In o ma ion
55 Wo k o ce Pa ne ship Council ag eemen : pa ne ship and managing change. 2 Decembe 2021.h ps://www.go .wales/wo k o ce-
pa ne ship-council-ag eemen -pa ne ship-and-managing-change-h ml
56 Welsh Go e nmen (2024) Managing echnology ha manages people: A Social Pa ne ship app oach o algo i hmic managemen
sys ems in he Welsh public sec o . h ps://www.go .wales/managing- echnology-manages-people
57 Can well-Co n, A. (2025) Toolki : Wo ke oice in public sec o p ocu emen o digi al and AI sys ems in Wales. Feb 12, 2025. h ps://
connec edbyda a.o g/ esou ces/wo ke - oice-p ocu emen -guidance-wales
58 The Whi e House (2023) Readou o Whi e House Lis ening Session wi h Union Leade s on Ad ancing Responsible A i icial In elligence
Inno a ion. July 3, 2023.
h ps://www.whi ehouse.go /b ie ing- oom/s a emen s- eleases/2023/07/03/ eadou -o -whi e-house-lis ening-session-wi h-union-
leade s-on-ad ancing- esponsible-a i icial-in elligence-inno a ion/
59 The Whi e House (2023) Readou o Vice P esiden Ha is’s Mee ing wi h Consume P o ec ion, Labo , and Ci il Righ s Leade s on AI,
July 13, 2023. h ps://www.whi ehouse.go /b ie ing- oom/s a emen s- eleases/2023/07/13/ eadou -o - ice-p esiden -ha iss-mee ing-
wi h-consume -p o ec ion-labo -and-ci il- igh s-leade s-on-ai/
21 ILO Wo king Pape 144
on Au oma ed Wo ke Su eillance and Managemen in May, 2023 – and unions esponded wi h
o mal commen s, in ended o in o m policy making in his a ea.60
Fo me US P esiden Biden issued a 2023 Execu i e O de (EO) on he Sa e, Secu e, and T us wo hy
De elopmen and Use o AI, which a i med he impo ance o social dialogue in AI adop ion and
deploymen : ‘as AI c ea es new jobs and indus ies, all wo ke s need a sea a he able, includ-
ing h ough collec i e ba gaining.’ Fede al agencies we e asked wi h de eloping p inciples and
bes p ac ices ha mi iga e wo ke ha ms and maximize wo ke bene i s.61 P esiden T ump e-
pealed his and issued a new Execu i e O de on Remo ing Ba ie s o Ame ican Leade ship in
A i icial In elligence, which di ec s Whi e House O icials o de elop an ac ion plan o ‘p omo e
human lou ishing, economic compe i i eness, and na ional secu i y’62. In Ap il 2025, he Whi e
House O ice o Managemen and Budge issued wo new memos aimed a p o iding gua d ails
conce ning how ede al agencies use and pu chase AI, which include isk managemen p ac ices
whe e sys ems a e deemed ‘high- isk’, wi h signi ican po en ial impac s.63
Unde he Biden Adminis a ion, ede al agencies, including he Na ional Labo Rela ions Boa d
(NLRB) and he Equal Employmen Oppo uni y Commission (EEOC) also issued AI-speci ic guid-
ance o opinions - o example, cla i ying labo law p o ec ions agains he use o su eillance
ools by employe s in union o ganizing campaigns, and he scope o liabili y by hi d-pa y AI
so wa e p o ide s unde an i-disc imina ion laws. Li win and Racabi obse e ha hese kinds o
ini ia i es can be o e u ned by he cou s, as well by a new adminis a ion.64 Indeed, hese agen-
cies had al eady escinded a numbe o policies a he ime o w i ing; o example, in Feb ua y
2025, he NLRB Ac ing Gene al Council escinded a leas 18 memo anda issued by his p edeces-
so , including one add essing he impac o elec onic moni o ing on employee igh s.65
Unlike Eu ope, he US does no ha e a ede al da a p i acy law; and almos all o he 20 s a e-le -
el da a p i acy laws explici ly exclude wo ke s.66 Howe e , unions ha e sough o encou age
s eng hened wo ke igh s in d a bills, wi h some success.
67
One example is he 2018 Cali o nia
Consume P o ec ion Ac (CCPA), which is unique in gi ing wo ke s igh s o in o ma ion, ac-
cess, and op ou s o employe da a collec ion policies, as well as p o ec ion om e alia ion
60 The epo no es ha 211 s akeholde s submi ed commen s, including ‘91 wo ke s, 19 ad ocacy o ganiza ions, 16 esea che s and
esea ch o ganiza ions, 12 unions, 10 ade associa ions, eigh echnology de elope s, one coali ion comp ised o ad ocacy o ganiza-
ions and a union, and 54 unspeci ied s akeholde s’. U.S. Go e nmen Accoun abili y O ice (2024) Digi al Su eillance o Wo ke s: Tools,
Uses, and S akeholde Pe spec i es. GAO-24-107639. GAO-24-107639, Digi al Su eillance o Wo ke s: Tools, Uses, and S akeholde
Pe spec i es
61 The Whi e House (2023) Execu i e O de on he Sa e, Secu e, and T us wo hy De elopmen and Use o A i icial In elligence, Oc obe 30,
2023. h ps://www.whi ehouse.go /b ie ing- oom/p esiden ial-ac ions/2023/10/30/execu i e-o de -on- he-sa e-secu e-and- us wo hy-
de elopmen -and-use-o -a i icial-in elligence/ Guidance o ede al agencies on bes p ac ices included ‘cen e ing wo ke empowe -
men ’ (wo ke s and hei ep esen a i es should be in o med o and ha e genuine inpu in he design, de elopmen , es ing, aining,
use, and o e sigh o AI sys ems o use in he wo kplace), e hically de eloping AI, es ablishing AI go e nance and human o e sigh ,
ensu ing anspa ency in AI use, p o ec ing labo and employmen igh s, using AI o enable wo ke s, suppo ing wo ke s impac -
ed by AI, and ensu ing esponsible use o wo ke da a. Sec ion 6 di ec ed he Sec e a y o Labo o collabo a e wi h labo unions o
c ea e bes p ac ices o employe use o AI, including add essing conce ns wi h job displacemen , p o ec ed ac i i y, and da a col-
lec ion anspa ency.
62
The Whi e House (2025) Remo ing Ba ie s o Ame ican Leade ship in A i icial In elligence. Janua y 23, 2025. h ps://www.whi ehouse.
go /p esiden ial-ac ions/2025/01/ emo ing-ba ie s- o-ame ican-leade ship-in-a i icial-in elligence/
63
Alde , M. (2025) T ump Whi e House eleases guidance o AI use, acquisi ion in go e nmen . FedScoop, Ap il 4, 2025. h ps:// edscoop.
com/ ump-whi e-house-ai-use-acquisi ion-guidance-go e nmen /
64 Li win, A. S., & Racabi, G. (2024). Va ie ies o AI Regula ions: The Uni ed S a es Pe spec i e. ILR Re iew, 77(5), 799-812. p.809.
65 S anek, T. M. and Z. V. Zagge (2025) NLRB Ac ing Gene al Council Rescinds Many o P edecesso ’s Memos, Se s S age o New
Labo Policy. The Na ional Law Re iew, Feb ua y 15, 2025. h ps://na law e iew.com/a icle/nl b-ac ing-gene al-counsel- escinds-many-
p edecesso s-memos-se s-s age-new-labo
66 Khan, M., A. Be nha d , L. Pa hak. (2024) Cu en Landscape o Tech and Wo k Policy: A Roundup o Key Concep s. h ps://labo cen e .
be keley.edu/ ech-and-wo k-policy-guide/
67
Kang, C. (2024) S a es ake up AI egula ion amid ede al s ands ill, New Yo k Times, June 10, 2024.h ps://www.ny imes.com/2024/06/10/
echnology/cali o nia-ai- egula ion.h ml
28 ILO Wo king Pape 144
1.5. A ica
In A ica, we we e no able o iden i y social dialogue examples ha di ec ly in ol ed labo un-
ions. Howe e , labo and employmen opics ha e been included in policies and s a egy docu-
men s. A he in e na ional le el, he A ican Union – made up o 55 membe s a es – published
a ‘Con inen al A i icial In elligence S a egy.117 This whi e pape men ions he need o iden i-
y and b idge egula o y gaps - including s anda ds o he public p ocu emen o AI sys ems,
and egula o y app o al o AI o use as medical de ices wi hin heal h sys ems. I also calls o
assessing AI’s implica ions o he A ican labo ma ke and impac on ulne able g oups, wi h
goals o a oiding exace ba ed socioeconomic inequali ies and o de eloping a na ional policy
o add ess labo ans o ma ions.
Se en A ican na ions (Benin, Egyp , Ghana, Mau i ius, Rwanda, Senegal, and Tunisia) ha e d a -
ed na ional AI s a egies.118 In hei analysis o egula ion o labo in AI in Eas and Sou he n
A ica, Bischo e al. a gue ha mos egula ion in he egion has ocused on he suppo and
de elopmen o AI-based indus y.119 A he same ime, hey gi e examples o na ional legisla-
ion p o iding consume and wo ke p o ec ions, including a Da a P o ec ion Ac in Bo swana,
e o s o limi ace-based c edi p o iling in Eswa ini, and legisla ion p omo ing anspa ency
in collec ion and use o indi idual da a in Namibia and Sou h A ica. In Sou h A ica, a new in-
dus y associa ion, he Sou h A ican A i icial In elligence Associa ion (SAAIA), b ings oge he
ep esen a i es om comme ce, go e nmen , NGOs, academia, and s a -ups - bu , as Bischo
e al. emphasize, labo unions a e no included. I discusses e hical conce ns in he a eas o p i-
acy and bias and seeks o encou age mo e esponsible AI p ac ices.
In Kenya, wi h he in oduc ion o he M-Pesa, a money ans e se ice, he e has been a boom
in he Fin ech sec o . This has also opened doo s o u he inno a ion and apid in as uc u al
de elopmen a ound he use o AI o add ess conce ns like ood secu i y, a o dable housing,
manu ac u ing, and a o dable heal h ca e.120 Kenya has also become a popula loca ion o
sou cing con en mode a ion and da a labelling.121 Kenya passed a Da a P o ec ion Ac in 2019,
add essing conce ns a ound da a subjec igh s, p i acy and da a minimiza ion.122
1.6. Summa y
Labo unions ha e been in ol ed in a ange o social dialogue ini ia i es o in luence policy o
de elop amewo k ag eemen s and p inciples on AI and algo i hms. Ou analysis abo e sug-
ges s wo b oad conclusions.
Fi s , union in ol emen in social dialogue a he na ional o in e na ional le els di e s signi -
ican ly ac oss coun ies and wo ld egions. Eu ope has he la ges numbe o well-documen -
ed examples o ipa i e commi ees and consul a ion bodies ocusing on AI and digi aliza ion
117
A ican Union (2024) Con inen al A i icial In elligence S a egy. h ps://au.in /en/documen s/20240809/con inen al-a i icial-in elligence-
s a egy
118 Okolo, C. T. (2024, Ma ch 15). Re o ming da a egula ion o ad ance AI go e nance in A ica. B ookings. h ps://www.b ookings.edu/
a icles/ e o ming-da a- egula ion- o-ad ance-ai-go e nance-in-a ica/
119 Bischo , C., Kamoche, K., & Wood, G. (2024). The Fo mal and In o mal Regula ion o Labo in AI: The Expe ience o Eas e n and
Sou he n A ica. ILR Re iew, 77(5), 825-835.
120 Mgala, M.. 2020. The ex en and use o A i icial In elligence o achie e he Big Fou Agenda in Kenya. Mul idisciplina y Jou nal o
Technical Uni e si y o Mombasa 1(1):1–7
121 G aham, M., I. Hjo h, & V. Lehdon i a. 2017. Digi al labo and de elopmen : Impac s o global digi al labo pla o ms and he gig
economy on wo ke li elihoods. T ans e : Eu opean Re iew o Labo and Resea ch 23(2):135–62.
122 Ma y Kageni and Y onne Odhiambo. S eng hening da a p o ec ion in Kenya: Oppo uni ies and he way o wa d – KIPPRA. (n.d.).
Re ie ed Janua y 14, 2025, om h ps://kipp a.o .ke/s eng hening-da a-p o ec ion-in-kenya-oppo uni ies-and- he-way- o wa d/

29 ILO Wo king Pape 144
opics, and o amewo k ag eemen s signed be ween employe s and unions on hese issues.
The ag eemen s o ecommenda ions o hese bodies ha e ed di ec ly in o laws and policies a
EU-le el and wi hin EU membe s a es. Sou h Ko ea is ano he case whe e he e has been mo e
o mal, na ional-le el social dialogue ha has had di ec in luence on policies add essing AI, dig-
i aliza ion, and pla o m wo k.
Howe e , social dialogue also akes a ange o o ms ha can be di icul o compa e ac oss
coun ies. Labo unions a e in ol ed in shaping AI policy and s anda d-se ing h ough mo e in-
o mal in o ma ion sha ing, consul a ion p ocesses, and s akeholde mee ings. They also in lu-
ence policy h ough lobbying and campaigning e o s ha de elop model language o bills o
egula ions and ha seek o mobilize membe s and he public in suppo o mo e labo - iendly
p o isions. In he US, o example, unions ha e wo ked in coali ion wi h o he g oups o in lu-
ence execu i e o de s and legisla ion a s a e and local le els ha s eng hen da a p o ec ion
and go e nmen p ocu emen policies ela ing o AI ools. Thus, an analysis o policies s eng h-
ening labo igh s o es ablishing e hical p inciples can also p o ide compa a i e insigh in o he
‘collec i e oice’ o in luence o labo unions.
Se e al o ou coun y cases, including India, he Dominican Republic, and Kenya, s and ou o
no ye ha ing na ional AI o da a p o ec ion policies ha add ess labo and employmen con-
ce ns. Howe e , he e ha e been e o s in hese coun ies by labo o ganiza ions and NGOs
o use le e age om exis ing laws o s eng hen o ex end employmen p o ec ions o new o
poo ly p o ec ed wo ke g oups. Many o hese ocus on he BPO indus y, which includes bo h
adi ional call cen e and back o ice wo ke s and newe da a labelling and con en mode a ion
wo ke s - wi h bo h g oups o en subjec ed o algo i hmic su eillance.
Second, we ind some deg ee o c oss-na ional con e gence on common p inciples widely held o
be ‘bes p ac ices’ o he e hical de elopmen and deploymen o AI. These a e epea ed ac oss
amewo k ag eemen s, policy s a emen s, and execu i e o de s. Thei posi ions, summa ized
below, can be o ganized unde he h ee main hemes in ou epo :
1. F om labo eplacing o complemen ing: AI should con ibu e o enhancing and comple-
men ing wo ke skills, and wo ke s should ha e disc e ion o e how hey use hese ools in
hei jobs and wo kplaces. Employe s should in es in digi al skills while secu ing employmen
o sha ing p oduc i i y gains wi h wo ke s. As s a ed succinc ly in a epo by he Ge man T ade
Union Con ede a ion (DGB): ‘The ocus mus be on expanding human capabili ies h ough
AI, and no eplacing people wi h machines.’123 Laws and policies encou aging employe s o
adop AI-based ools in a way ha is ‘labo complemen ing’ include hose ha :
●s eng hen employmen o job secu i y
●in es in aining and digi al skills
●include clea ules conce ning uses o gene a i e AI o ep oduce a , w i ing, oice, o
images ha p o ec copy igh and anspa ency, and ha ensu e ai compensa ion o
c ea o s.
2. F om labo con olling o empowe ing: AI should be adop ed based on a ‘human-in-com-
mand’ app oach, wi h human decision-make s ha ing o e sigh on how algo i hm-based
123 DGB (2019) Küns liche In elligenz und die A bei on mo gen: Ein Impulspapie des Deu schen Gewe kscha sbundes zu Deba e
um Küns liche In elligenz (KI) in de A bei swel . Ci ed in:Özkizil an, D. (2024) Ibid, p.851.
30 ILO Wo king Pape 144
managemen ools a e adop ed and used. Wo ke s should ha e ecou se o con es deci-
sions made by algo i hms ha a ec hei wo k and employmen , pa icula ly whe e hese
decisions may be biased o based on opaque models. Wo ke s should ha e igh s o pe sonal
da a p o ec ion, and o heal h and sa e y sa egua ds ha include p o ec ions agains psycho-
social isks.124 Human digni y should be espec ed. Laws and policies encou aging employe s
o adop AI-based ools in a way ha is ‘labo empowe ing’ include hose ha :
● equi e human o e sigh o AI-based decisions
●p ohibi uses o AI ools wi h signi ican isks o bias o psychosocial ha m
●s eng hen da a p o ec ion igh s
●de elop AI-speci ic heal h and sa e y guidelines and p o ec ions
3.
F om labo displacing o embedding: AI-based echnologies, including algo i hmic manage-
men ools, should no be used by i ms o expand wo ke p eca i y and unde mine job qual-
i y h ough in ensi ied subcon ac ing, eloca ion o jobs, o casualized con ac s. AI- ela ed
labo in AI and digi al alue chains should be e hically sou ced, and wo ke s should be p o-
ec ed om exploi a i e condi ions. Laws and policies ha encou age he social ‘embedding’
o AI-enabled issu ed labo include hose ha :
●ex end employmen igh s and p o ec ions o subcon ac ed and empo a y wo ke s
●s eng hen egula ion o global AI and digi al alue chains
●
suppo union o ganizing and ba gaining igh s o da a and con en mode a ion wo ke s
Mos undamen ally, whe e labo unions a e in ol ed in social dialogue, hey ha e sough o sup-
po p o isions in policies and amewo k ag eemen s ha es ablish wo ke ep esen a i es’ in-
o ma ion, consul a ion, and ba gaining igh s, conce ning how AI is being used and i s e ec s
on wo k and wo ke s. This includes he abili y o ca y ou isk assessmen s, bu also o ha e a
subs an i e oice in decisions conce ning how hese echnologies a e used in he wo kplace. A
union ep esen a i e in ol ed in a na ional social dialogue body explained ha e en whe e un-
ions play mo e o a consul a ion ole, hei impac can be signi ican : ‘I is impo an when you
a e in such a commission o b ing you poin o iew, because o he wise i could be a dead issue,
nobody would be alking abou social dialogue.’125
In he ollowing sec ion, we ask o wha ex en and in wha ways wo ke ep esen a i es ha e
been able o le e age di e en laws, policies, and amewo k o collec i e ag eemen s o nego-
ia e o consul o e speci ic uses o AI and algo i hms. How is social dialogue a he wo kplace,
i m, and sec o le el being adap ed o he new challenges o AI?
124 Wo k- ela ed psychosocial isks o haza ds a e de ined as ‘ ac o s in he wo k en i onmen ha can cause s ess, s ain, o in e pe -
sonal p oblems o he wo ke ’ and a e a majo con ibu o o wo kplace inju y and disabili y. Schul e, P. e al. (2024) An u gen call
o add ess wo k‐ ela ed psychosocial haza ds and imp o e wo ke well‐being. Ame ican Jou nal o Indus ial Medicine, 67(6), 499-514.
125 In e iew, F anca Salis-Manidie , CFDT, Janua y 13, 2025.
31 ILO Wo king Pape 144
X2 Sec o al, company, and wo kplace social dialogue
Labo unions ha e sough o use social dialogue a he sec o al, company, and wo kplace le els
o in luence how companies use AI and algo i hm-based echnologies, as well as he impac s o
hese echnologies on wo ke s and wo king condi ions. In his sec ion, we o ganize ou discus-
sion a ound ou h ee hemes – i s , social dialogue o e he employmen and skill impac s o
AI ( om labo eplacing o complemen ing); second, social dialogue o e algo i hmic manage-
men ( om labo con olling o empowe ing); and hi d, social dialogue o e wo k loca ion, em-
ploymen s a us, and alue chain moni o ing ( om labo displacing o embedding). Some col-
lec i e ag eemen s c oss-cu hese h ee ca ego ies, and so a e discussed in mul iple sec ions.
2.1. Social dialogue o e employmen and skill impac s o AI:
om labo eplacing o labo complemen ing
Labo unions a ound he wo ld a e esponding o he po en ial h ea o jobs associa ed wi h
AI-based au oma ion wi h job and loca ion secu i y ag eemen s, es ic ions on pe mi ed uses
o AI, and ules conce ning owne ship o and con ol o e c ea i e wo k and images. They also
suppo ins i u ions ha p omo e skill upg ading and adap a ion, and ha enhance wo ke con-
ol o e how hey apply hei skills when using AI-based ools in hei jobs. These e o s seek
o encou age employe s o use AI in ways ha complemen and upskill a he han eplace and
deskill wo k.
The backd op o hese e o s is he po en ial o algo i hm and AI-based ools o suppo sig-
ni ican changes in wo k o ganiza ion, skills, and p oduc i i y. In manu ac u ing, AI-enabled o-
bo s and sma machines associa ed wi h ‘Indus y 4.0’ enable new e iciency and p oduc i i y
gains on he shop loo . In se ices, obo ic p ocess au oma ion, speech analy ics, and gene a-
i e AI-enabled digi al assis an s pe mi au oma ion o an inc easingly b oad ange o back- and
on -o ice asks, om call cen e s o HR, ma ke ing, accoun ing, and e en coding o ad anced
diagnos ic wo k. The mos con o e sial impac s a e being seen in c ea i e indus ies and occu-
pa ions, as gene a i e AI ools om Cha GPT o Dall-E a e being applied o au oma e aspec s o
c ea i e w i ing, ansla ion, isual a , modeling, and ac ing.
A la ge body o esea ch, much o i in economics, has es ablished he po en ial employmen
isks associa ed wi h he accele a ing adop ion o AI. O iginally, he e m ‘ ask-biased echno-
logical change’ e e ed o he po en ial o au oma ing asks lacking c ea i e and social in elli-
gence, as well as asks ha equi e manual manipula ion–wi h esea che s deba ing he po en-
ial numbe o jobs a isk o au oma ion.126 Howe e , ollowing ecen ad ances in gene a i e AI,
non ou ine asks in high skilled jobs a e also seen o be a isk o au oma ion, om p o ession-
al se ices such as accoun ing, law, heal h ca e, and ansla ion o jou nalism and a .127 While
his sugges s a g im u u e cha ac e ized by mass echnologically-induced unemploymen , he
ways in which i ms use hese ools is a ma e o s a egic choice. AI can also be used in ways
126 F ey, C. B., & Osbo ne, M. A. (2017). The u u e o employmen : How suscep ible a e jobs o compu e isa ion? Technological o ecas -
ing and social change, 114, 254-280.
127 Susskind, D. (2020). A wo ld wi hou wo k: Technology, au oma ion and how we should espond. Penguin UK. Eloundou, T., Manning,
S., Mishkin, P., & Rock, D. (2023). GPTs a e GPTs: An ea ly look a he labo ma ke impac po en ial o la ge language models. a Xi
p ep in a Xi :2303.10130.
32 ILO Wo king Pape 144
ha ‘augmen ’ labo and complemen skills - o example, h ough emphasizing wo ke choice
in using ools o imp o e he quali y o se ices, o es uc u ing p oduc ion in a way ha c e-
a es new, high-p oduc i i y asks.128
Economis s Acemoglu and Res epo obse ed in 2019 ha co po a e deploymen o AI in he
US was biased owa ds au oma ion applica ions ocused on sho - e m cos sa ings, gene a ing
isks o inc easing unemploymen and inequali y as well as s agna ing p oduc i i y.129 They also
encou aged o ganiza ions and policymake s o ake a di e en pa h - o cap u e he p omise o
he ‘ igh ’ kind o AI associa ed wi h imp o ed economic and social ou comes.
A key ques ion hese ends aise is how social dialogue can bes be deployed o encou age
i ms o adop AI-based ools in a way ha complemen s human c ea i i y and inno a ion–o o
pu sue longe - e m, p oduc i i y enhancing s a egies ha p oduce mu ual gains o wo ke s,
i ms, and socie ies a he han d i ing up unemploymen .130 An OECD su ey examined he ole
o social pa ne s and social dialogue in in e ac ing wi h a i icial in elligence.
131
I assessed social
pa ne s’ awa eness o wha AI en ails, hei assessmen s o he isks and bene i s ela ing o AI
adop ion in labou ma ke s and wo kplaces, and hei esponses o AI adop ion. Resul s showed
ha employe associa ions we e mos ly in e es ed in skill enhancemen and p oduc i i y gains,
while labo unions ocused on high job quali y and us wo hy usage. This sugges s ha social
dialogue can play an impo an ole in b idging hese goals, which oge he can be he basis o
mo e b oadly sha ed social gains om AI in es men s.
Ou case s udy indings indica e ha success ul e o s by labo unions in he a eas o employ-
men and skills o en build on exis ing ins i u ional p o ec ions h ough laws, policies, and col-
lec i e ag eemen s. We also see c ea i e new ag eemen s and o ganizing e o s ha mobilize
wo ke s o win AI-speci ic ules. These seek o s eng hen cons ain s on o disincen i es o em-
ploye s o use new echnologies o ‘exi ’ employmen ela ionships wi h hei wo k o ce h ough
downsizing, ou sou cing, o deskilling jobs. They also o en d aw on, while also u he de elop-
ing suppo o , collec i e wo ke oice in how AI- and algo i hm-based ools a e used in di e -
en jobs and p o essions.
2.1.1. Eu ope
In No dic coun ies, many union-led social dialogue ini ia i es on employmen and skills aspec s
o echnological change ha e ocused on he sec o al le el. This may be a ibu ed o hei adi-
ions o olun a is , mul i-le el ba gaining wi h local ba gaining powe suppo ed h ough high
union densi y and ba gaining co e age. The No dic coun ies a e also ‘some o he mos digi al-
ized socie ies in he wo ld’, and hei companies ha e o en been ea ly adop e s o AI echnolo-
gies.132 In gene al, No dic labo unions ha e ocused on s eng hening in es men s in skills while
ensu ing wo ke pa icipa ion in decision-making ela ed o employmen adjus men s. In Sweden,
join ini ia i es and ag eemen s ac oss sec o s ha e o en ocused on ensu ing he expansion o
128 Zysman, J., & Ni zbe g, M. (2024). Gene a i e AI and he Fu u e o Wo k: Augmen a ion o Au oma ion?. A ailable a SSRN 4811728.
Johnson, S., & Acemoglu, D. (2023). Powe and p og ess: Ou housand-yea s uggle o e echnology and p ospe i y. Hache e UK.
129 Acemoglu, D. & P. Res epo (2019) ‘The W ong Kind o AI? A i icial In elligence and he Fu u e o Labo Demand’ NBER Wo king Pape
25682, Ma ch 2019, h ps://www.nbe .o g/pape s/w25682.
130 McElhe an, K., Li, J. F., B ynjol sson, E., K o , Z., Dinle soz, E., Fos e , L., & Zolas, N. (2024). AI adop ion in Ame ica: Who, wha , and
whe e. Jou nal o Economics & Managemen S a egy, 33(2), 375-415.
131 OECD (2023) OECD Employmen Ou look 2023. Chap e 7. h ps://www.oecd.o g/en/publica ions/oecd-employmen -ou look-
2023_08785bba-en.h ml
132 Ilsøe, A., La sen, T. P., Ma hieu, C., & Rolandsson, B. (2024). Nego ia ing abou algo i hms: Social pa ne esponses o AI in Denma k
and Sweden. ILR Re iew, 77(5), 856-868.
33 ILO Wo king Pape 144
high quali y jobs o eplace hose los h ough au oma ion h ough indus ial policy, as well as
suppo ing li e-long lea ning oppo uni ies o p epa e wo ke s o changing skill demands.133 In
Finland, a collec i e ag eemen o sala ied ICT employees (2023-2025) es ablished a wo king
g oup o examine AI’s implica ions o employmen condi ions and wo ke oles. In No way, a
2017 collec i e ag eemen in he go e nmen sec o included a commi men o social dialogue
and wo ke pa icipa ion o digi alize public se ices in a mo e inclusi e way. Speci ic e e ence
was made o join commi ees ocused on digi aliza ion o digi al agen s.134 And in Denma k,
he 2023 ag eemen s co e ing c ea i e indus ies included a commi men by unions and he
employe associa ion o discuss he po en ial impac s o AI, and o assess adjus men s needed
in esponse.135
Ge many has he la ges numbe o , and bes documen ed o s udied, collec i e ag eemen s
ha add ess AI’s employmen and skill impac s. Ge man labo unions and wo ks councils a e
suppo ed in hese e o s by s ong job secu i y igh s a na ional le el and in collec i e ag ee-
men s; as well as by ecen e isions o he Wo ks Cons i u ion Ac (discussed in Sec ion 2.1) ha
ex ended wo ks councils’ in o ma ion, consul a ion, and co-de e mina ion igh s on new ech-
nologies and hei employmen impac s o plans o adop AI.
A numbe o ea ly ag eemen s on digi aliza ion esul ed om a p ojec dubbed ‘A bei 2020’, o -
ganized join ly by he Indus ial Union o Me alwo ke s (IG Me all), he Mining, Chemicals, and
Ene gy Indus ies Union (IGBEC), and he Food, Be e ages, and Ca e ing Union (NGG).136 They
i s s udied he change p ocess associa ed wi h Indus y 4.0 in 28 selec ed plan s, oge he wi h
ou side consul an s, wi h he goal o unde s anding digi al change and concluding ag eemen s
on how o join ly in luence ha change. This p ojec esul ed in 13 ini ial ag eemen s, all o which
included p o isions s eng hening plan -le el skills de elopmen .
One p ominen manu ac u ing example is a amewo k ag eemen o implemen a ion o Indus y
4.0 p ojec s a Ai bus, which es ablished a p ocess o wo ks councils o pa icipa e in s a e-
gy-building, ules o in oducing new echnologies, and guidelines o aining wo ke s engag-
ing wi h hose echnologies.137 Manage s p oduce p ojec p o iles desc ibing he p ocess and
impac s o new echnology in oduc ion on employmen and wo k p ocesses, and a join manage-
men -wo ks council s ee ing commi ee join ly decides on he p ocess o echnology in oduc ion.
Se e al ag eemen s in se ice i ms also add ess employmen and skills impac s o new echnol-
ogies. An ag eemen om 2018 be ween Deu sche Bahn and he Railway and T anspo Union
(EVG) es ablishes a p ocess o wo ke pa icipa ion in decisions associa ed wi h he planning,
de elopmen , o in oduc ion o new digi al ools.138 The ag eemen includes p o isions commi -
ing he employe o conduc an assessmen o how digi al inno a ion will a ec employmen
and wo ke p o ec ion.139
133 Email communica ion, Vic o Be nha d z, Unionen, Janua y 21, 2025.
134 Voss and Be ossa (2022), Ibid, p.7.
135 Ilsøe e al. (2024) Ibid. p. 861.
136 Bosch, G. and J. Schmi z-Kießle (2020). Shaping Indus y 4.0–an expe imen al app oach de eloped by Ge man ade unions. T ans e :
Eu opean e iew o labou and esea ch, 26(2), 189-206.
137 Ha becke, T. and G. Mühge (2020) Digi alisie ungss a egien im Po ai . 34, Mi bes immungsp axis. Düsseldo : Hans Böckle
Founda ion. K zywdzinski, Ma in, De le Ge s , and Flo ian Bu ollo. (2023) P omo ing human-cen ed AI in he wo kplace. T ade un-
ions and hei s a egies o egula ing he use o AI in Ge many. T ans e : Eu opean Re iew o Labou and Resea ch 29(1): 53-70.
138 Voss, E., & Be ossa, D. (2022). Collec i e Ba gaining and Digi aliza ion: A Global Su ey o Union Use o Collec i e Ba gaining o
Inc ease Wo ke Con ol o e Digi aliza ion. New England Jou nal o Public Policy, 34(1), 10. p.8.
139 Ta i e ag zu Zukun de A bei im Rahmen de Digi alisie ung im DB-Konze n. h ps://www.e g-online.o g/ ileadmin/Ta i /
Ta i e aege/Ta i e aege_DB_Konze n/TV_A bei _4.0_EVG_2018_in e ne .pd

34 ILO Wo king Pape 144
A he clo hing e aile H&M Ge many, he Uni ed Se ices Union ( e .di) nego ia ed an ag ee-
men , which add esses declining wo ke commissions due o online sales and po en ial down-
sizing o deskilling due o he in oduc ion o new digi al ools in s o es.140 S o e wo ke s ecei e
new bonuses, aining in es men s, and dismissal o demo ion p o ec ions–including a gua an-
ee ha empo a y wo ke s will no eplace pe manen employees. The ag eemen also es ab-
lishes a digi aliza ion ad iso y boa d made up o union and managemen ep esen a i es, which
collec s wo ke eedback, ad ances p oposals ela ing o echnology impac s on wo k, and ex-
ends wo ks council pa icipa ion igh s on digi aliza ion.
In addi ion, in Feb ua y 2025, e .di and he Ge man ac o s’ union (BFFS) nego ia ed an ag ee-
men wi h he Ge man ilm p oduce s’ associa ion (P oduk ionsallianz) on he use o gene a i e
AI (GAI) in ilm p oduc ion. I includes p o isions equi ing ac o consen o he use o digi al
eplicas, anspa ency conce ning how GAI is used on an ac o ’s pe o mance, ai compensa ion
o AI-gene a ed scenes, and es ic ions limi ing he use o AI-gene a ed eplicas o he p ojec
hey we e c ea ed o .141 This ag eemen will be used as a s a ing poin o nego ia ions con-
ce ning GAI impac s on ilm c ews, wi h a join s udy on his impac cu en ly commissioned.142
Deu sche Telekom has among he mos comp ehensi e ag eemen s es ablishing job secu i y
and upskilling connec ed o digi aliza ion and AI (See also case s udy 2).143 A 2010 ag eemen
s a es ha au oma ion should i s be used o educe subcon ac ing, while commi ing he em-
ploye o ain in e nal employees a ec ed by au oma ion o new jobs. In he mid-2010s, he
wo ks council o ganized an 8-mon h p ojec o analyze he impac o new digi al, algo i hm, and
AI-enabled ools on wo ke skills, jobs, and pe o mance. Based on indings, a se ies o ag ee-
men s was nego ia ed, es ablishing a p ocess o ongoing consul a ion and nego ia ion o e new
echnologies and hei wo k o ce impac s. Managemen commi ed o d awing up a ‘digi- oad
map’ laying ou digi aliza ion measu es planned o he nex ew yea s, and hen discussing wi h
he wo ks council he impac s o hese measu es on employmen numbe s, se ice quali y, and
wo k con en . This eeds in o s a egic planning on new ag eemen s o speci ic echnologies.
Deu sche Telekom’s ag eemen s ga e wo ke s a baseline o job secu i y o encou age join la-
bo -managemen e o s on AI adop ion and deploymen , which ocused on imp o ing se ice
quali y and p oduc i i y h ough in es men s in wo ke skills.144
A ecen p o isional wo ks ag eemen a he insu ance p o ide P o inzial is dis inc i e in includ-
ing speci ic guidelines on he use o gene a i e AI, speci ically Cha GPT, o se ice employees.
145
These include equi emen s ha he ool should be used o acili a e wo k, no o ‘disman le em-
ploymen ’, ha machine-gene a ed con en should be ma ked as ‘gene a ed by P o inzial Cha
GPT’ un il i has been checked and changed by a esponsible human, and ha only he use s o
he AI ool can access hei own cha his o ies. The ag eemen also s a es ha he model es
‘is also in ended o gain expe ience wi h how he use o gene a i e AI sys ems a ec s aining
needs, employmen , and he alue and skill le el (o deskilling) om he pe spec i e o use s
and hose a ec ed.’ The ag eemen was he basis o a pa ne ship be ween he wo ks council
140
UNI Global Union. (2022) H&M Wo ke s P o ec ed Unde Fi s Digi aliza ion Ag eemen wi h e .di. h ps://uniglobalunion.o g/news/
hm-wo ke s-p o ec ed-unde - i s -digi aliza ion-ag eemen -wi h- e -di/
141
Ve .di (2025) E s e Ta i abschluss zum Umgang mi KI in de Film- und Fe nsehp oduc ion. Feb ua y 10, 2025. h ps:// ilmunion. e di.
de/und-ac ion/nach ich en/++co++0a0e1 88-e78 -11e -81ee- 5ae95 e3e8
142 UNI Global Union (2025) Fi s collec i e ag eemen on he use o AI in ilm and TV p oduc ion in Ge many, Ma ch 14, 2025. h ps://
uniglobalunion.o g/news/ i s -collec i e-ag eemen -on- he-use-o -ai-in- ilm-and- -p oduc ion-in-ge many/
143 Doellgas , V., and T. Kämp (2023) Co-de e mina ion mee s he digi al economy: wo ks councils in he Ge man ICT se ices indus-
y. En ep ises e his oi e 4: 32-43. Haipe e , T., M. Wannö el, J-T Daus, and S. Scha a czik (2024) Human-cen e ed AI h ough employ-
ee pa icipa ion. F on ie s in A i icial In elligence. 7
144 Mul iple in e iews, wo ks councilo and managemen ep esen a i es, 2021-2024.
145 Wo ks Ag eemen ‘P o inzial GPT Cha ’.
35 ILO Wo king Pape 144
and managemen . The goals o his pa ne ship included de eloping use cases whe e AI could
imp o e p oduc i i y and quali y, and sha ing bes p ac ices mo e b oadly ac oss he o ganiza-
ion; bu unde he con ol o he P o inzial wo ke s. As wi h Deu sche Telekom, an impo an
s a ing poin was a job secu i y ag eemen .146
Al hough we we e able o ind he la ges numbe o examples o company- and wo kplace-le -
el ag eemen s ocusing on employmen and skills aspec s o AI and digi aliza ion in Ge many,
hese do no ep esen a uni e sal p ac ice. IG Me all conduc ed a su ey in 2019 showing ha
a mino i y o wo ks councils in he Ge man me al sec o we e in ol ed in digi aliza ion p o-
jec s a an ea ly s age.147 A mo e ecen 2023 su ey o 385 manage s and 224 wo ks councilo s
ound widesp ead adop ion o AI ools among su eyed companies, wi h he main goals o au-
oma e wo k and inc ease e iciency.148 Su ey esul s sugges ed di ided labo ela ions expe i-
ences, wi h hal o su eyed companies and wo ks councils epo ing coope a i e ela ionships
on AI, and he o he hal desc ibing con lic ual co-de e mina ion. Consis en wi h he indings
om he case s udies discussed abo e, mo e coope a i e co-de e mina ion on AI was associa -
ed wi h g ea e employee in ol emen in AI adop ion and highe accep ance o AI echnologies
among he wo k o ce.
O he Eu opean coun ies ha e weake pa icipa ion igh s on echnologies bu also o e all
s ong ins i u ional p o ec ions o job secu i y, which can be a ool in social dialogue o e ech-
nology- ela ed es uc u ing. In F ance, he in oduc ion o AI has o en in ol ed con lic , due in
pa o he lack o cla i y conce ning he ole and igh s o unions and wo ks councils o consul
on hese echnologies. In one example, he F ench public employmen se ice (F ance T a ail–
o me ly Pôle Emploi), sough o in oduce an AI-based ool o answe emails mo e quickly.149
Chagny and Blanc desc ibe how only one ou o se en unions o ed on he ini ia i e, bu i also
demanded a s udy o he impac on employmen , wo king condi ions, and se ice. The union
also called o an e hical cha e , which was e en ually adop ed h ee yea s a e managemen
announced he AI p ojec .
O he F ench employe s ha e add essed conce ns wi h AI use h ough simila ‘e hical cha e s’.
The elecom p o ide O ange F ance es ablished a Da a and E hics Council, composed o aca-
demics and chai ed by O ange’s Chie Technology O ice , which d ew up an E hical Cha e in
2022 es ablishing p inciples ha include espec ing human au onomy, ope a ing unde human
supe ision, and espec ing equali y, di e si y, and p i acy.150 In 2024, he Le Monde g oup adop -
ed an e hical cha e on he use o AI by i s news ooms, which s a es ha AI canno eplace hu-
mans in jou nalis ic p oduc ion, gene a i e AI can only be used o assis edi o ial p oduc ion ‘un-
de s ic ly de ined condi ions’, and gene a i e AI use o c ea e images is p ohibi ed.151 Howe e ,
bo h o hese appea o be unila e al ini ia i es ha did no di ec ly in ol e labo unions.
Recen de elopmen s sugges he po en ial o s eng hened social dialogue o e AI a com-
pany le el in F ance. A 2022 cou decision held ha ‘companies should accep ha wo ke s’
146 In e iew, P o inzial Wo ks Councilo , Oc obe 2, 2024
147 Ge s , D. (2020). Geschä smodelle mi en wickeln– ein neues Handlungs eld de Be iebs ä e. WSI-Mi eilungen 73, 295–299. doi:
10.5771/0342-300X-2020-4-295
148 K zywdzinski, M. (2024) Zwei Wel en de KI in de A bei swel Wie Managemen und Be iebs ä e die Ein üh ung und Nu zung on
KI-Anwendungen ges al en. Weizenbaum Discussion Pape #39, June 2024. h ps://www.weizenbaum-lib a y.de/se e /api/co e/
bi s eams/dd69 1ed-98ce-4b64-a996-d44521919ba3/con en
149 Chagny and Blanc (2024), ibid, p.198
150 O ange (2022) O ange adop s a Da a and A i icial In elligence E hical Cha e . No embe 15, 2022. h ps://news oom.o ange.com/
o ange-adop s-a-da a-and-a i icial-in elligence-code-o -e hics/
151 an Ko e, G. (2024) Le Monde adop s a cha e on a i icial in elligence. Le Monde, Ma ch 13, 2024.h ps://www.lemonde. /en/abou -
us/a icle/2024/03/13/le-monde-adop s-a-cha e -on-a i icial-in elligence_6615286_115.h ml
36 ILO Wo king Pape 144
ep esen a i es ( he social and economic commi ee [i.e. wo ks council]) mus be consul ed and
ha e ecou se o an expe when new echnology (in his case an AI sys em) is in oduced, e en
i i has no iden i ied impac on wo king condi ions’ based on exis ing labo code p o isions.152
Se e al sec o al ag eemen s in o he Eu opean coun ies ocus on skill and employmen opics.
In Belgium, social pa ne s in he comme ce sec o ag eed on a ‘Memo andum o a Sus ainable
and Compe i i e Re ail Sec o ’ in 2024.153 The documen s esses he impo ance o social dia-
logue o suppo e-comme ce and wo k o ganiza ion conce ns, and includes se en ‘s a egic axes’
o policy - including aining in digi al skills and gua an eeing a le el playing ield. The I alian
Banking Associa ion (ABI) collec i e ag eemen c ea ed a join commi ee o moni o he impac s
o digi aliza ion, ocusing on wo k eo ganiza ion and new oles.
Finally, wo ke ep esen a i es a e beginning o add ess employmen conce ns a in e na ional
le el connec ed wi h digi aliza ion. The Spanish mul ina ional e ail i m Indi ex – amous o i s
Za a clo hing b and – ag eed a ‘S a egic Digi al T ans o ma ion Plan’ wi h i s Eu opean wo ks
council154 in 2020.155 This included commi men s o ‘main ain a s able s a ’ du ing es uc u ing
h ough digi aliza ion and online in eg a ion, wi h a p ocess launched wi h labo unions o e-
loca e and e ain employees.
2.1.2. No h Ame ica
Eu opean labo unions ha e mobilized hei compa a i ely s ong ba gaining and job secu i y
igh s o encou age employe s o commi o in es men s in aining and o limi s on op-down
employmen es uc u ing associa ed wi h AI echnologies. Howe e , Uni ed S a es unions ha e
been on he o e on o nego ia ing speci ic p o isions in collec i e ag eemen s ha add ess he
employmen and skills aspec s o gene a i e AI-based ools. This is due o he leade ship o labo
unions in he en e ainmen and c ea i e sec o s. A common heme ac oss hese con ac s is he
p inciple o c ea i e wo ke con ol o e how AI is used and ules sa egua ding employmen o
p e en na ow ‘labo eplacing’ uses o hese ools. While he US does no ha e he same a-
di ion o sec o al collec i e ag eemen s as in many o he Eu opean case s udy examples, he e
con inues o be sec o al ba gaining in he ‘gig based’ en e ainmen indus ies – including o
sc eenw i e s, ac o s, and musicians.
The W i e s Guild o Ame ica (WGA) was a ailblaze in he a ea o AI ag eemen s. Following a
148 day s ike, in which he po en ial h ea s o AI o sc eenw i e s’ job secu i y and con ol ig-
u ed p ominen ly, he union nego ia ed speci ic es ic ions on he use o AI o sc ip w i ing
in he 2023 Thea ical and Tele ision Basic Ag eemen . These included p o isions s a ing ha
AI canno be used o w i e o ew i e li e a y ma e ial, AI-gene a ed ma e ial canno be consid-
e ed 'sou ce ma e ial', w i e s canno be equi ed o use AI, and AI-gene a ed ma e ial mus be
152 Chagny and Blanc (2024), ibid, p.199 – ci ing TJ Pon oise, 15 Ap il 2022, no. 22/00134.
153 Mémo andum pou un sec eu de la dis ibu ion du able e compé i i . h ps://www.ccec b. go .be/p/ /1208/memo andum-pou -
un-sec eu -de-la-dis ibu ion-du able-e -compe i i /11
154 Eu opean wo ks councils (EWCs) a e bodies ha ep esen he Eu opean employees o companies wi h a leas 1000 employees in
he EU and he Eu opean Economic A ea, and wi h a leas 150 employees in each o wo Membe S a es. The p ocess o c ea ing
an EWC is igge ed h ough a eques by 100 employees om wo coun ies o an employe ini ia i e. EWCs ha e in o ma ion and
consul a ion igh s a ansna ional le el. See: Eu opean Commission (2025) Eu opean Wo ks Councils. h ps://employmen -social-
a ai s.ec.eu opa.eu/policies-and-ac i i ies/ igh s-wo k/labou -law/employee-in ol emen /eu opean-wo ks-councils_en
155 Indi ex (2020) Join s a emen by he Indi ex g oup and he Eu opean Wo ks Council abou he Digi al T ans o ma ion S a egic Plan
h ps://www.uni-eu opa.o g/old-uploads/2020/12/EN_-DECLARACION-CONJUNTA-INDITEX-Y-CEE-ANTE-EL-PLAN-ESTRAT%C3%89GICO-
DE-TRANSFORMACI%C3%93N-DIGITAL.pd
37 ILO Wo king Pape 144
disclosed. Addi ional p o isions asse ed he union’s ole in en o cing copy igh and legal p ohi-
bi ions on using w i e s’ ma e ial o ain AI.156
The 2023 SAG-AFTRA collec i e ag eemen simila ly add essed he use o gene a i e AI – in his
case o p oduce digi al eplicas o a pe o me ’s oice o likeness. Case s udy 1 de ails he labo
con lic leading up o his ag eemen and ou comes conce ning AI egula ion, as well as ongoing
con lic s in ol ing SAG-AFTRA ep esen ed ac o s in he game de elopmen indus y.
XCase s udy 1: SAG-AFTRA – US ac o s mobilize o es ablish AI guidelines in ilm, ele ision, and game de el-
opmen
In 2023, he Sc een Ac o s Guild-Ame ican Fede a ion o Tele ision and Radio A is s (SAG-
AFTRA) wen on s ike o 118 days, esul ing in a collec i e ag eemen wi h he Alliance o
Mo ion Pic u e and Tele ision P oduce s (AMPTP) ha included i s -o -i s-kind p o ec ions
agains he use o AI-gene a ed eplicas o human pe o me s.157 P o isions we e based
on wo undamen al p inciples. Fi s , digi al eplica ion o a pe o me ’s oice and/o like-
ness was p ohibi ed wi hou ad ance no ice and w i en in o med consen . Second, in o -
de o educe economic incen i es o eplace human pe o me s wi h eplicas, i equi ed
ha pe o me s be paid he same amoun o he use o hei digi al eplica as hey would
be o a human pe o mance.
A he ime o he ag eemen , gene a i e AI was no su icien ly ad anced o ully eplace
human pe o me s, and ins ead was mainly being used o de-age ac o s, modi y lip mo e-
men o mo e ealis ic dubbing, and p oduce audio books. Voice ac o s a e especially
ulne able o gene a i e AI because oice cloning echnology is al eady 'good enough' a
belie ably simula ing a human oice.
Knowledge o AI p o ed o be a key sou ce o le e age o SAG-AFTRA. The union me
wi h a ound hi y AI companies specializing in digi al eplica ion, including OpenAI, o
see demons a ions o he echnology, o ind ou how easily and how well he echnology
could simula e human pe o mance, and o ge a sense o whe e he indus y was head-
ing in he nea u u e. An AI wo king g oup o med in ea ly 2023, made up o s a wi h
expe ise in oice, likeness, and in ellec ual p ope y law. The g oup con inued o mee
egula ly o sha e s o ies and discuss con ac language, a icles, and case s udies. An AI
ask o ce was also o med, whe e ank-and- ile membe s wi h abo e-a e age knowledge
o echnology could in e ac wi h union s a and discuss AI- ela ed issues in hei wo k-
places. SAG-AFTRA’s ex ensi e and p oac i e in o ma ion ga he ing ha e suppo ed i s
campaigning, ba gaining, and ep esen a ion ac i i ies; as well as union ep esen a i es’
capaci y o ad ise he s udios, which now iew he union as a esou ce in hei AI in es -
men and deploymen decisions.
Policymake s a e also d awing on SAG-AFTRA’s AI expe ise. The union was ins umen al
in d a ing he No Fakes Ac , which would gua an ee a ede al igh o oice and likeness;
and ensu ing i was in oduced in bo h he House and he Sena e. S udios, eco d labels,
b oadcas e s, ech companies, a is s, ad ocacy g oups, and he AFL-CIO suppo ed he bill,
which also has bipa isan suppo . SAG-AFTRA is also di ec ly in ol ed in simila legisla i e
156 W i e s Guild o Ame ica (2023) Summa y o he 2023 WGA MBA.
157 In e iew wi h SAG-AFTRA Execu i e VP and Gene al Counsel, No embe 6, 2024.
44 ILO Wo king Pape 144
a way as o manda e di ec employmen o call cen e wo ke s in he inancial sec o , ensu ing
be e p o ec ion o cus ome s' inancial in o ma ion.
In B azil, he banking sec o has also been he ocus o wo ke mobiliza ion and collec i e ba -
gaining on AI, bu wi h an emphasis on in es men s in equi y in aining and job oppo uni ies.
The p opo ion o women wo king in he B azilian banking sec o was declining due o he au-
oma ion o cus ome se ice wo k and he shi o online banking, while new jobs we e expand-
ing in mo e echnology-in ensi e IT jobs. CUT’s Na ional Con ede a ion o Financial Wo ke s
(CONTRAF-CUT) hus began an ini ia i e o expand aining o women o become specialis s in
his a ea, o encou age hem o mo e in o mo e specialized posi ions.186 This was o ganized in
pa ne ship wi h aining colleges and banking employe s, wi h he goal o making schola ships
o IT cou ses a ailable o women.
In 2024, CONTRAF-CUT signed a na ional collec i e ag eemen wi h he Na ional Con ede a ion
o Banks (FENABAN), in oducing clauses on AI and wo ke s’ aining.187 The ag eemen includes
commi men s o suppo e aining and p omo ion o oppo uni ies ‘in he ace o echnologies
such as AI’, p o iding in o ma ion o wo ke s on ini ia i es and dis up i e echnologies (includ-
ing AI), and mi iga ing unequal pay – wi h a ocus on gende equali y. I es ablishes a moni o -
ing p ocess o e aining ini ia i es, which he ag eemen s a es will be ca ied ou h ough he
‘Na ional Nego ia ion on New Technologies, such as AI, and Banking’.188 The banking employe s
also ag eed o inance 3,000 schola ships o women o ake IT cou ses ocusing on da a anal-
ysis, p og amming languages, and web design. P io i y will be gi en o women ‘in si ua ions o
socio-economic ulne abili y’, and inclusi e o ans women, black women, and people wi h dis-
abili ies.189
In Sou h A ica, again banks ha e been he ocus o union o ganizing on AI- ela ed es uc u ing.
The Cong ess o Sou h A ican T ade Unions (COSATU)-a ilia ed Sou h A ican Socie y o Bank
O icials (SASBO) has a gued ha AI is po en ially dis up i e o jobs and ca ee s.190 SASBO has
challenged es uc u ing in he Sou h A ican Banking Sec o , a guing ha employe s ha e used
AI o jus i y unnecessa y b anch closu es.191 In Sep embe 2019, SASBO called a na ionwide s ike
o p o es mass e enchmen s by he ABSA g oup, Nedbank and he closu e o 91 b anches by
S anda d Bank. The union demanded ha he banks come o he nego ia ing able, consul he
union on wo k o ce changes, and edeploy laid o employees in o new oles.192 The s ike was
enjoined by he labo cou . Nego ia ions ollowing he s ike led o a olun a y se e ance pack-
age o employees, a sala y inc ease and edeploymen o employees who did no wish o lea e
hei jobs o new posi ions by Decembe 2019. Howe e , union o icials we e unable o ba gain
di ec ly o e he in oduc ion o new echnology.193
186 P esen a ion, Ju andia Mo ei a, P esiden CONTRAF-CUT, U.S.-B azil Comme cial Dialogue: Digi aliza ion & Wo k o ce De elopmen
Webina . Augus 21, 2024.
187 Con enção cole i a de abalho - FENABAN & CONTRAF h ps://con a cu .lumis.com.b /da a/ iles/7F/A5/5D/44/
BB102910A7809E19820808A8/Fenaban%20-%20CCT%20Ge al%202024-2026.pd
188 T ansla ion and in o ma ion on he ag eemen was p o ided by Jonas Valen e, Fai wo k P ojec , Uni e si y o Ox o d - email commu-
nica ion, Feb ua y 24, 2025.
189
SindBanca ios (2025) Mais mulhe es na TI: abe as insc ições pa a cu sos ei indicados pelo mo imen o sindical, Ma ch 12, 2025. h ps://
www.sindbanca iospe opolis.com.b /no icia/mais-mulhe es-na- i-abe as-insc icoes-pa a-cu sos- ei indicados-pelo-mo imen o-
sindical/12103
190 Bischo , C., Kamoche, K., & Wood, G. (2024). The o mal and in o mal egula ion o labo in AI: The expe ience o Eas e n and Sou he n
A ica. ILR Re iew, 77(5), 825–835.
191
Kulka ni, P. (2019). Sou h A ican labo cou in e dic s coun y-wide s ike by bank o icials. People’s Dispa ch. h ps://peoplesdispa ch.
o g/2019/09/27/sou h-a ican-labo -cou -in e dic s-coun y-wide-s ikeby-bank-o icials/
192 SASBO The Finance Union (2019). Sasbo is challenging he banks on 4IR issues. SASBO News. No embe , 2019. h ps://www.sasbo.
o g.za/wp-con en /uploads/2020/04/SASBO-News- 41n4-P oo -27-No .pd
193 Maake, S. (2022). Explo ing SASBO’S esponse o he challenges o a i icial in elligence in he banking indus y in Gau eng (pp. 70–74)
[Thesis, Uni e si y o Johannesbu g; Mas e o A s (MA)]. h ps://hdl.handle.ne /10210/499894

45 ILO Wo king Pape 144
2.2. Social dialogue o e algo i hmic managemen : F om labo
con olling o labo empowe ing
Managemen i sel is being ans o med by ools ha au oma e scheduling, wo k alloca ion,
moni o ing, and pe o mance managemen . The e m ‘algo i hmic managemen ’ desc ibes he
use o so wa e algo i hms o enable di e en o ms o au oma ed o semi-au oma ed man-
agemen decision-making.194 AI is inc easingly in eg a ed in o coaching so wa e, and is used
in p edic i e o ‘human esou ce’ analy ics o hi e new wo ke s, de e mine aining needs, and
alloca e wo k. Mo e con en ionally, AI is used o ecognize pa e ns eco ded o ga he ed ia
di e se elec onic da a sou ces o e alua e pe o mance. This includes, o example, AI-enabled
came as applying machine ision, which allows o au oma ing employee moni o ing h ough
‘anomaly de ec ion’; wea able de ices ha apply AI algo i hms o analyze pa e ns in biome ic
in o ma ion, employee mo emen s, and loca ion; and oice moni o ing echnologies ha apply
AI-based speech analy ics and sen imen analysis o iden i y adhe ence wi h sc ip s, e alua e
cus ome se ice quali y, and di ec o coach employees du ing se ice in e ac ions.
The e a e dis inc isks o wo ke s associa ed wi h algo i hmic managemen , including p i acy o
pe sonal da a, bias, and disc imina ion, bu also wo k in ensi ica ion, inc eased su eillance, and
educed disc e ion o con ol a wo k. One conce n is ha hese ools ga he and use employee
da a. Thus, da a p i acy may be a isk, pa icula ly i he e a e no o weak guidelines conce ning
which kinds o employee da a he so wa e can access and how i will be used.195 Second, hese
echnologies can encou age in ensi ica ion o managemen con ol. Tools like speech analy ics
o compu e ision equi e cons an moni o ing o employee pe o mance o ecognize pa e ns
and de ec ‘anomalies’. Biome ic o GPS-based ools used in wa ehouses, e ail, o housekeep-
ing can igh ly con ol wo ke mo emen s and emo e hei disc e ion o e he o de and man-
ne in which hey pe o m asks.196 AI-based coaching echnologies in cus ome se ice se ings
o en a e adop ed in a con ex in which employees a e equi ed o ollow igh sc ip s o o e-
cei e cons an eedback abou hei pe o mance.197 Thi d, hese ools can emo e ce ain de-
cisions om humans, so wo ke s ha e limi ed abili y o complain o con es un ai decisions.198
Toge he , hese add up o subs an ial isks o wo ke heal h and well-being. Pas esea ch has
shown ha managemen p ac ices based on in ensi e moni o ing, es ic ed con ol o e wo k,
and pe cei ed lack o anspa ency and ai ness in wo k alloca ion o pe o mance e alua ion
decisions a e connec ed o wo ke s ess and bu nou .199 Labo unions ha e sough o educe
hese isks in social dialogue wi h employe s h ough secu ing s onge igh s o collec i e wo k-
e oice o e how algo i hmic managemen ools a e used a wo k. These e o s o en d aw
on exis ing da a p o ec ion and pa icipa ion igh s, o ocus on es ablishing hem in collec i e
ag eemen s. Unions ha e also sough o es ablish mo e equi able policies conce ning wo kplace
applica ions o algo i hmic managemen ools, h ough campaigns o ganized in solida i y wi h
194 Wood, AJ (2021) Algo i hmic managemen consequences o wo k o ganisa ion and wo king condi ions. JRC Wo king Pape s Se ies on
Labou , Educa ion and Technology, No. 2021/07.
195 Ajunwa, I. (2023). The quan i ied wo ke : Law and echnology in he mode n wo kplace. Camb idge Uni e si y P ess. Aloisi, A., & De
S e ano, V. (2022). You Boss Is an Algo i hm: A i icial In elligence, Pla o m Wo k and Labou . Bloomsbu y Publishing.
196 Del an i, A. (2021). The Wa ehouse. Wo ke s and Robo s a Amazon. Plu o Books. Kassem, S. (2023). Wo k and Aliena ion in he Pla o m
Economy: Amazon and he Powe o O ganiza ion. Policy P ess. Vallas, S.P., Johns on, H. & Mommado a, Y. (2022) P ime suspec : mech-
anisms o labo con ol a Amazon's wa ehouses. Wo k and Occupa ions, 49(4), 421–456.
197 Doellgas , V. (2023). S eng hening social egula ion in he digi al economy: compa a i e indings om he ICT indus y. Labou and
Indus y, 33(1), 22-38.
198 Dupuis, M. (2025). Algo i hmic managemen and con ol a wo k in a manu ac u ing sec o : Wo kplace egime, union powe and
shop loo con lic o e digi alisa ion. New Technology, Wo k and Employmen . 40(1): 81-101
199
O’B ady, S. and Doellgas , V. (2021) Collec i e Voice and Wo ke Well‐being: Union In luence on Pe o mance Moni o ing and Emo ional
Exhaus ion in Call Cen e s. Indus ial Rela ions: A Jou nal o Economy and Socie y 60(3): 307-337. P e e , J (2018) Dying o a paycheck:
How mode n managemen ha ms employee heal h and company pe o mance —and wha we can do abou i . Ha pe Business.
46 ILO Wo king Pape 144
hose wo ke s mos nega i ely impac ed by hem. We ou line examples o hese e o s in his
sec ion, wi h a ocus on ‘ adi ional’ wo kplaces. We do no discuss examples o ag eemen s o
social dialogue o e algo i hmic managemen in pla o m and app-based wo k, as hese a e
co e ed in sec ion 2.3 below.
2.2.1. Eu ope
Eu ope has led he way on ag eemen s ocusing on algo i hmic managemen , wi h many nego-
ia ed p o isions limi ing he use o AI- o algo i hm-based ools o wo ke su eillance and pe -
o mance managemen . A EU le el, as discussed abo e, he Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ions
(GDPR) has been in o ce since 2018, wi h equi emen s conce ning he collec ion, s o age, and
use o pe sonal da a. Mo e ecen ly, he AI Ac es ablishes some u he p o ec ions, including
p ohibi ions o au oma ed decisions ha a ec employees wi hou human o e sigh ; and on he
use o AI o sen imen analysis o ‘emo ion ecogni ion’ – e ec i ely banning a con o e sial AI
applica ion ha is inc easingly used in AI-based hi ing and coaching ools.
No dic unions ha e nego ia ed mos publicly o e b oade aining o pa ne ship ini ia i es e-
la ed o AI a indus y o na ional le el, as discussed in p e ious sec ions. Howe e , se e al case
s udies show company-le el ba gaining o e speci ic issues a ound algo i hmic managemen .
In No way, a majo elecommunica ions p o ide nego ia ed a se ies o ag eemen s wi h i s
unions es ic ing he use o ideo moni o ing and speech analy ics, ollowing a con lic o e in-
c eased digi al su eillance in he company’s call cen e s.200 The union escala ed i s complain s
o e ideo moni o ing o he No wegian Da a P o ec ion Agency, which ound ha his iola ed
employee p i acy igh s. A e his, he unions and managemen ees ablished mo e coope a i e
nego ia ions, including consul a ion on he use o a aining pla o m applying eal- ime analy ics
o iden i y skill gaps, and pa icipa ion in a ask o ce o consul on an AI-based speech analy ics
ool, which es ic ed i s use o iden i ying indi idual pe o mance da a.
In Sweden, unions’ s a egies ha e ocused on applying exis ing egula ions and p o ec ions o
local nego ia ions on AI-based issues. A Unionen ep esen a i e obse ed, o example, ha oc-
cupa ional heal h and sa e y egula ions include ules conce ning nego ia ions o e new wo k
ools and isk assessmen ha can be used o suppo wo ke oice in algo i hmic managemen
ools.201 Simila ly, he Co-De e mina ion Ac equi es employe s o nego ia e whe e he e is any
signi ican change o an ope a ion o o employees’ wo king o employmen condi ions. As ne-
go ia ions mus be called well in ad ance o changes being implemen ed, ade unions could
use hei igh s unde his legisla ion o in luence he implemen a ion o AI sys ems ex an e.202
The union’s s a egy (and challenge) was hus o s eng hen local capaci y o use hese igh s in
nego ia ions.
A case s udy om Sweden documen s an example o his local in ol emen , o wha Bende and
Söde q is desc ibe as ‘ echnological co-de e mina ion’, in he mining and smel ing company
Boliden.203 He e nego ia ions be ween he employe and i s unions ocused on a wi i posi ioning
sys em. Local collec i e ag eemen s o malized an ag eemen wo ked ou h ough consul a ion:
wo ke s we e o be gi en anonymous iden i ica ion numbe s ha could only be de-anonymized
200 Doellgas , V., Wagne , I., & O’B ady, S. (2023). Nego ia ing limi s on algo i hmic managemen in digi alised se ices: cases om
Ge many and No way. T ans e : Eu opean Re iew o Labou and Resea ch, 29(1), 105-120.
201 Email co espondence wi h Vic o Be nha d z, Unionen, No embe 14, 2024
202 Email co espondence wi h Vic o Be nha d z, Unionen, Janua y 21, 2025
203 Bende , G. and F. Söde q is (2024) Human-Cen e ed o Bio obo ized Au oma ion? Technological Code e mina ion in an Inno a i e
Mining Company. D a Pape .
47 ILO Wo king Pape 144
unde eme gency p ocedu es – in which case a union ep esen a i e was equi ed o emo e he
anonymiza ion ea u e using a passwo d.
Ge many again is he exempla y case, wi h nume ous ag eemen s egula ing he use o AI- o
algo i hm-based ools o pe o mance managemen , he di ec ion o asks, and wo k o ce ana-
ly ics. In Case s udy 2 below, we discuss in mo e de ail wo ag eemen s nego ia ed in he Ge man
ICTS indus y, which ha e s eng hened wo ke oice in how algo i hmic managemen ools a e
used in se ice wo kplaces. A key ocus in bo h has been es ablishing AI E hics Commi ees o
o e see he e hical adop ion o AI ools, as well as o es ablish and en o ce clea ules p ohibi -
ing ce ain uses o AI ha pose signi ican isks o wo ke s and wo king condi ions.
XCase s udy 2: Nego ia ing ‘labo empowe ing’ ag eemen s in he Ge man ICTS indus y: Deu sche Telekom
and IBM204
Ge many has e y s ong wo ke igh s bo h o da a p o ec ion and pa icipa ion in deci-
sions conce ning echnology a wo k, as discussed abo e.205 In addi ion, he ede al Wo ks
Cons i u ion Ac gi es wo ks councils s ong co-de e mina ion igh s o e he use o ech-
nologies o ‘pe o mance and beha io ’ con ol. These igh s ha e been a key ool in ne-
go ia ions o e algo i hmic managemen .
In he in o ma ion and communica ions echnology se ices (ICTS) indus y, Ge man wo ks
councils – suppo ed by he labo unions e .di and IG Me all – ha e nego ia ed ag eemen s
s eng hening wo ke oice o e how echnologies a e used in algo i hmic managemen ,
pa icula ly o moni o ing wo ke pe o mance bu also o a ange o algo i hmic man-
agemen applica ions.
Deu sche Telekom in Ge many nego ia es collec i e ag eemen s wi h e .di and wo ks
ag eemen s wi h i s elec ed wo ks councils. Toge he , hese ha e es ablished a se ies o
ules and p o isions (discussed abo e) ha encou age ‘labo complemen ing’ use o AI,
h ough commi ing managemen o job secu i y and e aining as jobs a e cu due o au-
oma ion; and commi ing managemen o d awing a oadmap o digi aliza ion measu es
wi h employmen impac s. In addi ion, a cen al ocus o nego ia ions has been o suppo
wo ke p i acy, mi iga e bias, and discou age he use o AI ools ha in ensi y su eillance
and op-down managemen con ol o wo ke s.
A wo ks ag eemen on IT sys ems es ablishes a p ocess h ough which managemen con-
sul s wi h he wo ks council be o e pu chasing new echnology. Based on an e alua ion
o he isk o employees, a join labo -managemen commi ee decides whe he o mal
nego ia ions a e needed. An impo an c i e ion o e alua ing ‘ isk’ is whe he he so -
wa e can eco d o ack da a on indi idual employees – as all pe o mance me ics mus
be agg ega ed o g oups o i e employees o mo e.
An ag eemen on wo k o ce analy ics s a es ha analy ics ools should be used o imp o e
he wo king en i onmen and suppo managemen decisions. I p ohibi s using analy ics
o moni o indi idual employee pe o mance o beha io o o make au oma ed decisions
204 Some o he ex in he summa y o he Deu sche Telekom case is aken om pp.48-49 he epo : Doellgas , V., O'B ady, S., Kim, J.,
& Wal e s, D. (2023). AI in con ac cen e s: A i icial in elligence and algo i hmic managemen in on line se ice wo kplaces. Co nell
Uni e si y. h ps://hdl.handle.ne /1813/113706
205 Ge many has had a ede al da a p o ec ion ac since 1978. The cu en Fede al Da a P o ec ion Ac (BDSG) was e ised o con o m
wi h he EU’s Gene al Da a P o ec ion Regula ion (GDPR).
48 ILO Wo king Pape 144
wi hou human o e sigh . Da abases mus be designed so ha all da a a e anonymous,
and no conclusions can be d awn abou indi idual employees. T anspa ency unde da a
p o ec ion laws mus be ensu ed, pa icula ly ega ding ma hema ical-s a is ical (o algo-
i hmic) p ocesses. Special measu es a e equi ed o ce ain ca ego ies o pe sonal da a,
wi h e e ence o he GDPR. The ag eemen es ablishes a ‘Wo k o ce Analy ics Expe
G oup’ wi h equal wo ks council and employe ep esen a ion. I e iews he use o em-
ployee da a and AI-enabled analy ics ools, holding egula e alua ion wo kshops and in-
cluding p o isions o aining employees (wi h wo ks council in ol emen ) o use wo k-
o ce analy ics esponsibly.
The wo ks council also d a ed an AI e hics mani es o s ipula ing how AI would be used and
ecommending ha an expe g oup be es ablished o ensu e adhe ence o he mani es o’s
p inciples. I has se e al key p o isions: In e ac ions wi h ‘lea ning machines’ mus be de-
signed so ha wo ke s know ha hey a e in e ac ing wi h AI, and human decision-make s
(no AI) mus make signi ican pe sonnel- ela ed decisions. Ce ain uses o AI a e p ohib-
i ed, including ga he ing pe sonal in o ma ion abou employees’ poli ical opinions, philo-
sophical belie s, union membe ship, o sexual o ien a ion; o seeking o analyze o in lu-
ence employees’ emo ions o men al s a e. Technologies ha asc ibe pe sonali y ai s o
use biosenso s a e no allowed.
Wo ks ag eemen s a Deu sche Telekom ha e his o ically limi ed he use o emo e moni-
o ing echnologies, and newe ag eemen s p ohibi he use o speech analy ics o moni o
employee emo ions as well as he di ec implemen a ion o AI-enabled coaching apps. An
impo an p o ision is ha indi idual pe o mance da a can be ga he ed only o g oups
o a leas i e employees. Employees can see hei own pe o mance da a bu choose
whe he o sha e his wi h eam leade s, who a e p ohibi ed om eques ing i .
Fu he wo k o ce managemen ools ha e been egula ed unde he abo e ag eemen s.
Fo example, manage s canno access employees’ Ou look calenda s, only in o ma ion
ha is impo an o p ojec s. WebEx ideocon e ence ools canno measu e wo king ime.
Employees a e no equi ed o u n on hei came as o mee ings, and he e can be no
eco ding o eam mee ings and aining. Ag eemen s egula e when eam leade s lis en
o employee calls and o how long.
IBM Ge many also has nego ia ed bo h collec i e ag eemen s wi h e .di and wo ks ag ee-
men s wi h i s elec ed wo ks councils. Simila o Deu sche Telekom, pas ag eemen s es-
ablished ha employe s could no ca y ou ‘beha io and pe o mance e iews’ o indi-
iduals using da a collec ed h ough he IT sys em. A wo ks councilo obse ed ha he
in eg a ion o AI in o hese managemen sys ems was he s a ing poin o a 2020 ag ee-
men on he use o AI sys ems.206
Simila o wha occu ed a Deu sche Telekom, his AI F amewo k Ag eemen was i s
discussed in join labo -managemen wo kshops, which applied design hinking me h-
ods.
207
The ag eemen classi ies di e en AI applica ions acco ding o hei isk and de ines
s anda ds o e alua ing he wo k o ce impac s o AI. Thus, o example, he use o AI o
pe sonnel measu es o au oma ed decisions wi h immedia e e ec s on employees, wi h-
ou human o e sigh , a e classi ied as ‘high isk’ and p ohibi ed. Algo i hms ha p o ide
206 In e iew, IBM wo ks councilo , No embe 8, 2021.
207 Ge gs, H.-J., L. Scha ilow, B. Langes, T. Kaemp (eds) (2023) Human F iendly Au oma ion: A bei und Küns liche In elligenz neu denken.
F ank u e Allgemeine Buch.
49 ILO Wo king Pape 144
in o ma ion ha is isible only o he employee and di ec supe iso , such as aining ec-
ommenda ions, a e classi ied as ‘low isk’ and pe mi ed. In he middle a e applica ions,
such as ca ee planning, which may ha e isks o employees and hus equi e addi ional
o e sigh o nego ia ion.
The ag eemen also es ablishes an AI E hics Council made up o AI expe s and employe
and employee ep esen a i es, which e alua es AI applica ions and o e sees implemen-
a ion o he ag eemen . The Council’s ole is o u he de elop he amewo k ag ee-
men and ad ise he human esou ces depa men and he wo ks councils on cu en and
planned AI applica ions. I also discusses and deba es any objec ions o complain s om
employees conce ning AI ools in he wo kplace. Finally, i e iews AI ecommenda ions
and co ec s hem, i necessa y.
Wo ks councilo s a bo h Deu sche Telekom and IBM el ha hese ag eemen s had im-
p o ed wo kplace heal h and sa e y, while encou aging mo e posi i e wo k o ce iews
o he AI-based sys ems ha we e adop ed. Employees we e p o ec ed in hei exis ing
ag eemen s om in asi e moni o ing o p i acy abuses associa ed wi h algo i hmic man-
agemen . The new ag eemen s es ablished a p ocess o co-de e mina ion and o e sigh
o e he u u e adop ion o wo k o ce analy ics and o he ools based on clea p inciples
and an expe -based e iew p ocess. This also educed he isk o wo ks council opposi-
ion o expensi e IT sys ems, s anda dizing he co-de e mina ion p ocess and imp o ing
wo k o ce us in how manage s we e using po en ially con o e sial ools, such as em-
ployee call eco ding and speech analy ics.
Toge he , hese cases demons a e he po en ial o bipa i e nego ia ions, in a con ex
o s ong da a p o ec ion igh s and wo ke s’ ba gaining igh s o e echnology, o en-
cou age ‘labo empowe ing’ applica ions o algo i hmic managemen in he wo kplace.
O he cases in Ge many ha e placed some simila limi s on AI use in algo i hmic managemen . A
2020 ag eemen be ween Amazon Alexa and i s wo ks council es ic s he use o algo i hm-gen-
e a ed pe o mance da a o HR decisions, ensu ing his da a is no used o p omo e o dismiss
wo ke s.208 This ollowed a dispu e which was b ough o an a bi a ion boa d. A Siemens, he
wo ks council es ablished guidelines on da a p o ec ion, da a s o age, and basic e hical consid-
e a ions.209 I also de eloped an in o mal ag eemen wi h managemen o de elop ‘AI ca ds’ ou -
lining he uses o di e en AI echnologies in he company.
A numbe o anonymized case s udies ha e examined wo ks council in ol emen in nego ia ing
o consul ing o e algo i hmic managemen in di e en indus y se ings in Ge many. Fo ex-
ample, Wo schack e al. examine co-de e mina ion in a mechanical enginee ing company and a
la ge ood-deli e y company.210 They ind ha wo ks councils in bo h cases aced challenges in
unde s anding, moni o ing, and shaping he use o algo i hmic sys ems. A he same ime, hey
ound s ong union suppo on legal issues o ques ions ela ed o echnology - including b ing-
ing in ex e nal expe s, using p o isions in he Wo ks Council Mode niza ion Ac ha suppo s
hi ing an ex e nal AI expe . Ano he case s udy by K zywdzinski e al. in a logis ics company ex-
amines nego ia ion in di e en phases o algo i hmic managemen , as he employe deployed
208 UNI Global Union (2023) Ibid, p. 14.
209
Haipe e , T., Wannö el, M., Daus, J. T., & Scha a czik, S. (2024). Human-cen e ed AI h ough employee pa icipa ion. F on ie s in A i icial
In elligence, 7.
210 Wo schack, P., Bu ollo, F., & Hellbach, L. (2024). Ibid.

50 ILO Wo king Pape 144
so wa e au oma ing s o age, picking, con ol, and inspec ion p ocesses in pa ne ship wi h he
so wa e de elope .211 They ound ha nego ia ions wi h he wo ks council es ablished ag ee-
men s ha p e en ed managemen om using he new ools o educe employmen and in-
c ease pe o mance a ge s. Howe e , hey did no ind ongoing wo ke in ol emen in imple-
men ing he sys em, which hey explain as a esul o ‘in o ma ion asymme ies c ea ed by he
algo i hmic managemen sys em’.212
Sec o al collec i e ag eemen s in Sou he n Eu ope ha e es ablished wo ke igh s ega ding al-
go i hmic managemen , wi h a ocus on ensu ing ecou se o human decisions o clea limi s on
speci ic so wa e applica ions. A 2022 ag eemen be ween I alian unions and he elecommu-
nica ions companies Wind and TIM places limi s on he use o A ini i Ad anced Rou ing, a ool
ha uses AI o ma ch cus ome s wi h call cen e agen s.213 Companies a e no pe mi ed o use
he so wa e o moni o indi idual pe o mance da a o o wo ke su eillance.
In Spain, a 2021 collec i e ag eemen in he banking sec o be ween he Spanish Banking
Associa ion (AEB) and he labo unions CC.OO.-Se icios, FeSMC-UGT and he FINE Banking
Fede a ion includes a sec ion on AI igh s, which makes speci ic e e ence o algo i hmic man-
agemen .
214
I es ablishes wo ke igh s no o be subjec o decisions based solely and exclusi e-
ly on au oma ed a iables; igh s o non-disc imina ion; and he abili y o eques human o e -
sigh and in e en ion. I also equi es managemen o in o m wo ke ep esen a i es abou he
use o da a analy ics o AI sys ems when decision-making in HR and labo ela ions is based on
digi al models. Some simila igh s a e in he chemical sec o ag eemen , which equi es man-
agemen o p o ide in o ma ion o wo ke ep esen a i es on he objec i es o AI sys ems; an
analysis o hei impac s on wo king condi ions; and he pa ame e s, ules, and ins uc ions on
which AI algo i hms o sys ems a e based ha a ec decision-making in ways ha may impac
wo king condi ions o access o and main enance o employmen . AI sys em adop ion should
also in ol e upda ing occupa ional isk assessmen s, as well as ensu ing he e is no p ejudice
o disc imina ion and ha he guiding p inciple is human con ol.
In he UK, he Royal Mail G oup (RMG) and he Communica ion Wo ke s Union (CWU) nego ia -
ed a 2020 ag eemen i led he Key P inciples F amewo k Ag eemen (The Pa hway o Change),
which es ablished p inciples on union in ol emen in he in oduc ion o new me hods, echnolo-
gy, o au oma ion. The ag eemen i s ecognized ha echnology was c ucial o he company’s
g ow h, inno a ion, e iciency, and manageable wo kload. I se up a se ies o p inciples o new
echnology in oduc ion, wi h he Local Manage and Rep esen a i e esponsible o ope a ional
decision-making and espec o indi idual p i acy igh s. Consul a ion be ween he CWU and
he RMG is equi ed a he concep design s age. T ials canno exceed 90 days and a e se up
wi h s ic e ms o e e ence co e ing con en , loca ion and success c i e ia. Once success c i e-
ia a e demons a ed as me , his will igge deploymen , subjec o business case app o al.215
211 K zywdzinski, M., Schneiß, D., & Spe ling, A. (2024). Be ween con ol and pa icipa ion: The poli ics o algo i hmic managemen . New
Technology, Wo k and Employmen .
212 K zywdzinski e al. (2024), Ibid, p.16.
213 Guaglianone, L. (2024) Collec i e ba gaining and AI in I aly. In A i icial In elligence, Labou and Socie y. A. Ponce del Cas illo (Ed.). ETUI.
207-215.
214 Resolución de 17 de ma zo de 2021, de la Di ección Gene al de T abajo, po la que se egis a y publica el XXIV Con enio colec i o
del sec o de la banca.
h ps://www.boe.es/dia io_boe/ x .php?id=BOE-A-2021-5003
215 Communica ion Wo ke s Union. (2020). Key P inciples F amewo k Ag eemen . Decembe 20, 2020. h ps://www.cwu.o g/news/ mg-
cwu-key-p inciples- amewo k-ag eemen - he-pa hway- o-change/
51 ILO Wo king Pape 144
This ag eemen was ollowed by ano he ag eemen in 2021 nego ia ed be ween Pa cel o ce
(a subsidia y company o RMG) and he CWU.216 I es ablishes ha deli e y d i e s ha e a igh
o p i acy and o he da a collec ed by Teleme y ools; and ha new echnology will no be de-
ployed o use as a disciplina y ool, o as a sou ce o in o ma ion o enhance he abili y o man-
age s o ake disciplina y ac ion. The ocus should be on co ec ion and imp o emen , no pun-
ishmen . The Table o Success T anspo Wo king G oup will moni o key measu es cap u ed by
he ools– o example, accele a ing, b aking and co ne ing– o ensu e uel e iciency and inciden
educ ion. And aining will be p o ided o all employees who a e equi ed o use he eleme y
echnology. An impo an p o ision holds ha local CWU ep esen a i es will ecei e he same
aining as Depo Manage s on moni o ing and e iewing eleme y echnology, hus suppo -
ing knowledge and capaci y building wi hin he union o nego ia e o e hese ools and ep e-
sen wo ke s in he case o g ie ances.
While o he unions ha e no been able o achie e in oads in o he e iew o algo i hmic man-
agemen sys ems o such a deg ee, he e has been signi ican p og ess. A collec i e ag eemen
be ween he GMB union and he deli e y company He mes equi ed ha he company ep o-
g am i s au oma ed paymen sys em o ensu e ha wo ke s ecei e a leas he minimum wage
and ha hey a e au oma ically paid any bonuses hey ha e ea ned, a he han ha ing o claim
hem e ospec i ely.217
2.2.2. No h Ame ica
In he Uni ed S a es, he e a e a numbe o examples o ag eemen s ha limi algo i hmic man-
agemen in se ice wo kplaces. Many o hese a e based on adap ing pas collec i e ag eemen s
de eloped o ea lie moni o ing echnologies ha a e now being supplemen ed wi h AI. The
CWA has nego ia ed ag eemen s a majo elecommunica ions and ai line companies ha e-
s ic he use o pe o mance da a o discipline employees i hey do no mee ce ain ime-based
measu es such as adhe ence o schedule o a e age call handling ime in call cen e s and ha
equi e he use o his da a p ima ily o aining pu poses.218 This p o ec s wo ke s om un ai
discipline as wo k olume and con en changes – o example, due o expanded use o cha bo s
and agen assis ance ools.
The UPS Teams e s 2023 Na ional Con ac add esses some simila challenges conce ning wo ke
su eillance using AI ools o d i e s; o example, he inc easing use o in a ed senso s o ack
d i e eye mo emen .219 UPS is no pe mi ed o ins all new d i e - acing came as o o eco d in-
cab ac i i ies, while p e iously ins alled came as mus be disabled. In addi ion, GPS, elema ics,
and o wa d- acing came as canno be used as he sole basis o discipline. UPS also commi ed
o p o iding wo ke s wi h da a om a new pay oll sys em hey plan o de elop in 2026, so ha
hey can ha e o e sigh o e he basis o hese decisions and managemen adjus men s. A union
216 Communica ion Wo ke s Union. (2021, Augus 25). LTB 354/21 - Na ional Ag eemen be ween Pa cel o ce Wo ldwide and he CWU- Pilo
deploymen and use o d i e beha iou echnology. CWU. h ps://www.cwu.o g/l b/l b-354-21-na ional-ag eemen -be ween-pa cel o ce-
wo ldwide-and- he-cwu-pilo -deploymen -and-use-o -d i e -beha iou - echnology/
217 Collins, P., & A kinson, J. (2023). Wo ke oice and algo i hmic managemen in pos -B exi B i ain. T ans e : Eu opean Re iew o Labou
and Resea ch, 29(1), 37–52. h ps://doi.o g/10.1177/10242589221143068
218 CWA (2014) CWA Con ac P o isions o P omo e Good Wo king Condi ions o Cus ome Se ice Wo ke s, h ps://cwa-union.o g/si es/
de aul / iles/6-cwa-issue-b ie s.pd . Fo backg ound on call cen e wo ke s’ expe ience o AI, see CWA, How AI is Impac ing Cus ome
Se ice P o essional, 2024, h ps://cwa-union.o g/si es/de aul / iles/2023-11/call_cen e s_and_new_ echnology_ ac _shee .pd d aw-
ing om V. Doellgas , S. O’B ady, J. Kim, D. Wal e s (2023) AI in Con ac Cen e s: A i icial In elligence and Algo i hmic Managemen in
F on line Se ices. h ps://ecommons.co nell.edu/se e /api/co e/bi s eams/a0ac9 50-5a22-4b3d-a9d9-2cc06824e31d/con en . Fo
a de ailed summa y o (and links o) CWA con ac p o isions, see: K esge, L. (2020) Ibid, pp. 15-18.
219 K esge, L. (2023). Nego ia ing Wo ke s’ Righ s a he F on ie o Digi al Wo kplace Technologies in 2023. UC Be kely Labo Cen e .
52 ILO Wo king Pape 144
ep esen a i e obse ed ha hese p o isions ha e lessened he amoun o mic omanaging and
use o discipline, encou aging mo e ocus on aining and p oac i e coaching.220
The use o algo i hmic managemen in ho el ca e ing and cleaning has been pa icula ly wide-
sp ead, and associa ed wi h in ensi ied su eillance as well as dec eased wo ke con ol o e
how hey ca y ou o en physically in ense wo k - con ibu ing o wo k in ensi ica ion.221 In Case
s udy 3 below, we discuss in mo e de ail campaigns by he Las Vegas Culina y Union o p o ec
hese wo ke s’ p i acy and expand hei con ol o e algo i hmic managemen ools.
XCase s udy 3: Regula ing algo i hmic managemen in Las Vegas casinos and ho els: he Culina y Union222
The Las Vegas Culina y Union – UNITE HERE Local 226, ep esen ing o e 60,000 casino
wo ke s, was able o ans o m labo con olling echnology in o an oppo uni y o labo
empowe men . In he Culina y Union’s 2018 con ac nego ia ions wi h 34 casino eso s,
echnology was a op h ee issue ha he membe ship was willing o s ike o e . As a e-
sul , he union won his o ic language in i s collec i e ag eemen ha included a mid-cy-
cle p ocess o ba gain o e he implemen a ion o new echnology. This has been used
in nego ia ions o e a a ie y o echnologies, including algo i hmic managemen ools.
When one o he employe s implemen ed algo i hmic managemen so wa e in house-
keeping, he union was eady. Housekeepe s had always been able o pick he o de in
which hey cleaned hei assigned ooms. A new sma phone app was hen in oduced
ha se he o de o hem, which many wo ke s expe ienced as bo h limi ing hei own
disc e ion o e how hey pe o med hei jobs bu also wo k in ensi ying, as hey we e e-
qui ed o wo k in o en ine icien ways.
Whene e housekeepe s in e ac ed wi h he app, hey gene a ed da a abou hei wo k-
load, loca ion, and oom s a us. Thus, as pa o he ba gaining p ocess, he union eques -
ed ha backend da a. One union membe ’s son used his p og amming knowledge in SQL
and Py hon o w i e a sc ip ha scanned h ough he da a o iden i y ins ances whe e
a housekeepe had cleaned mo e ooms han he oom quo a speci ied in he collec i e
ag eemen – which cons i u ed con ac iola ions. Wi hin a couple o mon hs, hund eds
o ins ances we e ound, each wi h a co esponding da e and imes amp.
A he same ime, housekeepe s began keeping pape eco ds o whe e he sma phone
app sen hem. These eco ds we e me iculously compiled and u ned in o maps ha
showed he ine iciency o he zig-zagged, algo i hm-gene a ed pa hs. Housekeepe s hen
demanded ha he app’s de elope s a end ba gaining sessions. They showed he de el-
ope s he maps hey had made, explained wha a union con ac is, and old hem, 'i you
echnology is going o be a con ac iola ion machine, i ’s going o be a big p oblem. So,
le ’s ix ha .'
Th ough wo ke mobiliza ion and inno a i e da a analysis, he wo ke s and he employ-
e ag eed o collec i e ag eemen p o isions ha es o ed wo ke au onomy and disc e-
ion and made i easie o he union o moni o wo kload iola ions. In he wo ds o one
220 In e iew wi h P incipal O ice and Sec e a y T easu e , Teams e s Local 2, No embe 5, 2024.
221 Rho,H-J & C. Rio dan (2024) Beyond algo i hmic con ol: explo ing sel -sequencing o asks in ho el housekeeping wo k. D a pape
p esen ed a he ‘AI and he Fu u e o Wo k Con e ence’, Co nell Uni e si y, Oc obe 11-18, 2024.
222 In e iew wi h CU Resea che , No embe 18, 2024.
53 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Culina y Union esea che , 'inside e e y wo ke is a ne d and inside e e y IT pe son is a
wo ke . I people jus le he IT ne ds alk o he wo ke ne ds, good hings would happen'.223
Some wo ke s in he hospi ali y sec o ha e limi ed digi al li e acy. Wi h he suppo o
hei pa en union and a eam o academics om ou esea ch uni e si ies, he Culina y
Union o med a pa ne ship wi h he app de elope and he Culina y Academy o Las
Vegas, a wo ke aining cen e ha is unded h ough he CWU collec i e ag eemen , o
p o ide subs an ial aining on he so wa e as pa o he Academy’s housekeepe ain-
ing p og am.224
Di ec con ac be ween Culina y Union membe s and echnology companies, as well as he
use o in o ma ion eques s o access, o ganize, and analyze da a gene a ed by ba gain-
ing uni wo k, a e inno a i e ac ics ha sugges he need o union-buil echnology ha
can enable con ac en o cemen . Whe he i is no es jo ed down on pape , pho os aken
by wo ke s, o p op ie a y so wa e, sys ema ized documen a ion o he wo kplace is no
he sole pu iew o employe s. Unions can also p o ide esou ces o hose who ha e ex-
pe ience wi h so wa e design and da a isualiza ions, whe he hey a e s a , membe s,
o o he union suppo e s.
In 2023, he Culina y Union buil on he echnology p o isions om he p e ious con-
ac and won igh s o p i acy om acking echnology, o ba gain o e echnology ha
acks he loca ion o employees, o no i ica ion and ba gaining o e da a sha ing wi h a
hi d pa y, o heal h ca e and se e ance pay o wo ke s laid o due o new echnology,
and he igh o compensa ion o ipped employees i ech ailu e makes i impossible o
do hei job.225
This case illus a es he impo an ole ha h ee-way social dialogue be ween labo un-
ions, app de elope s, and employe s can play in de eloping AI echnologies ha empowe
wo ke s, wi h po en ial sha ed bene i s in e ms o imp o ed wo ke au onomy and p o-
duc i i y. I also demons a es he alue o unions o nego ia ing igh s o in o ma ion on
how wo k o ce da a a e collec ed and used, and hen o using ha da a o s udy he wo ke
and o ganiza ional impac s o new echnologies. In he US con ex o weak legisla ed da a
igh s, he Culina y Union nego ia ed hei own amewo k o hese igh s in a mul i-em-
ploye ag eemen ─ s eng hening collec i e wo ke oice in algo i hmic managemen .
Se e al ag eemen s in US p o essional spo s add ess employe collec ion and use o biome ic
da a. In baske ball, he NBA es ablished a join ad iso y commi ee o e iew he use o wea a-
ble echnologies and da a de i ed om wea able senso s.226 The 2020 ag eemen be ween he
NFL and NFLPA es ablished a 'Join Senso s Commi ee' o o e see he use o senso s and bi-
ome ic da a in p o essional oo ball, and equi es playe app o al be o e biome ic da a can be
223 In e iew wi h CU Resea che , No embe 18, 2024.
224 Guillo , A. (2024) The Culina y Academy o Las Vegas and Amadeus Join Fo ces o Expand Hospi ali y Employmen and Job T aining.
Amadeus. h ps://www.amadeus-hospi ali y.com/insigh / he-culina y-academy-o -las- egas-and-amadeus-join- o ces- o-expand-
hospi ali y-employmen -and-job- aining/
225 UNITE HERE Local 226, p ess elease, Culina y Union celeb a es his o ic wins o wo ke s in he bes con ac e e won wi h MGM
Reso s, Caesa s En e ainmen , and Wynn Reso s, No embe 10, 2023, h ps://culina yunion226.o g/news/p ess/culina y-union-
celeb a es-his o ic-wins- o -wo ke s-in- he-bes -con ac -e e -won-wi h-mgm- eso s-caesa s-en e ainmen -and-wynn- eso s.
226
NBA-NBPA Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen (2017), pp.359-361. 3c7a0a50-8e11-11e9-875d-3d44e94ae33 -2017-NBA-NBPA-Collec i e-
Ba gaining-Ag eemen .pd Ci ed in: K esge, L. (2020). Union Collec i e Ba gaining Ag eemen S a egies in Response o Technology.
UC Be keley Labo cen e Wo king Pape . Pp. 16-17.
60 ILO Wo king Pape 144
enough con ol o e con ac s a o be conside ed a ‘join employe ’. The NLRB has ejec ed
his line o easoning wice al eady, howe e Google is appealing bo h ulings in ede al cou .255
In 2021, he AWU o ganized suppo o a wo ke i ed om a Google da a cen e in Sou h
Ca olina, who was employed by he subcon ac o Modis, pa o he Adecco G oup. She wo ked
in a job ha in ol ed ixing se e s - alongside pe manen Google employees - and was suspend-
ed o speaking ou agains unequal condi ions. Following p essu e om AWU, he suspension
was o e u ned.256
In Ap il 2023, o y-one You ube Music wo ke s hi ed ia Cognizan Technology Solu ions Co p.
joined AWU-CWA in a unanimous o e. Less han a yea la e , he en i e eam was ab up ly laid
o in wha bo h Google and Cognizan claimed we e 'p e-planned con ac expi a ions'. Howe e ,
wo ke s s a ed ha hei con ac s had been ou inely enewed o yea s p io and ha hey be-
lie ed hey we e being e alia ed agains o union ac i i ies.257
Simila ly, when Google Help wo ke s con ac ed h ough Accen u e launched hei own unioni-
za ion campaign, hey we e quickly me wi h wa es o layo s. Some wo ke s we e o ced o ain
hei o e seas eplacemen s be o e hei jobs we e cu . S a had been educed om 120 o less
han 30 since he beginning o he unioniza ion e o s in June 2023.
258
Ne e heless, AWU secu ed
i s i s , his o ic, con ac wi h Accen u e in Decembe 2024, which included p o isions gua an-
eeing ully emo e wo k, 30-days’ no ice and six weeks o se e ance pay o layo s, jus -cause
p o ec ions, and a p ohibi ion on keys oke o mouse moni o ing so wa e.259 AWU’s Execu i e
Boa d Sec e a y s a ed: 'As subcon ac o s o Google we ha e been a cana y in he AI coalmine
calling ou he p eca ious labo condi ions we ace being he human wo ke s s anding be ween
la ge language models and hei end use s'.260 The P esiden o AWU obse ed ha his ag ee-
men was a ic o y ha unde sco ed ' he impo ance o solida i y ac oss he a i icial ba ie s
which co po a ions inc easingly ely on o lowe labo s anda ds and educe wo ke powe '.261
255 Eidelson, J. & Alba, D. (No 6, 2023) Google Con en W i e s a Accen u e Vo e o Join Union. Bloombe g. h ps://www.bloombe g.
com/news/a icles/2023-11-06/google- ech-suppo -con ac -wo ke s- o e- o-join-union
256 Clay on, J. (2021) The woman who ook on Google and won. BBC, Ap il 7, 2021. h ps://www.bbc.com/news/ echnology-56659212
257 Da is, P.M. (Ap il 30, 2024) Con ac ech wo ke s unionize in hopes o job secu i y in a p eca ious indus y. Texas S anda d. h ps://
www. exass anda d.o g/s o ies/con ac - ech-wo ke s-unionize-in-hopes-o -job-secu i y-in-a-p eca ious-indus y/
258 Council, S. (Ma ch 5, 2024) Second g oup o con ac ed Google wo ke s laid o a e o ming union. SFGa e. h ps://www.s ga e.com/
ech/a icle/you ube-music-union-google-layo -18703954.php
259
Alphabe Wo ke s Union, CWA Local 9009 (Dec 18, 2024) Google Help Wo ke s Ra i y Con ac Wi h Accen u e, Fi s in Alphabe Wo ke s
Union-CWA His o y. h ps://www.alphabe wo ke sunion.o g/p ess/google-help-wo ke s- a i y-collec i e-con ac -wi h-accen u e- i s -
in-alphabe -wo ke s-union-cwa-his o y
260 Taylo , J. (Jan 23, 2024) P eca ious condi ions o AI ‘ghos wo ke s’ e ealed by Google e mina ion o Appen con ac , union says. The
Gua dian. h ps://www. hegua dian.com/aus alia-news/2024/jan/23/p eca ious-condi ions-o -ai-ghos -wo ke s- e ealed-by-google-
e mina ion-o -appen-con ac -union-says
261
Alphabe Wo ke s Union, CWA Local 9009 (Dec 18, 2024) Google Help Wo ke s Ra i y Con ac Wi h Accen u e, Fi s in Alphabe Wo ke s
Union-CWA His o y. h ps://www.alphabe wo ke sunion.o g/p ess/google-help-wo ke s- a i y-collec i e-con ac -wi h-accen u e- i s -
in-alphabe -wo ke s-union-cwa-his o y

61 ILO Wo king Pape 144
A mo e ecen campaign has ocused on a change in Google’s policy o manda e a minimum wage
o a leas $15 a i s supplie s and con ac o s.262 AWU a ibu es his change o conce ns wi h
a oiding join employe liabili y, as hei in e e ence in wage se ing p ac ices could be used o
a gue ha hey a e a ‘join employe ’ in his case. AWU is o ganizing o demand imp o emen s
in pay and bene i s o hese wo ke s - ocusing on quali y a e s o Google Sea ch, Gemini, and
o he Google p oduc s. Ano he campaign ocuses on winning pay pa i y o all Temps, Vendo s,
and Con ac o s.
The Alphabe Wo ke s Union case is an example o solida i y among ech wo ke s, wi h explic-
i suppo o imp o ing condi ions ac oss issu ed AI alue chains. I shows he impo ance o
bo h bo om-up o ganizing and solida i y om wo ke s wi h g ea e ins i u ional powe - and
also illus a es he way in which insecu e con ac employmen is expanding alongside mo e
pe manen jobs wi hin he same ‘Global No h’ coun y.
Alphabe , oge he wi h o he leading ech i ms, also subcon ac s wo k in i s AI alue chain o
lowe wage coun ies in he Global Sou h. In Case s udy 5 below, we examine a case o ‘bo om
up’ labo o ganizing in Kenya, h ough he Kenyan Con en Mode a o s Union.
XCase s udy 5: Embedding AI labo in A ica: he Kenyan Con en Mode a o s Union
Wi h he ise in AI models, demand has inc eased o 'da a jani o ial se ices' o s uc u e
and classi y la ge amoun s o da a.263 The wo k is labo in ensi e and equi es human in-
elligence. Wo ke s iden i y and ag objec s in images, o label audio and ideo messages
known as da a anno a ion. O he asks include con en mode a ion and ma ching in o ma-
ion o be e sea ch engine op imiza ion. Companies such as OpenAI and Me a a e ou -
sou cing hei da a anno a ion p ojec s o i ms such as Sama and IMe i ha hi e people
in Global Sou h coun ies like Kenya, Sou h A ica and India. OpenAI had con ac ed wi h
Sama o label ens o housands o snippe s o ex ha some imes desc ibed dis u bing
si ua ions in g aphic de ail. This wo k would con ibu e o a ool OpenAI was building o
de ec oxic con en , which was e en ually buil in o Cha GPT.264 Jou nalis ic co e age o
his kind o wo k has ound ha wo ke s o en expe ience long e m men al heal h issues
and epo ange o anxie y esponses due o cons an exposu e o dis u bing images.
Some wo ke s qui due o su e ing om pos - auma ic s ess diso de . Many a e una-
ble o ecei e an o icial diagnosis due o he inabili y o a o d men al heal h ca e. While
Sama o e s on si e counselling se ices, wo ke s do no us counselo s o ha e been
e used b eaks. In esponse o hese poo wo king condi ions, many Sama wo ke s qui
in 2019. O he s a emp ed o unionize.
Ea ly S ikes and Legal Ac ion. In he summe o 2019, con en mode a o s a Sama
h ea ened o s ike unless hey we e gi en be e pay and condi ions wi hin se en days.
The company esponded by i ing one o he leade s o he s ike, Daniel Mo aung, who
was a emp ing o egis e he union. The company old o he pa icipa ing wo ke s ha
262 Allen, T. (2024) I’m paid $14 an hou o a e AI-gene a ed Google sea ch esul s. Subcon ac o s like me do key wo k bu don’ ge ai
wages o bene i s. Fo une, May 3, 2024. h ps:// o une.com/2024/05/03/google-sea ch- a e s-wages-bene i s-con ac o s- ech-ai-
employmen /
263 Bischo , C., Kamoche, K., & Wood, G. (2024). The o mal and in o mal egula ion o labo in AI: The expe ience o Eas e n and Sou he n
A ica. ILR Re iew, 77(5), 825–835.
264
Pe igo, Billy. (2023, Janua y 18). OpenAI Used Kenyan Wo ke s on Less Than $2 Pe Hou : Exclusi e. Time. h ps:// ime.com/6247678/
openai-cha gp -kenya-wo ke s/
62 ILO Wo king Pape 144
hey could qui i hey el he condi ions we e unsa is ac o y. The s ike ended and he e
was no pay inc ease.265
Howe e , Mo aung sued Facebook and Samasou ce Kenya EPZ L d, o alleged wo ke s’
igh s iola ions, including exploi a ion, union bus ing and pay disc imina ion. Mo aung
claimed he wo k iola ed his basic human igh s due o men al heal h and exposu e o
depic ions o iolence. Me a challenged he cou ’s ju isdic ion in his case, saying i could
no be a pa y since i was no egis e ed in Kenya. This appeal was s uck down by he
Kenyan Employmen and Labo Rela ions cou in 2023, howe e , which ound Me a could
be sued in Kenya.266
In a ela ed case, 183 con en mode a o s sued Me a and i s con ac o Sama o e unlaw ul
and un ai e mina ion o employmen con ac s. The Kenyan Human Righ s Commission,
he Minis y o Labo and he Cen al O ganiza ion o T ade Unions we e named as in e -
es ed pa ies. The wo ke s alleged ha hey had been engaged by Me a and we e ec ui -
ed o wo k o he company by Sama; and ha hey we e e mina ed because Mo aung
iled a cons i u ional pe i ion challenging he g oss iola ion o he mode a o ’s igh s.
The pe i ion is unp eceden ed. I makes a case o holding Sama esponsible o labo io-
la ions, bu also Facebook and i s pa en company Me a, as hey a e in eali y he employe
o he mode a o s. The pe i ion explains ha Me a is 'in cha ge o all ac o s o p oduc ion
including Con en Mode a ion which akes place a he wo kplace […]. The digi al wo kplace
is i ed wi h Su eillance ea u es which keep ack o all he wo k done, he ime spen
on each assignmen and mo emen s o he Facebook Con en Mode a o s. The amoun
o ime spen a he digi al wo kplace oge he wi h o he me ics is compu ed and billed
o each con en mode a o . Thei pe o mance is e lec ed on hei payslip which shows
he e is a di ec connec ion be ween hei wo k and hei pay.'267
The pe i ion asked o o de s decla ing he e mina ions o be unlaw ul, and ha he mod-
e a o s we e engaged h ough inadequa e pay and wo king condi ions. I seeks compen-
sa o y damages wo h $1.6 Billion. In addi ion, he mode a o s demanded ha Me a co e
he li elong cos s o men al heal h se ices o any men al heal h issues mode a o s may
ha e de eloped om hei wo k.
Fo ming he A ican Con en Mode a o s Union: The pe i ion demanded ha Me a
and Sama ecognize he wo ke s’ igh o o m a union and alk abou hei wo k. Mopha
Okinyi, he Chai pe son o he A ican Con en Mode a o s Union since 2023, obse ed,
'One o he bigges challenges has been he use o non-disclosu e ag eemen s (NDAs) and
ou -o -cou se lemen s ha silence wo ke s om sha ing hei expe iences. Addi ionally,
he lack o ecogni ion o unions by some ech companies and he dispe sion o emo e
wo k o ces make o ganizing and nego ia ing mo e di icul .'268
In May 2023, 150 con en mode a o s o ed a a landma k Nai obi mee ing o egis e
a Con en Mode a o s Union.269 Ini ially, he union’s a emp o egis e was ejec ed by
265 Pe igo, Billy. (2022, May 11). Me a Accused O Human T a icking and Union-Bus ing in Kenya. Time, May 11, 2022. h ps:// ime.
com/6175026/ acebook-sama-kenya-lawsui /
266 Pe i ion E071 o 2022. (2023, Feb ua y 6). Kenya Law. h ps://kenyalaw.o g/caselaw/cases/ iew/250879/
267 Cons i u ional Pe i ion E052 o 2023, 2023
268 Mopha Okinyi, Email In e iew, Decembe 22, 2024
269 Pe igo, Billy. (2023, May 1). 150 A ican Wo ke s o AI Companies Vo e o Unionize. Time. h ps:// ime.com/6275995/cha gp - acebook-
a ican-wo ke s-union/
63 ILO Wo king Pape 144
he Labo Depa men since he e we e o he collec i e ba gaining bodies ha ep e-
sen ed he same kind o wo ke s. In Kenya, wo unions a e no allowed o ep esen he
in e es s o he same indus y o wo ke s. To sol e his issue, he ACMU allied wi h he
Communica ion Wo ke s Union o Kenya (COWU-K) and is ans o ming in o he A ican
Con en Mode a o s Associa ion. I ep esen s abou 300 wo ke s ac oss con ac o s like
Telepe o mance (p e iously Majo el), Sama, Cloud Fac o y, Nex S a e Founda ion (called
S epwise in Kenya) and CCI. COWU-K is a adi ional labo union, wi h es ablished o gan-
izing s a egies. Th ough his pa ne ship, he Con en Mode a o s Union is also educa -
ing es ablished union leade ship abou new jobs like con en mode a ion. Howe e , he
union has no nego ia ed collec i e ag eemen s a he ime o w i ing.
Okinyi has also been pa o de eloping o he ci il socie y pla o ms ha help suppo he
Con en Mode a o s Union. He is he ounde o Techwo ke s Communi y A ica, which ed-
uca es young people on he bene i s and h ea s o AI a he wo kplace. He is also in ol ed
in ini ia i es wi h he Pa ne ship on AI, UNI Global Union, Solida i y Cen e , Siasa Place,
and o he ad ocacy g oups wo king o c ea e e hical s anda ds o AI deploymen . These
ini ia i es aim o in luence policies a na ional and in e na ional le els, including push-
ing o anspa ency, ai compensa ion, and p o ec ions agains algo i hmic exploi a ion.
Okinyi obse ed ha he success o hese campaigns was buil h ough bo h bo om up
o ganizing and building coali ions wi h labo unions wi h o ganiza ional capaci y a na-
ional and in e na ional le el:
'Building us and ad ancing solida i y we e key s a egies. I used wo ke - o-wo ke com-
munica ion, s o y elling, and highligh ing sha ed challenges o c ea e a sense o uni y.
U ilizing digi al pla o ms o connec dispe sed wo ke s and pa ne ing wi h o ganiza ions
like he Communica ion Wo ke s Union o Kenya and UNI Global Union helped o build
collec i e powe and p o ide esou ces o o ganizing.'270
He also ou lined he union’s b oade goals: 'Unions should ad oca e o wo ke ep esen a-
ion in he design and go e nance o AI sys ems o ensu e ai and e hical p ac ices. They
should also educa e wo ke s abou hei igh s in AI-d i en wo kplaces and push o leg-
isla i e amewo ks ha p o ec labo igh s in he digi al age.'
This case demons a es he challenges aced by da a wo ke s and unions who a e seeking
o es ablish social dialogue wi h hei employe s, in issu ed AI alue chains ha in ol e
unequal powe ela ionships be ween lead ech i ms and hei subcon ac o s. Thei o -
ganizing and legal campaigns a e helping o aise public awa eness and p essu e o im-
p o e condi ions, which o ganize s hoped will lead o mo e o mal collec i e ba gaining
in he longe e m.
These wo cases illus a e bo h possibili ies o and challenges o s eng hening collec i e wo ke
oice and building inclusi e solida i y in he apidly g owing AI indus y. The indus y is o gan-
ized by and h ough majo ech i ms. Bu employmen condi ions a e de e mined by a decen-
alized ne wo k o con ac o s and pla o ms ha ace s ong p essu es o cu cos s, necessa y
o compe e o and keep con ac s. The ocus o unions’ o ganizing and social dialogue e o s
270 Mopha Okinyi, Email In e iew, 22 Decembe 2024
64 ILO Wo king Pape 144
has been on imp o ing condi ions ac oss hese issu ed AI alue chains h ough e-embedding
jobs in labo and social p o ec ions - wi h some (i s ill limi ed) successes.
2.4. Summa y
Labo unions and o he wo ke ep esen a i es ha e sough o in luence employe decisions con-
ce ning how hey deploy AI and algo i hms in he wo kplace h ough a ange o social dialogue
and o ganizing s a egies. Ou analysis abo e has di ided hese ac i i ies in o h ee ca ego ies,
based on ‘ac ion ields’ wi h dis inc social dialogue opics and goals: skills and employmen ( om
labo eplacing o complemen ing); algo i hmic managemen and moni o ing ( om labo con-
olling o empowe ing); and wo king condi ions and igh s in AI-enabled issu ing ( om labo
displacing o embedding).
Case s udy indings show di e en pa e ns o social dialogue p ac ices and ou comes ac oss
wo ld egions and coun ies. We ind he la ges numbe o examples in Eu ope o mo e o mal,
o ganized social dialogue h ough collec i e ba gaining ac oss hese h ee ac ion ields. Unions
and wo ks councils ha e nego ia ed comp ehensi e ag eemen s es ablishing job secu i y o dis-
missal p o ec ion igh s, s eng hening in es men s in skills and aining, and a icula ing clea
guidelines conce ning how employe s use AI ools. They ha e used s onge da a p o ec ion and
co-de e mina ion o ba gaining igh s o win b oad p o isions limi ing he use o algo i hmic
managemen so wa e o wo ke su eillance and es ablishing a ‘humanin-command’ app oach
in a g owing numbe o indus ies and i ms. AI e hics commi ees and o he join labo -manage-
men commi ees a e also being es ablished o o e see he ai ness o algo i hmic managemen
ools ─ mos no ably in Ge many. Bo h union o ganizing and social dialogue ins i u ions ha e
been mobilized o coun e he use o un anspa en algo i hms o di ec and e alua e wo ke s.
A he same ime, he ocus o ag eemen s di e s signi ican ly ac oss he Eu opean coun ies
we ha e examined. No dic unions ha e he mos o ganized social dialogue o e ‘labo comple-
men ing’ uses o AI, and he e is mo e widesp ead emphasis on limi ing ‘labo con ol’ ia algo-
i hmic managemen in F ance, I aly, and Spain. The Ge man case shows he mos comp ehen-
si e ag eemen s in bo h a eas, wi h unions and wo ks councils seeking o pu sue a combina ion
o pa ne ship-based in es men s in p oduc i i y imp o emen complemen ed by skill in es -
men s and limi s on algo i hmic con ol - mobilizing s ong co-de e mina ion igh s in his a ea.
Despi e hei weake labo laws, ba gaining igh s, and da a p o ec ion ules, US and Canadian
unions ha e also engaged in c ea i e social dialogue on AI wi h employe s, nego ia ing inno-
a i e ag eemen s ha encou age employe s o in es in wo ke skills and disc e ion, while e-
s ic ing in asi e moni o ing and con ol h ough algo i hms. C ea i e wo ke s - a is s, w i e s,
and ac o s - ha e won o iginal p o ec ions ha add ess wo ke con ol o e decisions conce n-
ing how hei wo k is complemen ed o eplaced by gene a i e AI, including owne ship o hei
own images and a . While he Eu opean cases we ha e discussed in his epo o en in ol ed
a combina ion o con lic and coope a ion, in many o he US cases, unions o ganized mo e p o-
ac ed s ikes o h ea ened indus ial ac ion o win AI p o ec ions. The case o ech wo ke o -
ganizing in he US shows a dis inc i e example o pu suing social dialogue ou side o o mal col-
lec i e ba gaining - including wi hin Alphabe , one o he lead i ms de eloping and deploying AI.
Be ween ou wo main Eas Asian cases, we obse e an in e es ing con as be ween p edomi-
nan ly coope a i e social dialogue in Japan, ocusing on p oduc i i y imp o emen s and upskill-
ing in a con ex o s uc u al labo sho ages, and labo mili ancy in Sou h Ko ea, ocused on e-
ins a ing wo ke s laid o due o au oma ion. Howe e , in he a ea o algo i hmic managemen ,
65 ILO Wo king Pape 144
case s udies in bo h coun ies show some deg ee o labo con lic , esol ed h ough wo ke mo-
biliza ion o legal challenges.
In India, B azil, he Dominican Republic, and Kenya, social dialogue on AI opics was mo e nas-
cen . In B azil, es ablished unions we e o ganizing b oade p ojec s ocused on egula ing AI
and encou aging skill upg ading in adi ional indus ies such as banking - whe e gende equi y
was also a ocus. One o he mos isible o hese ha e ocused on add essing p eca ious and
unsa e condi ions associa ed wi h AI-based issu ing in da a labeling and con en mode a ion
wo k in Kenya.
O e all, ou indings om his compa ison o social dialogue o e AI a indus y, company, and
wo kplace-le els demons a e a ange o c ea i e s a egies and ag eemen s ac oss he h ee
ac ion ields. These seek o encou age mo e socially bene icial and economically jus applica-
ions o hese new echnologies - bu also o ensu e ha hey a e p oduced and deployed unde
ai condi ions. Social dialogue on AI has been mos success ul in achie ing hese goals whe e
i ins i u ionalizes p o ec ions in new laws, policies, and collec i e ag eemen s o is g ounded in
an exis ing amewo k o ins i u ionalized p o ec ions. Howe e , newe o ganizing and mobili-
za ion e o s a e an impo an i s s ep o es ablishing hese mo e encompassing ins i u ions.

66 ILO Wo king Pape 144
XConclusion
In his epo , we ha e p esen ed case s udies o social dialogue o e AI and algo i hmic man-
agemen in di e en coun ies and wo ld egions. We a emp ed o iden i y cases ha ep esen
a c oss-sec ion o global de elopmen s; bu ou analysis is by no means comp ehensi e o com-
ple e. I does, howe e , illus a e he impo an ole ha social dialogue is playing in e na ionally
in suppo ing he ansi ion o a mo e jus and e hical ‘digi al economy’.
In his conclusion, we a emp o d aw some b oade lessons conce ning he condi ions ha
suppo e ec i e social dialogue ac oss he h ee ‘ac ion ields’ we ha e examined in ou epo :
om labo eplacing o complemen ing, labo con olling o empowe ing, and labo displacing
o embedding. We e u n he e o ou amewo k, de eloped in Sec ion 1.1 abo e, which ou lined
h ee ac o s o condi ions ha we a gued play an impo an ole in suppo ing mo e inclusi e
and e ec i e social dialogue on AI: cons ain s on employe exi , suppo o collec i e wo ke
oice, and s a egies o inclusi e solida i y.271 Figu e 1 - ep oduced below - illus a es he o e lap
o his amewo k wi h he h ee ‘ac ion ields’ we ha e o ganized his epo a ound.
XFigu e 1: Suppo ing social dialogue on AI h ough cons ain s on exi , suppo o oice, and s a egies o
solida i y
The social dialogue examples we ha e discussed in his epo can be seen as a emp s o es-
ablish o s eng hen cons ain s on employe exi and suppo o collec i e wo ke oice, while
deploying mo e inclusi e s a egies o solida i y. While all h ee play an impo an ole ac oss
271
Doellgas , V. (2022). Exi , oice, and solida i y: Con es ing p eca i y in he US and Eu opean elecommunica ions indus ies. Ox o d Uni e si y
P ess
67 ILO Wo king Pape 144
social dialogue and union campaigns, ou case s udies sugges ha each ac ion ield elies mos
cen ally on wo o he h ee ac o s.
Fi s , social dialogue encou aging a shi om labo eplacing o labo complemen ing uses o
AI equi es a combina ion o cons ain s on employe exi and suppo o collec i e wo k-
e oice. In he cases we e iewed, s ong employmen p o ec ions and skill in es men s we e
cen al goals - and hese made i mo e di icul o less desi able o i ms o exi hei in e nal
wo k o ce. Laws es ablishing clea ules and copy igh p o ec ions on he use o gene a i e AI
o ep oduce a , oice, o images a e one example. Collec i e ag eemen s ac oss coun ies p o-
ided job secu i y, commi men s o dec ease subcon ac ing, o suppo o e aining and ede-
ploying wo ke s. The mos widely publicized cases o nego ia ions in he US o e AI use in ilm,
ele ision, and game de elopmen all in ol ed clea nego ia ed cons ain s on companies’ abili y
o use AI o ‘exi ’ om a is s’ and w i e s’ pas igh s and con ac ual p o ec ions.
In addi ion, success ul social dialogue ac oss hese examples would no ha e been possible wi h-
ou s ong suppo o collec i e wo ke oice. In Eu ope, his suppo came om s ong pa -
icipa ion igh s and laws, as well as adi ions o s ong unions and ipa i e social dialogue.
Ac oss coun ies, wo ke mobiliza ion, in some cases ia s ikes, we e c ucial o winning s ong
ag eemen s on job secu i y o ha limi ed how employe s could use AI a wo k. S eng hening
wo ke oice - o es ablishing i s cen al ole in AI decision-making - has also been a key demand
o unions in social dialogue a na ional and Eu opean le els. And join p ojec s mapping need-
ed in es men s in skills and aining, such as in he B azilian banking indus y, as well as on in-
c easing p oduc i i y while e u ning hese gains o wo ke s, as in Japan’s AEON ag eemen s,
ce ainly elied on wo ke oice ia wo ke ep esen a i es o es ablish needs and oppo uni ies.
Second, social dialogue encou aging a shi om labo con olling o labo empowe ing uses
o AI equi es a combina ion o suppo o collec i e wo ke oice and s a egies o inclu-
si e labo solida i y. Ins i u ions and laws suppo ing collec i e oice ha e been a cen al ool
bu also key labo demand. In Ge many, o example, laws p o iding co-de e mina ion igh s
in cases whe e echnology was used o pe o mance and beha io con ol, o in Sweden, e-
qui emen s ha i ms nego ia e o e echnology’s impac s on heal h and sa e y, we e c ucial
o success ul social dialogue limi ing he in asi e use o algo i hmic managemen and p o ec -
ing wo ke disc e ion in he wo kplace. Ac oss coun ies, and pa icula ly in Eu ope and Sou h
Ko ea, da a p o ec ion laws we e impo an ools o con es ing wo ke su eillance and o p o-
iding wo ke ep esen a i es wi h in o ma ion on wha da a was being collec ed on wo ke s o
how i was used. And b igh line p ohibi ions o ce ain uses o AI o au oma e HR decisions o
use sen imen analysis ools in he wo kplace could suppo es ablishing mo e ai and ans-
pa en wo kplace ules. In addi ion, unions wo ldwide ha e sough o encou age p o isions in
laws and collec i e ag eemen s g an ing wo ke ep esen a i es s onge igh s o consul o
nego ia e o e hese ools.
S a egies o inclusi e labo solida i y a e pa icula ly impo an o egula ing algo i hmic man-
agemen because hese ools a e mo e in ensi ely and in asi ely deployed ac oss a con ac -
ed o issu ed wo k o ce. We p esen ed cases ha showed how adi ional unions and newe
wo ke o ganiza ions ha e ocused on limi ing he use o algo i hmic managemen and pe o -
mance moni o ing sys ems in ou sou ced BPO call cen e s and AI da a code s and con en mod-
e a o s. The case o Hyundai Hea y Indus ies in Sou h Ko ea shows he impo ance o solida -
i y be ween unions, in ha case o challenging he disc imina o y use o acial ecogni ion o
in-house subcon ac o s. Es ablishing be e sa egua ds agains bias in la ge language models,
and hei applica ion in he wo kplace, also equi es a solida is ic mo emen , cen e ing on in-
jus ice o wo ke s who also end o hold mo e p eca ious con ac s.
68 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Thi d, social dialogue encou aging a shi om labo displacing o labo embedding in AI-
enabled loca ion and o ganiza ional changes was mos success ul whe e i combined cons ain s
on employe exi wi h s a egies o inclusi e labo solida i y. In ou discussion o he Alphabe
Wo ke s Union and he Kenyan Con en Mode a o s Union, we saw he cen al impo ance o in-
clusi e solida i y in hese campaigns. Labo solida i y was necessa y o build a s ong mo emen
o ech wo ke s in p eca ious jobs a he bo om o he AI alue chain. I also was impo an in
ex ending ba gaining powe om mo e p o ec ed ech p o essionals, o build new ag eemen s
and ins i u ions ha cons ain employe exi om hese p o ec ions h ough s eng hening em-
ploymen s anda ds and p o ec ions o emps, endo s, and con ac o s.
In sum, social dialogue can and is playing a c ucial ole in encou aging an al e na i e, high oad
app oach o AI in es men s and uses in wo kplaces a ound he wo ld. In he end, we ind mo e
simila i ies han di e ences ac oss he case s udies we ha e p esen ed in his epo : oge he
hey illus a e he sha ed goals o wo ke s and hei unions o mo e hei employe s and go -
e nmen s owa d AI s a egies ha complemen , empowe , and embed hei labo . E o s o
p omo e mo e socially and economically sus ainable app oaches o new echnology adop ion
should ocus on es ablishing complemen a y ins i u ions and p ac ices ha a e designed by he
wo ke s mos di ec ly a ec ed by hese changes.
69 ILO Wo king Pape 144
Annex 1. Lis o in e iews and email communica ion
In e iews
Name and/o posi ion O ganiza ion Coun y Da e
Wo ks councilo 1 Deu sche Telekom Ge many 14 Augus 2024
Wo ks councilo 2 Deu sche Telekom Ge many 14 Augus 2024
Wo ks councilo IBM Ge many 26 July 2024
Wo ks councilo P on inzial Ge many 24 Oc obe 2024
F anca Salis-Manidie ,
Na ional sec e a y o he
CFDT, esponsible o
Eu opean and in e na ional
a ai s, digi al and a i icial
in elligence
F ench Democ a ic
Con ede a ion o Labo
(CFDT)
F ance 13 Janua y 2025
P incipal O ice Teams e s Local 2 USA 5 No embe 2024
Resea che Culina y Union, UNITE HERE
Local 226
USA 18 No embe 2024
Execu i e Vice P esiden ,
Gene al Counsel
SAG-AFTRA USA 6 No embe 2024
Uni Chai Zi -Da is C ea o s Guild-
WGA
USA 7 No embe 2024
Jayson Li le, S a
Rep esen a i e
Uni ed S eel Wo ke s Canada 6 No embe 2024
M . Koki Ueyama, Chie
Sec e a y
(In e iew conduc ed by
E iko Te amu a)
Fede a ion o AEON G oup
Wo ke s’ Unions
Japan 26 Decembe 2024
Rep esen a i es
(In e iew conduc ed by
E iko Te amu a)
Fede a ion o AEON G oup
Wo ke s’ Unions
Japan 2 Feb ua y 2025
Hyunju Kim, P esiden o
he DeunDeunHan Call
Cen e Union
DeunDeunHan Call Cen e
Union
Sou h Ko ea 26 Decembe 2024
Hanoi Sosa, o gan-
ize and sec e a y o
Wo ke s’ Educa ion o
Dominican ede a ion o
ee- ade zone wo ke s,
and sec e a y-gene al o
FEDOTRAZONAS.
Dominican Republic 15 No embe 2024
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