Employment and wage disparities between rural and urban areas

Ananian, Sé ane; Della e e a, Giulia
Wo king Pape
Employmen and wage dispa i ies be ween u al and
u ban a eas
ILO Wo king Pape , No. 107
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Ananian, Sé ane; Della e e a, Giulia (2024) : Employmen and wage dispa i ies
be ween u al and u ban a eas, ILO Wo king Pape , No. 107, ISBN 978-92-2-040443-0, In e na ional
Labou O ganiza ion (ILO), Gene a,
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XEmploymen and wage dispa i ies
be ween u al and u ban a eas
Au ho s / Sé ane Ananian, Giulia Della e e a
Feb ua y / 2024
ILO Wo king Pape 107
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01 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Abs ac
S a is ical e idence om 58 coun ies shows ha al hough people in u al a eas a e mo e likely
o be in employmen han hose in u ban ones, hey also end o ha e jobs ha can pu hem a
isk o expe iencing inadequa e labou p o ec ion as well as low pay. In pa icula , u al wo k-
e s a e paid, on a e age, 24 pe cen less han hei u ban coun e pa s on an hou ly basis, and
only hal o his gap can be explained by u al–u ban disc epancies in educa ion, job expe ience
and occupa ional ca ego y. De eloping coun ies exhibi a ela i ely wide gap, wi h he unex-
plained pa also being la ge . Fu he mo e, in many coun ies, ce ain g oups o u al wo ke s
a e a g ea e disad an age, such as women, who, on a e age, appea o ea n less han men in
u al a eas. Howe e , ins i u ional and egula o y amewo ks, no ably hose ha se minimum
wages o seek o p omo e equal oppo uni ies, can help o educe labou ma ke - ela ed ine-
quali ies ac oss he u al–u ban di ide.
Abou he au ho s
Sé ane Ananian
Sé ane Ananian joined he Resea ch Depa men o he In e na ional Labou O ganiza ion (ILO)
in Sep embe 2021. His ields o s udies include inequali ies and wage se ing ins i u ions. He
p e iously wo ked as a wage specialis based a he ILO Cai o o ice, whe e he p o ided sup-
po on wage policies o A ican coun ies. Fo me ly, he se ed as an economis a he s a is ical
se ice o he F ench minis y o labou (DARES) and as a appo eu o he F ench minimum
wage expe g oup.
Giulia Della e e a
Giulia Della e e a joined he Resea ch Depa men o he ILO in Augus 2023, whe e she ocus-
es on wo k- ela ed disc imina ion, inequali ies, iolence and ha assmen , as well as occupa ion-
al sa e y and heal h. P e iously, she wo ked on o ced displacemen a UNHCR P o ec ion Uni
o Belgium and Luxembou g, and as a legal associa e a ICRC Regional Delega ion in Pa is and
Genocide Wa ch. She is specialised in human igh s and in e na ional humani a ian law.

02 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Abs ac 01
Abou he au ho s 01
Ac onyms 07
XIn oduc ion 08
X1 Da aandde ini ions  10
A sample o household su eys om 58 coun ies 10
Na ionalde ini ionso u banand u ala eas  11
X2 Employmen in u al and u ban a eas 12
Ame hodology o analysing hedi e encesinlabou ma ke ou comesbe ween u aland
u bana easwhileaccoun ing o  hecha ac e is icso popula ions  12
E ena e con olling o ageandeduca ion,li ingina u ala eainc eases helikelihoodo 
employmen ac oss all coun y income g oups 13
Wo ke sin u ala easa emo elikely obesel -employed  14
X3 Wages in u al and u ban a eas 19
Highe p opo iono lowpaidwo ke sin u ala eas  19
Ru alemployees end oha elowe educa ionala ainmen andlessexpe ience hanu ban
employees, especially in de eloping coun ies 20
Aspeci icoccupa ionalp o ileo  u alemployees  21
Ru alemployeesea nona e age24pe cen less hanu banemployees,wi hhal o  ha 
gapexplainablebydi e encesin e mso educa ion,expe ienceandoccupa ion  23
On a e age, u al emale employees ea n less han hei male coun e pa s 27
Ru al–u banpaygapandminimumwages  28
X4 Legal amewo ks o  ackling u al–u banimbalancesinemploymen 
andwages  32
The ole o in e na ional labou s anda ds 32
In e na ional labou s anda ds on equali y and he elimina ion o disc imina ion in espec
o employmen and occupa ion 33
In e na ionallabou s anda dsonminimumwagesandwage-se ing  34
O he in e na ionallabou s anda dsdealingwi hwages  36
Na ional p ac ices ela ed o inequali ies in u al a eas 37
India’s Na ional Ru al Employmen Gua an ee Schemes: The impac o u al public wo ks on
ag icul u al wages 37
Table o con en s
03 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Aus ian legisla ion on gende equali y in u al a eas 38
XConclusions 40
Appendix  41
Re e ences 47
Acknowledgemen s  52
04 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Lis o Figu es
Figu e1.Sha eo womenamongemployees,bycoun yincomeg oup,2019o la es a aila-
ble yea (pe cen age) 15
Figu e2.Sha eo womenamongsel -employedwo ke s,bycoun yincomeg oup,2019o 
la es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 15
Figu eB.2.1Dis ibu iono sel employedwo ke sin u alandu bana easacco ding o
hei numbe o hou swo ked,bycoun yincomeg oup,2019o la es a ailableyea 
(pe cen age) 17
Figu e B.2.2 Dis ibu ion o employees in u al and u ban a eas acco ding o hei numbe o
hou swo ked,bycoun yincomeg oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  17
Figu e B.2.3. Sha e o empo a y con a c s in u al and u ban a eas, by coun y income
g oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  18
Figu e3.Sha eo  u alemployeesineachquin ileo  hewagedis ibu ion,bycoun yin-
comeg oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  20
Figu e4.Sha eo low-paidwo ke samong u alandu banemployees,bycoun yincome
g oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  20
Figu e 5. Dis ibu ion o u al and u ban employees acco ding o hei educa ional le el, by
coun yincomeg oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  21
Figu e 6. Dis ibu ion o u al and u ban employees acco ding o hei age g oup, by coun y
incomeg oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  21
Figu e 7. Dis ibu ion o occupa ions among u al and u ban employees, by coun y income
g oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  22
Figu e8.A e agepaygapbe ween u alandu banemployees,bycoun y,decomposed,
2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  25
Figu e9.Gende paygapin u alandu bana eas,bycoun yincomeg oup,2019o la es 
a ailable yea (pe cen age) 27
Figu e10.A e agewagegapbe ween u alandu banwo ke s,incoun ieswi haspeci ic
minimumwage o  heag icul u alsec o ,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)  29
Figu eB.5.1.Sha eo  u alsel -employedwo ke sineachquin ileo  hedis ibu iono in-
come omemploymen ,2019(pe cen age)  30
Figu eB.5.2.A e aageemploymen incomegapsbe ween u alandu bansel -employed
wo ke s,decomposed,2019(pe cen age)  30
Figu eB.5.3.Gende employmen incomegapamong u alandu bansel -employedwo k-
e s,2019,(pe cen age)  31
Figu eA1.Sha eo wo king-agepopula ionli ingin u ala easin hesampledcoun ies,
2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age).  41
Figu eA2.Sha eo low-paidemployeesin u ala easin hesampledcoun ies,2019o la -
es a ailable yea (pe cen age) 42
Figu e A3. Dis ibu ion o male and emale u al employees acco ding o hei le el o edu-
ca ionincoun ieswi hanega i e u algende paygap,2019o la es a ailableyea 
(pe cen age) 43
05 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Lis o Tables
Table1.E ec o li ingina u ala eaon hep obabili yo labou  o cepa icipa ion,unem-
ploymen andwageemploymen (pe cen agepoin s)  14
TableA1.Na ionalda asou cesused oanalyse u alandu banemploymen andwages  43
12 ILO Wo king Pape 107
X2 Employmen in u al and u ban a eas
A me hodology o analysing he di e ences in labou ma ke
ou comes be ween u al and u ban a eas while accoun ing o
he cha ac e is ics o popula ions
The labou ma ke ou comes obse ed o people li ing in u al and u ban a eas may di e pa ly
because o disc epancies in socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics be ween hese wo popula ions.
Indeed, su eys o censuses a ailable o a ange o coun ies sugges no iceable di e ences
in educa ional a ainmen be ween u ban and u al popula ions (Popula ion Re e ence Bu eau
2015; Uni ed S a es Census Bu eau 2016). I such cha ac e is ics a e associa ed wi h speci ic la-
bou ma ke ou comes, u al–u ban dispa i ies a e also likely o be ound in he la e .10
In ha ega d, aking in o accoun he di e ences in obse ed socio‑demog aphic cha ac e is ics
is a key s ep in he analysis o u al–u ban dispa i ies in labou ma ke ou comes such as labou
o ce pa icipa ion, unemploymen and s a us in employmen (wage employmen s. sel -employ-
men ). To allow o he di e en composi ions o u al and u ban popula ions, he econome ic
echnique o logis ic eg ession is applied o a da a se cons uc ed om he pooled coun y su -
eys selec ed o he analysis (see box 1 o u he de ails o he echnique). This me hodology
makes i possible o assess how he p obabili ies o he labou ma ke ou comes unde s udy
a e a ec ed by li ing in a u al a ea, while a he same ime disen angling his impac om ha
o o he obse ed cha ac e is ics, such as educa ion and age.
XBox1.Es ima ing hee ec o li ingina u ala eaon hep obabili yo selec edlabou ma ke ou comes
To gauge he e ec o li ing in a u al a ea on he p obabili y o labou o ce pa icipa ion,
unemploymen and wage employmen , a logis ic eg ession model is es ima ed sepa a e-
ly o men and women in a pooled da a se including all he sampled su eys (See able
A1 in he appendix). This econome ic app oach in ol es es ima ing he pa ame e s α, γ,
and β in he ollowing equa ion:






PY e
()=
1
1+
1
αγRu Xβ−( ++)
whe e P(Y) is he p obabili y ha Y happens, wi h Y e e ing, a iously, o labou o ce pa -
icipa ion, unemploymen and being an employee ( s. being sel -employed). In addi ion,
in equa ion (1), α is a cons an , Ru is a dummy indica ing whe he he pe son su eyed is
in a u al o u ban a ea, and X deno es a se o con ol a iables.
Fo labou ma ke pa icipa ion and unemploymen , he con ol a iables a e he educa-
ional a ainmen (lowe ‑seconda y school le el o below; uppe ‑seconda y school; abo e
10 Va ious ac o s may explain he disc epancies in educa ional a ainmen o en obse ed be ween u al and u ban a eas, such as he
need o u al s uden s o mo e away om home o pu sue a pos -seconda y educa ion since ele an educa ional ins i u ions a e
a e in u al a eas; o u al job ma ke s being mainly cha ac e ized by sec o s (such as ag icul u e o manu ac u ing) ha do no e-
qui e highe educa ion c eden ials (see Weiss and Heinz-Fische 2022 o he s a e o esea ch on he educa ion o young adul s in
u al a eas). In addi ion, a ecen s udy has poin ed o how disad an ageous na u al physical and social en i onmen s (such as he
cul u al a i udes o pa en s) can lead o low le els o educa ional a ainmen in some a eas (Xiang and S illwell 2023).

13 ILO Wo king Pape 107
seconda y school), he age g oup (15–24 yea s, 25–55 yea s and 55+ yea s) and a coun y
dummy o allow o coun y‑ ixed e ec s.
When es ima ing he p obabili y o wage employmen , he con ol a iables also include
he esponden ’s occupa ion acco ding o he In e na ional S anda d Classi ica ion o
Occupa ions (ISCO‑08), wi h he majo g oups agg ega ed in o six ca ego ies (“Manage s,
p o essionals and echnicians”, “Cle ical suppo , se ice and sales wo ke s”, “Skilled ag i-
cul u al, o es y, ishe y, c a and ela ed ades wo ke s”, “Plan and machine ope a o s,
and assemble s”, “Elemen a y occupa ions” and “A med o ces occupa ions”). This makes
i possible o con ol o possible di e ences in s a us in employmen ha could de i e
om wo ke s’ occupa ions.
Based on his es ima ion, he esul s epo ed in able 1 a e compu ed (called “a e age
ma ginal e ec s”). They co espond o he inc ease (o dec ease) in he p obabili y o he
e en Y ( ha is, labou o ce pa icipa ion, unemploymen o wage employmen ) induced
by he e en “Ru = 1” ( esidence in a u al a ea).
E en a e con olling o age and educa ion, li ing in a u al
a ea inc eases he likelihood o employmen ac oss all coun y
income g oups
Li ing in a u al a ea has a posi i e impac on he likelihood o labou ma ke pa icipa ion. On
a e age ac oss coun ies, esidence in a u al a ea inc eases he likelihood o pa icipa ion in he
labou ma ke by 5 pe cen age poin s o bo h men and women ( able 1). The impac o he a ea
o esidence is signi ican a each le el o de elopmen excep o women in high‑income coun-
ies. In hese coun ies, women do no appea o pa icipa e in he labou ma ke o a g ea e
ex en when hey li e in a u al a ea, all o he obse ed cha ac e is ics being equal.
Fu he mo e, among labou ma ke pa icipan s, li ing in a u al a ea educes he likelihood o be-
ing unemployed o bo h men and women. Depending on he coun y income g oup conside ed,
he likelihood o being unemployed is educed by 2 o 4 pe cen age poin s in he e en o li ing in
a u al a ea. Like he es ima es ela ed o labou ma ke pa icipa ion, hese esul s a e likely o
e lec he o e all income gap be ween u al and u ban a eas and he g ea e incen i es o u al
inhabi an s o ake up any job so as o imp o e hei ma e ial si ua ion (including when con olling
o educa ion and age). This p essu e on u al inhabi an s may be compounded by he challenges
o job sea ching in emo e a eas, such as in equen anspo and lack o employmen se ices.
11
11 By de ini ion, a pe son o wo king age is unemployed i he o she was (a) wi hou wo k du ing he e e ence pe iod, ha is, was no
in paid employmen o sel ‑employmen ; (b) cu en ly a ailable o wo k, ha is, was a ailable o paid employmen o sel ‑employ-
men du ing he e e ence pe iod; and (c) seeking wo k, ha is, had aken speci ic s eps in a speci ied ecen pe iod o seek paid em-
ploymen o sel -employmen .
14 ILO Wo king Pape 107
XTable1.E ec o li ingina u ala eaon hep obabili yo labou  o cepa icipa ion,unemploymen and
wageemploymen (pe cen agepoin s)
All coun ies
High-income
coun ies
Uppe -middle-
income coun-
ies
Lowe -middle-
income coun-
ies
Low-income
coun ies
Labou o ce pa icipa ion
Men 5.3*** 3.9*** 6.3*** 5.4*** 3***
Women 4.7*** 0.1 5*** 4.8*** 4.2***
Unemploymen
Men –3.1*** –2.6*** –4.3*** –2.6*** –2.5***
Women –3.7*** –2.4*** –4.4*** –2.9*** –4.2***
Wageemploymen ( s.sel -employmen )
Men –12.6*** –9.4*** –11.9*** –12.8*** –12.8***
Women –10.5*** –7*** –13.8*** –10.5*** –8.7***
No e 1: *** Indica es ha he esul is s a is ically di e en om 0, a a signi icance le el o 1 pe cen .
No e 2: The esul s o labou o ce pa icipa ion e e o he whole wo king-age popula ion. Those o unemploymen a e es i-
ma ed o he popula ion in he labou o ce. Those o s a us in employmen (wage employmen s. sel -employmen ) a e es-
ima ed o he employed popula ion.
No e 3: Labou o ce pa icipa ion and unemploymen models con ol o age and educa ion. The s a us-in-employmen model
(wage employmen s. sel -employmen ), ea u es occupa ional ca ego y as an addi ional con ol.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019 o la es a ailable yea . See he appendix o
mo e de ails.
Wo ke s in u al a eas a e mo e likely o be sel -employed
The hi d se o esul s om he econome ic models es ima ed he e sugges s ha wo ke s’ s a-
us in employmen is subs an ially a ec ed by hei a ea o esidence, e en a e con olling o
educa ion, age and occupa ional ca ego y. Indeed, on a e age ac oss coun ies, li ing in a u al
a ea educes he likelihood o being an employee by 13 and 11 pe cen age poin s o men and
women, espec i ely.12 This e ec is also signi ican in high‑income coun ies, hough he mag-
ni ude appea s o be sligh ly lowe compa ed wi h coun ies a o he le els o de elopmen (9
and 7 pe cen age poin s o men and women, espec i ely).
The highe likelihood o u al wo ke s being sel -employed can be a cause o conce n i no ad-
equa e amewo k is in place o ensu e ha such wo ke s a e co e ed by labou law and social
p o ec ion. Sel -employmen has indeed been ound o be he s a us in employmen associa ed
wi h he highes sha e o in o mali y (ILO 2018b). In pa icula , he social p o ec ion co e age
o sel -employed wo ke s s ill lags behind ha o employees in many coun ies (ILO and OECD
2020; ILO 2021a). This con i ms how special a en ion should be paid o ex ending labou p o-
ec ions o all wo ke s in u al a eas.
Finally, al hough he e ec s o li ing in a u al a ea on he a ious labou ma ke ou comes epo -
ed in able 1 a e in mos cases ela i ely simila o women and men, gende - ela ed u al–u ban
12 In his pape , s a us in s a us in employmen is based on he classi ica ion adop ed by he 15 h In e na ional Con e ence o Labou
S a is icians (ICLS) in Janua y 1993, namely he In e na ional Classi ica ion o S a us in Employmen , 1993 (ICSE‑93). Howe e , he 20 h
ICLS in Oc obe 2018 adop ed a esolu ion ha includes a new classi ica ion (ICSE‑18) aimed a e lec ing he inc easing unce ain y
ega ding he bounda y be ween sel -employmen , paid employmen and non-s anda d o ms o employmen , such as “dependen ”
con ac o s and sho - e m and ze o-hou con ac s (ILO 2023a). ICSE-18 is s uc u ed a ound he wo ca ego ies o “independen ”
and “dependen ” wo ke s, wi h he la e including employees.
15 ILO Wo king Pape 107
disc epancies a e isible when one looks a he aw sha es o women in employmen . Speci ically,
on a e age ac oss he coun ies s udied, women ep esen only 32 pe cen o employees in u-
al a eas, compa ed wi h 38 pe cen in u ban a eas (see igu e 1). Beyond he speci ic impac o
li ing in a u al a ea on women’s labou ma ke ou comes, gende imbalances in u al employ-
men also esul om he socio-demog aphic cha ac e is ics o he u al emale popula ion and
hei e ec s on hese ou comes.
XFigu e1.Sha eo womenamongemployees,by
coun yincomeg oup,2019o la es a ailable
yea (pe cen age)
XFigu e2.Sha eo womenamongsel -em-
ployedwo ke s,bycoun yincomeg oup,
2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019 o la es a ailable yea . See he appendix o
mo e de ails.
Alongside di e ences in he likelihood o employmen , jobs in u al and u ban a eas also di e
no iceably in e ms o wo king ime. In ha ega d, a desc ip i e assessmen is p o ided in box 2.
Especially in de eloping coun ies, he numbe o wo king hou s o he sel -employed ends o
be lowe in u al a eas han in u ban ones. On ano he no e, u al employees a e mo e exposed
o empo a y con ac ual a angemen s han hei u ban coun e pa s.
XBox2.Wo king imein u alandu bana eas
Wo kingbeyond48hou saweekismo ecommoninu bana eas ha in u alones,
especiallyamong hesel -employed
Too ew o i egula wo king hou s may expose indi iduals o speci ic isks, such as insu i-
cien income. On he o he hand, excessi e wo king hou s a e associa ed wi h heal h isks,
including ischaemic hea disease and s oke (Pega e al. 2021). An o e iew o wo king
ime in u al and u ban a eas is he e o e p o ided he e, based on a subsample o coun-
ies wi h a ailable in o ma ion o bo h he sel -employed and employees.
Among he sel -employed, a smalle p opo ion in u al a eas wo k mo e han 48 hou s pe
week compa ed wi h u ban a eas ( igu e B.2.1). On a e age ac oss coun ies, 28 pe cen
o sel -employed wo ke s in u al a eas wo k mo e han 48 hou s pe week, whe eas his
is he case o jus 38 pe cen o such wo ke s in u ban a eas. On he o he hand, a highe
sha e o sel -employed wo ke s in u al a eas wo k ewe han 20 hou s pe week, espe-
cially in de eloping coun ies (3 o 4 pe cen age poin s highe , depending on he coun y
income g oup). Among u ban sel -employed wo ke s, he sha e o hose who wo k long
hou s – mo e han 55 hou s pe week – is pa icula ly high (be ween 22 and 27 pe cen ).
As a esul , in de eloping coun ies, he median wo king ime o sel -employed wo ke s
is lowe in u al a eas. On a e age, ac oss middle- and low-income coun ies, he median
wo king ime o he sel -employed is 40 hou s pe week in u al a eas, compa ed wi h 46
16 ILO Wo king Pape 107
hou s in u ban ones. In high-income coun ies he gap is conside ably smalle (41 and 40
hou s pe week in u al and u ban a eas, espec i ely).
In con as , employees’ wo king hou s a e homogeneous ac oss u al and u ban a eas in he
selec ed coun ies conside ed he e, excep in he low-income ones. Rega dless o whe he
hey li e in a u al o u ban a ea, a ound one in en employees in high-income coun ies
wo ks mo e han 48 hou s, whe eas his is he case o one in ou and one in h ee wo k-
e s in uppe ‑ and lowe ‑middle‑income coun ies, espec i ely ( igu e B.2.2). The homo-
genei y o he wo king hou s o employees ac oss u ban and u al a eas can be explained
by he ac ha wo ke s in his ca ego y a e co e ed by labou igh s o a ela i ely g ea e
ex en and a e less likely o be in o mal. Ac oss he low-income coun ies in he sample,
howe e , he sha e o employees wo king mo e han 55 hou s is on a e age subs an ially
highe in u al a eas han in u ban ones. In addi ion, he exposu e o employees o long
wo king hou s seems o be linked o a coun y’s le el o de elopmen . Speci ically, wage
employmen appea s o be mo e p o ec ed agains long hou s in high-income coun ies,
whe e ewe han 5 pe cen o employees wo k mo e han 55 hou s.
17 ILO Wo king Pape 107
XFigu e B.2.1 Dis ibu ion o sel employed
wo ke sin u alandu bana easacco ding
o hei numbe o hou swo ked,bycoun-
yincomeg oup,2019o la es a ailable
yea (pe cen age)
XFigu e B.2.2 Dis ibu ion o employees in
u al and u ban a eas acco ding o hei
numbe o hou swo ked,bycoun yin-
comeg oup,2019o la es a ailableyea 
(pe cen age)
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019 o la es a ailable yea , and d awing
on a subsample o 52 coun ies wi h in o ma ion on he wo king hou s o bo h sel -employed wo ke s and employees.
See able A1 in he appendix o mo e de ails.
Tempo a yemploymen ismo ewidesp eadin u ala eas
Al hough in mos coun ies employees in u al a eas ha e simila wo king hou s o hose
li ing in ci ies, hei con ac ual a angemen s appea o be mo e p eca ious. On a e age,
ac oss a subsample o 34 coun ies wi h a ailable in o ma ion on wo ke s’ ype o con ac ,
43 pe cen o employees in u al a eas ha e a empo a y con ac , which is 8 pe cen -
age poin s mo e han in u ban a eas ( igu e B.2.3). The mo e equen use o empo a y
con ac s in u al a eas can be obse ed in coun ies a e e y le el o de elopmen and
may be explained in pa by he seasonali y o wo k in ag icul u e and associa ed sec o s.
O e all, he sha e o empo a y wo ke s among employees in bo h u al and u ban a eas
ends o be highe in de eloping coun ies, whe e in o mal wo k is mo e widesp ead in
connec ion wi h p eca ious employmen such as casual wo k (ILO 2016a). Wi hou an ap-
p op ia e legal amewo k, empo a y employmen can be a sou ce o insecu i y and pu
people a a disad an age in he labou ma ke , especially in imes o economic slowdown.

18 ILO Wo king Pape 107
XFigu eB.2.3.Sha eo  empo a ycon a c sin u alandu bana eas,bycoun yincomeg oup,2019o 
la es a ailable yea (pe cen age)
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019 o la es a ailable yea , and d awing on
a subsample o 34 coun ies wi h in o ma ion on empo a y con ac s. See able A1 in he appendix o mo e de ails.
19 ILO Wo king Pape 107
X3 Wages in u al and u ban a eas
We now u n o he analysis o he employmen income, as his labou ma ke ou come is c u-
cial o he wo king condi ions and li elihoods o wo ke s. The analysis ocuses on he wages o
employees – a decision guided by da a- ela ed conside a ions, since ew labou o ce and house-
hold su eys collec eliable in o ma ion on income om sel -employmen . None heless, an anal-
ysis o u al and u ban income om sel -employmen is unde aken a he end o he sec ion
o wo coun ies whose su eys include eliable in o ma ion in ha espec (box 5). Those wo
examples illus a e ha u al and u ban incomes om sel -employmen exhibi simila pa e ns
o hose obse ed o wages.
Highe p opo ion o low paid wo ke s in u al a eas
Ru al employees’ ea nings a e o be ound nea he i s ungs o hei coun ies’ wage ladde .
Indeed, on a e age ac oss he sample, 49 pe cen o u al employees ea n a wage ha is below
he second quin ile o he wages in hei coun y, meaning ha hei hou ly wage was less han
he wages ea ned by 60 pe cen o all employees in bo h u ban and u al a eas ( igu e 3). The
sha e o u al wo ke s a he bo om o he wage dis ibu ion is sligh ly la ge in high- and up-
pe -middle-income coun ies, whe e 52 pe cen o such wo ke s ea n below he second quin ile
o he wage dis ibu ion, compa ed wi h 48 pe cen in lowe -middle- and low-income coun ies.13
The concen a ion o u al wo ke s in he lowe ail o he wage dis ibu ion pa icula ly exposes
hem o low pay, a ela i e measu e indica ing a wage below wo hi ds o he coun y’s median
hou ly wage.14 Ac oss he sampled coun ies, on a e age 33 pe cen o employees in u al a e-
as a e low‑paid, compa ed wi h jus 21 pe cen o u ban employees ( igu e 4). In addi ion, his
pa e n is independen o he le el o de elopmen , as he sha e o low-paid employees is high-
e in u al a eas han u ban ones o each coun y income g oup.
Among he coun ies in he sample, he sha e o u al low-paid employees is he highes in
Hondu as and Namibia, eaching 56 pe cen in bo h coun ies. These wo coun ies also ha e
he wides u al–u ban gap in e ms o low-paid employees, as only 22 pe cen and 28 pe cen ,
espec i ely, o hei employees in u ban a eas all in o ha ca ego y (see igu e A2 in he ap-
pendix). A he o he end o he spec um, he sha e o low-paid u al employees is he lowes
in Jo dan (10 pe cen ).
13 The dis ibu ion o u al and u ban wages p esen ed he e does no ake in o accoun he di e ence in local p ices be ween u al and
u ban a eas. In e ms o pu chasing powe a he local le el, he u al and u ban dis ibu ions may he e o e be di e en om hose
p esen ed in igu es 3 and 4 (see u he down o a discussion o he p ice di e en ial be ween u al and u ban a eas).
14 Low pay was s a is ically de ined in ILO (2012).
20 ILO Wo king Pape 107
XFigu e 3. Sha e o u al employees in each quin-
ileo  hewagedis ibu ion,bycoun yin-
comeg oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe -
cen age)
XFigu e4.Sha eo low-paidwo ke samong u-
al and u ban employees, by coun y income
g oup,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen -
age)
No e: An employee is conside ed o be low-paid i he o she is paid less han wo hi ds o he median hou ly wage in he coun-
y in ques ion.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019 o la es a ailable yea . See he appendix o
mo e de ails.
Despi e a highe concen a ion o u al employees a he lowes end o he wage dis ibu ion
in high- and uppe -middle-income coun ies, he sha e o low-paid employees in hese coun y
income g oups is smalle han in lowe -middle- and low-income coun ies ( espec i ely, 15 and
17 pe cen , compa ed wi h 22 and 27 pe cen ). Se e al ac o s may con ibu e o a educ ion
in he numbe o low-paid wo ke s, including he exis ence o wage-se ing ins i u ions. In pa -
icula , minimum wage sys ems help o educe he numbe o wo ke s ecei ing a wage below
a ce ain h eshold and dec ease wage inequali y. Thei abili y o do so depends on he sys em
pa ame e s, no ably hei legal co e age and le el o compliance, he le el a which minimum
wages a e se , he s uc u e o a coun y’s labou ma ke and he cha ac e is ics o he bene i-
cia ies (ILO 2020b). The e may be speci ic challenges in he implemen a ion o minimum wages
in u al a eas: o ins ance, non-compliance wi h he minimum wage has in many cases been
ound o be mo e widesp ead in such a eas (ILO 2016b).
Ru al employees end o ha e lowe educa ional a ainmen and
less expe ience han u ban employees, especially in de eloping
coun ies
The lowe wages o u al employees could pa ly be explained by speci ic cha ac e is ics o his
g oup, especially i hese a e associa ed wi h lowe labou p oduc i i y. Fo ins ance, educa ion
and job expe ience ha e an impac on wages, which could widen he wage gap be ween u ban
and u al wo ke s i i is ound ha he la e a e less expe ienced o ha e lowe educa ional a -
ainmen .
Ac oss he coun ies in he sample, u al employees appea o ha e lowe le els o educa ional
a ainmen han hei u ban coun e pa s. Speci ically, on a e age 59 pe cen o u al employ-
ees ha e ye o a ain he equi alen o a lowe -seconda y educa ion, whe eas his is he case o
only 41 pe cen o u ban employees ( igu e 5). The disc epancy be ween u ban and u al a eas
is subs an ial wi hin each coun y income g oup s udied, anging om an a e age o 11 pe cen -
age poin s in high-income coun ies o 21 pe cen age poin s in uppe -middle-income coun ies
(18 pe cen age poin s in low- and lowe -middle-income coun ies).
In addi ion, especially in de eloping coun ies, he sha e o young wo ke s among employees
is highe in u al a eas han in u ban ones. The p opo ion o u al employees aged be ween
15 and 24 yea s is 27 pe cen in low-income coun ies and, espec i ely, 22 and 27 pe cen in
21 ILO Wo king Pape 107
lowe -middle- and uppe -middle-income coun ies, which is 5 pe cen age poin s highe han in
u ban a eas o each coun y income g oup ( igu e 6). I we conside age o be a p oxy o job ex-
pe ience, his inding sugges s ha u al employees a e less expe ienced in de eloping coun ies.
XFigu e 5. Dis ibu ion o u al and u ban employ-
ees acco ding o hei educa ional le el, by coun-
yincomeg oup,2019o la es a ailableyea 
(pe cen age)
XFigu e 6. Dis ibu ion o u al and u ban em-
ployees acco ding o hei age g oup, by
coun yincomeg oup,2019o la es a aila-
ble yea (pe cen age)
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019 o la es a ailable yea . See he appendix o
mo e de ails.
A speci ic occupa ional p o ile o u al employees
As one would expec , u al wage employmen ends o be concen a ed in speci ic occupa ions,
e lec ing in pa he sha e o ag icul u al ac i i ies in he u al economy ( igu e 7). Indeed, he
p opo ion o skilled ag icul u al and ade wo ke s among employees ends o be highe in u al
a eas (22 pe cen on a e age ac oss coun ies, e sus 15 pe cen in u ban a eas), and he same
is ue o elemen a y occupa ions (29 e sus 17 pe cen ). In con as , manage s, p o essionals
and echnicians, along wi h cle ical, se ice and sales wo ke s, accoun o ela i ely ewe em-
ployees in u al a eas ( espec i ely, 21 and 18 pe cen e sus 31 and 27 pe cen in u ban a eas).
28 ILO Wo king Pape 107
highe in ellec ual p o essions han in o he occupa ional ca ego ies ( h ee imes g ea e han
among cle ks).
A sho coming o s a is ics on he gende pay gap is ha hey do no e lec possible gende di -
e ences in he pe o mance o unpaid wo k, including hose o ms o wo k ha may be p e a-
len in u al a eas. Fo ins ance, unpaid wo k in amily ag icul u al en e p ises was ound o ac-
coun o 34 and 85 pe cen o women’s in o mal employmen in India and Egyp , espec i ely,
compa ed wi h 11 and 10 pe cen o men’s in o mal employmen (FAO, IFAD and ILO 2010). In
u ban a eas, o he o ms o unpaid wo k a e also mo e likely o be pe o med mainly by women.18
Ru al–u ban pay gap and minimum wages
Labou ins i u ions such as minimum wages can educe inequali ies be ween g oups o wo ke s,
including along he u al–u ban di ide. Besides, he a ailable e idence shows ha u al wo ke s
a e o e - ep esen ed among minimum wage and sub-minimum wage ea ne s, highligh ing he
po en ial o wage policies designed o a ge u al a eas (ILO 2020b). Minimum wages exis in
o e 90 pe cen o ILO Membe S a es, ei he s a u o y minimum wages (84 pe cen o coun-
ies) o nego ia ed ones (6 pe cen ).19
Howe e , wi hin coun ies, minimum wage sys ems do no always co e he popula ion o wo k-
e s e enly, especially hose based in u al a eas. In pa icula , an es ima ed 18 pe cen o coun-
ies wi h a s a u o y minimum wage exclude ag icul u al wo ke s, domes ic wo ke s o bo h
ca ego ies (ILO 2020b). Speci ically, Bangladesh, he Plu ina ional S a e o Boli ia, Cambodia,
Cyp us, Jo dan, Lebanon, Pakis an, Samoa, he Sudan, he Sy ian A ab Republic, Timo -Les e and
he Uni ed S a es exclude all o some ag icul u al wo ke s om hei minimum wage sys em.
Fu he mo e, minimum wage sys ems some imes p o ide o speci ic a es o he u al popu-
la ion. In a ew coun ies, ag icul u al wo ke s a e hus co e ed by a a e ha may di e om
he a es se o o he indus ies.20 Among he coun ies in ou sample, his is he case o Cô e
d’I oi e, El Sal ado , Gua emala, Hondu as, Madagasca , Mali, Nica agua, Senegal and Togo. Two
hi ds o hese coun ies ha e a u al–u ban pay gap ha is la ge han he a e age u al–u ban
pay gap obse ed wi hin he coun y income g oup o which hey belong, which indica es ha
coun ies wi h a speci ic ag icul u al minimum wage a e a e o en hose wi h a ela i ely wide
u al–u ban pay gap ( igu e 10).
18 In India, o example, he pa icipa ion o women in unpaid domes ic wo k appea s o be high in u ban a eas compa ed wi h u al
ones (Singh and Pa anaik 2020).
19 S a u o y minimum wages a e se by go e nmen s, while nego ia ed minimum wages esul om a collec i e ba gaining ag eemen
be ween employe s’ and wo ke s’ o ganiza ions ha is made legally binding.
20 In addi ion, he pay oll pe iod o he minimum wage a e in he ag icul u al sec o can di e om ha in o he indus ies. Fo in-
s ance, he ag icul u al minimum wage in Mo occo (Salai e minimum ag icole ga an i) is se a a daily a e, whe eas he minimum
wage o he o he sec o s o ac i i y (Salai e minimum in e p o essionnel ga an i) is se a an hou ly a e.

29 ILO Wo king Pape 107
XFigu e10.A e agewagegapbe ween u alandu banwo ke s,incoun ieswi haspeci icminimumwage
o  heag icul u alsec o ,2019o la es a ailableyea (pe cen age)
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO Ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019 o la es a ailable yea . See he appendix o
mo e de ails.
In addi ion o s a u o y minimum wages, minimum wages se h ough collec i e ba gaining may
also be ins umen al in add essing he low emune a ion o u al wo ke s. Howe e , de ici s in
employe and wo ke ep esen a ion in u al a eas impede he p omo ion o social dialogue and
collec i e ba gaining. A ecen in es iga ion based on quali a i e case s udies co e ing 16 sec o s
o ac i i y in 15 coun ies d ew a en ion o he ac ha , in many sec o s, ade unions a e ei he
non‑exis en o ace majo ba ie s in accessing wo ke s’ o ganiza ions (ILO 2022a). Fu he mo e,
women and in o mal, casual, seasonal and empo a y wo ke s we e iden i ied as g oups o pa -
icula conce n when i comes o ep esen a ion. Beyond collec i e ba gaining, imp o ing he
ep esen a ion o u al wo ke s would also be likely o help hem in oicing hei speci ic con-
ce ns in ipa i e discussions on s a u o y minimum wages.
XBox5.Employmen incomes omsel -employmen in u alandu bana easinAngolaandB azil
In Angola and B azil, he quali y o he su ey da a allows one o compa e he hou ly em-
ploymen incomes ea ned by sel -employed wo ke s in u al and u ban a eas. Al hough
he indings p esen ed in his box may no hold o all coun ies, hey a e illus a i e o he
u al–u ban gap in income om sel -employmen ha can be obse ed a ound he wo ld.
In bo h coun ies, sel -employed wo ke s’ incomes in u al a eas a e loca ed owa ds he
bo om o he dis ibu ion o income om sel -employmen . In Angola, 46 pe cen o he
u al sel -employed ea n hou ly incomes ha a e below he second quin ile o he dis ibu-
ion o labou income in he whole coun y, while ha sha e eaches 65 pe cen in B azil
( igu e B.5.1). This indica es ha , in con as , u ban sel ‑employed wo ke s end o ea n in-
comes ha a e loca ed a he uppe end o he dis ibu ion o income om sel -employmen .
30 ILO Wo king Pape 107
XFigu eB.5.1.Sha eo  u alsel -employedwo ke sineachquin ileo  hedis ibu iono income om
employmen ,2019(pe cen age)
No e: Fo each coun y, he quin iles o he dis ibu ion o hou ly income om employmen a e es ima ed o he whole
popula ion o sel -employed ( ha is, u al and u ban sel -employed wo ke s).
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019. See appendix o mo e de ails.
As highligh ed o wages, he u al–u ban gaps in incomes om sel -employmen could
be pa ly explained by di e ences in he endowmen s o u al and u ban wo ke s in e ms
o human capi al. To allow o hese di e ences, a Blinde –Oaxaca me hodology simila
o he one used o wages (box 3) is applied he e.
In he wo coun ies, nea ly hal he u al–u ban gap in income om sel -employmen is
due o di e ences be ween u al and u ban wo ke s in e ms o human capi al and occu-
pa ions held. Indeed, in Angola, a u al sel -employed wo ke ea ns, on a e age, 42 pe
cen less han an u ban one, o which 20 pe cen age poin s a e explained by he age, ed-
uca ion and occupa ion s uc u es o he u al popula ion ( igu e B.5.2). In B azil, he a -
e age gap is 51 pe cen , o which 23 pe cen age poin s a e explained by hose socio-de-
mog aphic cha ac e is ics o he u al popula ion. In he wo coun ies, a subs an ial pa
o he disc epancy in income om sel -employmen is he e o e no explained by he es-
ima ed decomposi ion model.
XFigu eB.5.2.A e aageemploymen incomegapsbe ween u alandu bansel -employedwo ke s,de-
composed,2019(pe cen age)
No e: Fo each coun y, he unexplained and explained componen s o he a e age gap a e es ima ed using he Blinde -
Oaxaca decomposi ion explained in box3.
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019. See appendix o mo e de ails.
Fu he mo e, in bo h coun ies, u al sel -employed women ea n less han hei male
coun e pa s: he u al gende gap in income om sel -employmen is 43 and 14 pe cen
in Angola and B azil, espec i ely. On a e age, o sel -employed wo ke s, gende - ela ed
di e ences in e ms o income a e highe in u al a eas han in u ban ones in B azil, as he
gende employmen income gap is 5 pe cen age poin s lowe in u ban a eas. Howe e ,
his is no he case in Angola, whe e he u ban gende gap in income om sel -employ-
men eaches 50 pe cen ( igu e B.5.3).
31 ILO Wo king Pape 107
XFigu eB.5.3.Gende employmen incomegapamong u alandu bansel -employedwo ke s,2019,
(pe cen age)
No e: The gende employmen income gap is exp essed as a p opo ion o men’s a e age hou ly income om employmen ..
Sou ce: Analysis based on ILO ha monized Mic oda a collec ion (ILOSTAT), 2019. See appendix o mo e de ails.
32 ILO Wo king Pape 107
X4 Legal amewo ks o ackling u al–u ban
imbalances in employmen and wages
The ole o in e na ional labou s anda ds
In 2008, he In e na ional Labou Con e ence acknowledged he “huge gap” in he p o ec ion
a o ded o u al wo ke s21 and called upon go e nmen s o e iew hei legisla ion wi h a iew
o ex ending he co e age o p o ec ion o u al wo ke s, including u al wage ea ne s, and in
pa icula o ensu e ha hese enjoy he p o ec ion o undamen al p inciples and igh s a wo k.
The Con e ence also ea i med he c ucial ole o in e na ional labou s anda ds in guiding na-
ional legisla ion and policy o help add ess labou p o ec ion gaps, as hey p o ide an in e na-
ionally ecognized amewo k o go e nmen s in he implemen a ion o decen wo k p inciples
in all sphe es o wo k, including in u al a eas (ILO 2008).22
The e is no in e na ional labou s anda d exp essly dealing wi h u al–u ban inequali ies. Ra he ,
a numbe o ILO ins umen s add ess a ious aspec s o he issue,23 as illus a ed in box 6 o
hose ela ed o his pape ’s hema ic ocus on employmen and wages.
XBox6.In e na ionallabou s anda ds ele an  oemploymen andwagesin u ala eas
Wages
●C.26* – Minimum Wage-Fixing Machine y Con en ion, 1928 (No. 26)
●C.131 – Minimum Wage Fixing Con en ion, 1970 (No. 131)
●C.95 – P o ec ion o Wages Con en ion, 1949 (No. 95)
●C.99* – Minimum Wage Fixing Machine y (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1951 (No. 99)
●R.135 – Minimum Wage Fixing Recommenda ion, 1970 (No. 135)
●R.89* – Minimum Wage-Fixing Machine y (Ag icul u e) Recommenda ion, 1951 (No. 89)
Equali y o oppo uni y and ea men
●C.100 – Equal Remune a ion Con en ion, 1951 (No 100)
●C.111 – Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111)
●R.90 – Equal Remune a ion Recommenda ion, 1951 (No. 90)
●R.111 – Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 111)
Employmen policy and p omo ion
●C.122 – Employmen Policy Con en ion, 1964 (No. 122)
21 Acco ding o A icle 2 o he Ru al Wo ke s’ O ganisa ions Con en ion, 1975 (No. 141), he e m “ u al wo ke ” e e s o “any pe son
engaged in ag icul u e, handic a s o a ela ed occupa ion in a u al a ea, whe he as a wage ea ne o , subjec o he p o isions o
pa ag aph 2 o his A icle, as a sel -employed pe son such as a enan , sha ec oppe o small owne –occupie ”.
22 Human igh s law can also p o ide a ele an legal amewo k. The “Decla a ion on he igh s o peasan s and o he people wo king
in u al a eas”, annexed o he 2012 inal s udy o he Human Righ s Council Ad iso y Commi ee on he ad ancemen o he igh s
o peasan s and o he people wo king in u al a eas (Uni ed Na ions documen A/HRC/19/75), namely s a es ha “[a]ll peasan s,
women and men, ha e equal igh s” (A . 2(1)) and “a e ee and equal o all o he peoples and ha e he igh o be ee om [...] [dis-
c imina ion] based on hei economic, social and cul u al s a us” (A . 2(3)). This ins umen also lays down ha peasan s ha e “ he
igh o li e in digni y” and “ he igh o an adequa e s anda d o li ing, which includes he igh o an adequa e income o ul il hei
basic needs and hose o hei amilies” (A . 3(2) and A . 3(3)).
23 Fo a comp ehensi e o e iew o in e na ional labou s anda ds applicable o u al wo k, see ILO (2008), Annex II.
33 ILO Wo king Pape 107
●R.122 – Employmen Policy Recommenda ion, 1964 (No. 122)
●R.169 – Employmen Policy (Supplemen a y P o isions) Recommenda ion, 1984 (No. 169)
●R.193 – P omo ion o Coope a i es Recommenda ion, 2002 (No. 193)
●R.204 – T ansi ion om he In o mal o he Fo mal Economy Recommenda ion, 2015 (No. 204)
Plan a ions
●C.110 and P.110 – Plan a ions Con en ion, 1958 (No. 110) and i s P o ocol o 1982
●R.110 – Plan a ions Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 110)
Tenan s and sha ec oppe s
●R.132 – Tenan s and Sha e-c oppe s Recommenda ion, 1968 (No. 132)
Indigenous and ibal peoples
●C.169 – Indigenous and T ibal Peoples Con en ion, 1989 (No. 169)
●R.104 – Indigenous and T ibal Popula ions Recommenda ion, 1957 (No. 104)
Labou adminis a ion and inspec ion
●C.150 – Labou Adminis a ion Con en ion, 1978 (No. 150)
●C.129 – Labou Inspec ion (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1969 (No. 129)
●R.133 – Labou Inspec ion (Ag icul u e) Recommenda ion, 1969 (No. 133)
F eedom o associa ion
●C.87 – F eedom o Associa ion and P o ec ion o he Righ o O ganise Con en ion, 1948 (No. 87)
●C.98 – Righ o O ganise and Collec i e Ba gaining Con en ion, 1949 (No. 98)
●C.11* – Righ o Associa ion (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1921 (No. 11)
●C.141 – Ru al Wo ke s’ O ganisa ions Con en ion, 1975 (No. 141)
●C.154 – Collec i e Ba gaining Con en ion, 1981 (No. 154)
●R.149 – Ru al Wo ke s' O ganisa ions Recommenda ion, 1975 (No. 149)
●R.163 – Collec i e Ba gaining Recommenda ion, 1981 (No. 163)
* Ins umen wi h in e im s a us
Sou ce: ILO NORMLEX da abase
In e na ional labou s anda ds on equali y and he elimina ion o
disc imina ion in espec o employmen and occupa ion
One o he mos impo an in e na ional labou s anda ds add essing u al–u ban imbalances is
he Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111).24 The Con en ion
aims o elimina e any disc imina ion in espec o employmen and occupa ion (A . 2) and en-
compasses disc imina ion on he basis o social o igin (A . 1(1)(a)), which a ises when an indi-
idual’s membe ship o a class, socio-occupa ional ca ego y o cas e de e mines his o he oc-
cupa ional u u e (ILO 1988).
24 As i is one o he eigh undamen al Con en ions (see ILO 1998), all Membe s, e en i hey ha e no a i ied i , ha e an obliga ion
a ising om he e y ac o membe ship in he O ganiza ion, o espec , o p omo e and o ealize, in good ai h and in acco dance
wi h he Cons i u ion, he p inciples conce ning he undamen al igh which is he subjec o his Con en ion, namely he elimina-
ion o disc imina ion in espec o employmen and occupa ion.

34 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Fu he mo e, u al–u ban inequali ies may ha e pa icula ly ad e se e ec s o emale wo ke s,
who may also be subjec o disc imina ion and be paid lowe wages han hei male coun e -
pa s. In ha ega d, in e na ional labou s anda ds p o ide a amewo k o policy design and
ac ion. Indeed, he widesp ead a i ica ion o Con en ion No. 111 and he Equal Remune a ion
Con en ion, 1951 (No. 100),25 a es o a gene al accep ance o he p inciples o non-disc imina-
ion and equal emune a ion, which also apply o u al wo ke s. Con en ion No. 111 is aimed a
he elimina ion o any disc imina ion based on, in e alia, sex (A s 1–2), while i s accompanying
Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 111), p esc ibes ha
all pe sons should, wi hou disc imina ion, enjoy equali y o oppo uni y and ea men in espec
o , in e alia, emune a ion o wo k o equal alue (pa a. 2). The p inciple o equal emune a-
ion o men and women o wo k o equal alue is also p omo ed by Con en ion No. 100 (A . 2)
and by he Plan a ions Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 110) (pa a. 27). Finally, he Indigenous and
T ibal Peoples Con en ion, 1989 (No. 169), lays down bo h he p inciple o equal emune a ion
o wo k o equal alue and he p inciple o equal oppo uni ies and equal ea men in employ-
men o men and women (A s 2–3).26
Signi ican ly, he ILO Commi ee o Expe s on he Applica ion o Con en ions and Recommenda ions
(CEACR) has add essed he si ua ion o emale u al wo ke s on se e al occasions. Fo ins ance,
in ela ion o Con en ion No. 100, he Commi ee ecen ly issued an obse a ion eques ing he
Go e nmen unde e iew o s ep up i s e o s o ackle he gende wage gap, pa icula ly in
he ag icul u al sec o , and o p o ide in o ma ion on he measu es aken in ha ega d (CEACR
2023a). When examining he implemen a ion o Con en ion No. 111, he Commi ee has asked
o in o ma ion on he measu es aken o inc ease he ou each and impac o policies o p omo e
equali y be ween women and men in employmen and occupa ion, and on how such measu es
pa icula ly add ess he si ua ion o women in u al a eas and in in o mal wo k (CEACR 2023b).
In e na ional labou s anda ds on minimum wages and
wage-se ing
Wi h ega d o he speci ic ques ion o wage‑se ing o u al wo ke s, he Minimum Wage Fixing
Con en ion, 1970 (No. 131), and i s accompanying Minimum Wage Fixing Recommenda ion,
1970 (No. 135), a e pa icula ly ele an .27 Con en ion No. 131 calls o he c ea ion o a sys em
o minimum wages28 ha co e s all g oups o wage ea ne s whose e ms o employmen a e
such ha co e age would be app op ia e, wi h any excep ions needing o be jus i ied (A . 1). I
p o ides o he implemen a ion o a machine y o ix and adjus minimum wages om ime o
ime, wi h he ull consul a ion and, whe e app op ia e, di ec pa icipa ion o he social pa ne s,
on an equal oo ing, as well as independen expe s (A . 4). I also speci ies ha minimum wage
le els mus ake in o accoun , in e alia, he needs o wo ke s and hei amilies and economic
ac o s (A . 3). Finally, i equi es he adop ion o app op ia e measu es o ensu e he e ec i e
applica ion o minimum wages, such as adequa e inspec ion (A . 5). Recommenda ion No. 135
elabo a es on se e al p o isions o Con en ion No. 131 and makes clea ha b oad co e age can
25 Jus like he Disc imina ion (Employmen and Occupa ion) Con en ion, 1958 (No. 111), Con en ion No. 100 is also one o he eigh
undamen al Con en ions.
26 Al hough i goes beyond he scope o his pape , i is wo h men ioning he e ha emale u al wo ke s a e co e ed by a speci ic p o-
ec ion in he Sa e y and Heal h in Ag icul u e Con en ion, 2001 (No. 184), which s ipula es ha “[m]easu es shall be aken o ensu e
ha he special needs o women ag icul u al wo ke s a e aken in o accoun in ela ion o p egnancy, b eas eeding and ep oduc-
i e heal h” (A . 18).
27 The Minimum Wage Fixing Machine y (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1951 (No. 99), and i s accompanying Minimum Wage-Fixing Machine y
(Ag icul u e) Recommenda ion, 1951 (No. 89), a e also pe inen o wage‑se ing in u al a eas, bu hey ha e now been classi ied as
ha ing in e im s a us.
28 Minimum wages ha e been an impo an opic a he ILO e e since i s incep ion. Indeed, he 1919 ILO Cons i u ion called in i s
P eamble o an u gen imp o emen o condi ions o labou , including “ he p o ision o an adequa e li ing wage”. In 1944, he ILO
Decla a ion o Philadelphia e e ed o he impo ance o ensu ing “a minimum li ing wage o all employed and in need o such p o-
ec ion”. This was ei e a ed in he 2008 ILO Decla a ion on Social Jus ice o a Fai Globaliza ion.
35 ILO Wo king Pape 107
be achie ed ei he by ixing a single minimum wage o gene al applica ion o by ixing a se ies
o minimum wages applicable o pa icula g oups o wo ke s (pa a. 5).29
These ins umen s he e o e p o ide bo h o he exclusion o ce ain ca ego ies o wo ke s om
he sys em o minimum wages, al hough such exclusions should be kep o he minimum, and
he ixing o di e en le els o p o ec ion (Con en ion No. 131, A . 1; and Recommenda ion No.
135, pa as 4–5). As highligh ed in sec ion 4, ag icul u al wo ke s make up one o he wo b oad
ca ego ies o wo ke s mos o en excluded om minimum wage legisla ion, alongside domes ic
wo ke s. When hey a e no excluded, hey may be o e ed a h eshold o p o ec ion below he
s anda d minimum wage30 (Ey aud and Sage 2005).
The CEACR has deal wi h di e en aspec s o wage‑se ing in u al a eas in i s obse a ions
and di ec eques s. Fo ins ance, in ela ion o Con en ion No. 131 and he Minimum Wage
Fixing Machine y (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1951 (No. 99), he Commi ee has ei e a ed on se -
e al occasions ha wages mus be main ained a such a le el as o p o ide a sa is ac o y s and-
a d o li ing o wo ke s and hei amilies (CEACR 2004a; 2008a; 2022), when aced wi h ailu es
in he eadjus men o minimum wages o ag icul u al wo ke s. Fu he mo e, in he con ex
o Con en ion No. 131, i has obse ed ha minimum wage ixing is no a me e o mali y and
should be he subjec o p io consul a ions wi h he social pa ne s (CEACR 2005). In an obse -
a ion on he implemen a ion o Con en ion No. 131, he Commi ee unde lined he key ole o
he labou inspec o a e in add essing iola ions o he minimum wage legisla ion in u al a eas
(CEACR 2012a). Acco dingly, in ela ion o he Labou Inspec ion Con en ion, 1947 (No. 81), and
he Labou Inspec ion (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1969 (No. 129), he Commi ee has eques ed
de ailed in o ma ion on he unc ioning o labou inspec ion in ag icul u e (CEACR 2023c).
As ag icul u al wo ke s a e o en excluded om minimum wage p o ec ion, collec i e ba gain-
ing has a c ucial ole o play in wage-se ing and enabling wo ke s in his ca ego y o secu e
imp o emen s o hei e ms and condi ions o employmen . In ha ega d, wo undamen al
Con en ions a e cen al: he F eedom o Associa ion and P o ec ion o he Righ o O ganise
Con en ion, 1948 (No. 87), and he Righ o O ganise and Collec i e Ba gaining Con en ion,
1949 (No. 98). The i s s ipula es ha wo ke s and employe s, “wi hou dis inc ion wha soe e ”,
mus ha e he igh o es ablish and join o ganiza ions o hei own choosing (A . 2), while he
second lays down ha wo ke s a e o enjoy adequa e p o ec ion agains ac s o an i‑union dis-
c imina ion in espec o hei employmen (A . 1). The Collec i e Ba gaining Con en ion, 1981
(No. 154), and i s accompanying Recommenda ion also apply o all b anches o economic ac i -
i y, and hey p omo e collec i e ba gaining (A . 5(1) o he Con en ion). O he ins umen s ha
a e pa icula ly ele an o u al wo ke s a e he Ru al Wo ke s’ O ganisa ions Con en ion, 1975
(No. 141), and i s accompanying Recommenda ion. Acco ding o he o me , “[a]ll ca ego ies o
u al wo ke s, whe he hey a e wage ea ne s o sel -employed, shall ha e he igh o es ablish
and […] join o ganisa ions, o hei own choosing wi hou p e ious au ho isa ion” (A . 3(1) o he
Con en ion). Membe S a es a i ying he Con en ion ha e an obliga ion o adop and imple-
men a policy o ac i e encou agemen in espec o such o ganiza ions (A . 5(1)). Con en ion
No. 141 also p o ides ha an objec i e o na ional policy on u al de elopmen should be o a-
cili a e he es ablishmen and g ow h o s ong and independen o ganiza ions o u al wo ke s
as an e ec i e means o ensu ing hei pa icipa ion, wi hou disc imina ion, in economic and
social de elopmen and he esul ing bene i s (A . 4).31
29 A ele an ool o he design, implemen a ion and e iew o minimum wages is he Minimum Wage Policy Guide (ILO 2016b), which
emphasizes key p inciples o good p ac ice and p o ides examples o he p os and cons o di e en policy op ions.
30 Se e al easons may be ci ed o explain his lowe s anda d o p o ec ion – o ins ance, he ac ha ag icul u al wo ke s a e o en
paid in kind o some ex en ; he ac ha he cos o li ing is lowe in u al a eas; di icul ies in en o cing he minimum wage in isola -
ed u al a eas; he policy objec i e o main aining a high employmen a e in a eas whe e he e a e ew al e na i es o employmen
in he ag icul u al sec o ; and a bias agains ag icul u al labou .
31 The Righ o Associa ion (Ag icul u e) Con en ion, 1921 (No. 11), which p o ides ha a i ying Membe S a es unde ake o “secu e
o all hose engaged in ag icul u e he same igh s o associa ion and combina ion as o indus ial wo ke s, and o epeal any s a -
u o y o o he p o isions es ic ing such igh s in he case o hose engaged in ag icul u e” (A . 1) is he mos highly a i ied ILO
Con en ion dealing speci ically wi h ag icul u al wo ke s (123 a i ica ions). Howe e , i has in e im s a us.
36 ILO Wo king Pape 107
The CEACR has likewise aised on se e al occasions he need o p omo e ade unions and o gan-
iza ions in he u al sec o (CEACR 2016; 2021). Linking his o he speci ic issue o wage‑se ing,
in he con ex o Con en ion No. 131, he Commi ee has deplo ed unila e al ixing o he min-
imum wage o u al wo ke s and ei e a ed ha ull consul a ion wi h o ganiza ions o he em-
ploye s and wo ke s conce ned is an obliga ion ha applies bo h when de e mining he scope
o he minimum wage sys em and when ope a ing and modi ying he wage‑ ixing machine y
(CEACR 2003; 2004b).
O he in e na ional labou s anda ds dealing wi h wages
Wi h ega d o ano he aspec o he ma e , he P o ec ion o Wages Con en ion, 1949 (No. 95),
which applies o all wo ke s wi hou excep ion (A . 2(1)), p o ides o he p o ec ion and imely
paymen o wages (A . 12). I s ipula es ha wages a e payable only in legal ende (A . 3). The
pa ial paymen o wages in he o m o in-kind allowances – a p oblema ic p ac ice ha is qui e
widesp ead in he ag icul u al sec o – may only be au ho ized in speci ic ci cums ances o ce -
ain occupa ions (A . 4).
In ela ion o his ins umen , he CEACR has issued di ec eques s emphasizing ha na ional
p o isions pe aining o he p o ec ion o wages should no exclude u al wo ke s (CEACR 2012b),
and ha such p o ec ion o u al wo ke s has o be explici ly se ou in he na ional legisla ion
and canno ake he o m o a me e p ac ice (CEACR 2009). When con on ed wi h con ac ual
p ac ices aimed a disguising a u al employmen ela ionship, he Commi ee has also ecalled
in he con ex o Con en ion No. 95 ha he ela ed obliga ions “canno be bypassed by me e
e minological sub e uges, bu equi e he ex ended and bona ide co e age by na ional leg-
isla ion o labou emune a ion wha e e o m i akes” (CEACR 2017; ILO 2003). In ano he in-
s ance ela ed o he same s anda d, he Commi ee ea i med he ele ance o paying wages
on wo king days only and a o nea he wo kplace o u al wo ke s, who may no be ully con-
e san wi h elec onic means o paymen (CEACR 2008b).
Some in e na ional labou s anda ds dealing wi h speci ic ca ego ies o wo ke s, o o u al wo k,
also add ess he ques ion o wages. Fo ins ance, he Plan a ions Con en ion, 1958 (No. 110),
con ains se e al ele an p o isions co e ing, in e alia, he ixing o minimum wages, o ms
and me hods o he paymen o wages, he eedom o wo ke s o dispose o hei wages, de-
duc ions om wages, egula paymen o wages and obliga ions o p o ide in o ma ion (A s
24–35). The accompanying Plan a ions Recommenda ion, 1958 (No. 110), p o ides u he guid-
ance on hese aspec s (pa as 9–26). O ien a ion o egula ing he wages o Indigenous pe sons,
who o en li e and wo k in u al a eas, can be ound in he Indigenous and T ibal Popula ions
Recommenda ion, 1957 (No. 104).32
I is he e o e e iden ha in e na ional labou s anda ds, whe he o gene al applica ion o spe-
ci ic o u al wo k, a e a use ul sou ce o guidance o he design and implemen a ion o legisla-
i e and policy amewo ks o add ess inequali ies in u al wages and o ensu e ha u al wo k-
e s enjoy he p o ec ion o undamen al p inciples and igh s a wo k. The ollowing subsec ion
will explo e he ealiza ion o hese p inciples and igh s a he na ional le el h ough he p ism
o wo case s udies.
32 This ins umen equi es ha he wages o wo ke s belonging o he popula ions conce ned should be p o ec ed, in pa icula , by
p o iding ha wages a e no mally paid only in legal ende ; by p ohibi ing he paymen o any pa o wages in he o m o alcohol
o o he spi i uous be e ages o noxious d ugs; by p ohibi ing he paymen o wages in a e ns o s o es, excep in he case o wo k-
e s employed he ein; and by egula ing he maximum amoun s and manne o epaymen o ad ances on wages and he ex en o
which and condi ions unde which deduc ions om wages may be pe mi ed (Recommenda ion No. 104, pa a. 10).
37 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Na ional p ac ices ela ed o inequali ies in u al a eas
To ackle u al–u ban inequali ies in employmen and wages, some coun ies ha e passed spe-
ci ic legisla ion add essing a ious aspec s o he p oblem. Tha is he case, o example, o B azil
(OECD 2021) and China (S epan and Lu 2016). Bo h coun ies ha e enac ed assis ance p og ammes
in he o m o u al pension schemes o p o ide adequa e old-age income o u al wo ke s. In
he Republic o Moldo a, one componen o he Go e nmen ’s e o s o comba undecla ed
wo k is a ouche sys em o occasional wo ke s in ag icul u e, which acili a es he egis a ion
o wo ke s and social secu i y co e age (ILO 2022b). In Guinea-Bissau, a new Labou Code was
adop ed in July 2021, in which i is s ipula ed, in e alia, ha he minimum wage is payable o all
wo ke s, including u al wo ke s, wi hou dis inc ion based on sex o any o he g ounds, in an
amoun ixed annually by he Go e nmen , a e consul a ion wi h he social pa ne s.
The p esen subsec ion will discuss in mo e de ail e o s o add ess u al–u ban inequali ies in
India and Aus ia. The i s o hese wo coun ies wa an s a pa icula ly ocused e iew, as he
Indian Go e nmen has been unde aking e o s o almos wo decades now o gene a e wage
employmen in u al a eas, and also because egula e alua ions o he impac o hese a emp s
a e a ailable. Meanwhile, Aus ia is especially ele an om he pe spec i e o gende equali y.
Bea ing in mind ha ag icul u e is a sec o adi ionally cha ac e ized by disc imina ion agains
women (ILO 2007), Aus ia is a no able example o a coun y ha has adop ed legisla ion o he
equal ea men o men and women in u al a eas. Al hough assessing hei success is a sepa-
a e and o en complex endea ou , he s udy o such ini ia i es can help o in o m he deba e on
u al–u ban dispa i ies and con ibu e o he de elopmen o good p ac ices o ackling hese.
India’s Na ional Ru al Employmen Gua an ee Schemes: The impac o u al
public wo ks on ag icul u al wages
The Maha ma Gandhi Na ional Ru al Employmen Gua an ee Ac , adop ed in 2005 (India, Minis y
o Law and Jus ice 2005), p o ides he legal amewo k o India’s Na ional Ru al Employmen
Gua an ee Schemes (NREGS), including he ins i u ional s uc u e o hei implemen a ion, and
de ines he igh s and obliga ions o pa icipan s.
The objec i e o NREGS is o enhance he li elihood secu i y o people in u al a eas by gene a -
ing wage employmen h ough public wo ks ha de elop he in as uc u e base o hose a e-
as. To ha end, he Ac g an s he legal igh o 100 days o wage employmen pe inancial yea
o e e y adul membe o a u al household who asks o employmen and is willing o pe o m
unskilled manual wo k. To ensu e accessibili y, employmen mus be p o ided wi hin a 5 km a-
dius o he pa icipan ’s illage. In ol emen in he scheme is o be made possible wi hin 15 days
o he da e o applica ion; o he wise, he applican mus be paid an unemploymen allowance.
The Na ional Ru al Employmen Gua an ee Ac con ains se e al p o isions dealing wi h wag-
es, including minimum wages, he p o ec ion o wages and labou p o ec ion. O he p o isions
o he Ac ocus on manda o y in o ma ion and educa ion campaigns, access o g ie ance e-
d essal mechanisms and he in ol emen o pa icipan s in decision-making on he wo ks o be
pe o med in hei illage. The igh s o u al wo ke s ha e been u he ein o ced h ough ci -
izen-cen ed moni o ing s uc u es ha inc ease accoun abili y (Ehmke 2015). The Ac also con-
ains special p o isions o he h ee mos ma ginalized g oups in Indian socie y, namely women,
“Scheduled Cas es” and “Scheduled T ibes”. To encou age women’s pa icipa ion, he Ac es ab-
lished a manda o y one- hi d quo a o hem. Addi ionally, i equi es ha day-ca e acili ies be
p o ided a he wo ksi e, ha he wo k ake place nea he place o esidence and ha equal
wages be paid o women and men. As o membe s o Scheduled Cas es and Scheduled T ibes,
i is s ipula ed in he Ac ha when de eloping u al in as uc u e, wo ks c ea ing indi idual as-
se s mus be p io i ized on land owned by households om hose wo g oups. O he p o isions
deal wi h hei ep esen a ion in he local councils asked wi h implemen a ion o he schemes.
44 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Coun y/Te i o y Su ey Yea Su ey used o
igu esB.2.1and
B.2.2inbox2
Su ey used
o  igu eB.2.3
inbox2
Chile Encues a de Ca ac e ización
Socioeconómica Nacional (Na ional
Socio-Economic Cha ac e iza ion Su ey)
2017 Yes Yes
Colombia G an Encues a In eg ada de Hoga es
(G ea In eg a ed Household Su ey)
2019 Yes No
Cô e d’I oi e Enquê e Na ionale su l’Emploi (Na ional
Employmen Su ey)
2019 Yes No
Dominican Republic Encues a Nacional Con inua de Fue za
de T abajo (Con inuous Na ional Labou
Fo ce Su ey)
2019 Yes Yes
Ecuado Encues a de Empleo, Desempleo
y Subempleo (Employmen ,
Unemploymen and Unde employmen
Su ey)
2019 Yes No
Egyp LFS 2019 Yes Yes
El Sal ado Encues a de Hoga es de P opósi os
Múl iples (Mul ipu pose Household
Su ey)
2019 Yes No
Eswa ini LFS 2016 Yes No
E hiopia Na ional Labou Fo ce and Mig a ion
Su ey
2013 Yes Yes
F ance Enquê e Emploi en Con inu (Con inuous
Su ey o Employmen )
2019 Yes Yes
Ghana LFS 2015 Yes Yes
G eece LFS 2019 Yes Yes
Gua emala Encues a Nacional de Condiciones
de Vida (Na ional Su ey o Li ing
Condi ions)
2014 Yes No
Guyana LFS 2019 Yes Yes
Hondu as Encues a Pe manen e de Hoga es de
P opósi os Múl iples (Mul ipu pose
Pe manen Household Su ey)
2019 Yes No
India Pe iodic Labou Fo ce Su ey 2019 Yes No
Jo dan LFS 2019 Yes Yes
Kenya Kenya Con inuous Household Su ey
P og amme
2019 Yes No
Lao People’s Democ a ic
Republic
LFS 2017 No No
Leso ho LFS 2019 No Yes
Madagasca Enquê e Na ionale su l'Emploi e le
Sec eu In o mel (Na ional Su ey o
Employmen and he In o mal Sec o )
2015 Yes No

45 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Coun y/Te i o y Su ey Yea Su ey used o
igu esB.2.1and
B.2.2inbox2
Su ey used
o  igu eB.2.3
inbox2
Mali Enquê e Modulai e e Pe manen e
aup ès des Ménages (Modula
Pe manen Household Su ey)
2018 Yes Yes
Mexico Encues a Nacional de Ocupación y
Empleo (Na ional Su ey o Occupa ion
and Employmen )
2019 Yes Yes
Mongolia Household Socio-Economic su ey 2018 Yes No
Myanma LFS 2019 Yes No
Namibia LFS 2018 Yes Yes
Nepal LFS 2017 Yes Yes
Nica agua Encues a Nacional de Hoga es so-
b e Medicíon de Ni el de Vida
(Na ional Household Li ing S anda ds
Measu emen Su ey)
2014 Yes No
Occupied Pales inian
Te i o y
LFS 2019 Yes Yes
Pakis an LFS 2019 Yes No
Panama Encues a de Me cado Labo al (Labou
Ma ke Su ey)
2019 Yes No
Pe u Encues a Nacional de Hoga es (Na ional
Household Su ey)
2019 Yes No
Philippines LFS 2019 Yes Yes
Republic o Moldo a LFS 2019 No Yes
Rwanda Enquê e In ég ale su les Condi ions de
Vie des Ménages (In eg a ed Household
Li ing Condi ions Su ey)
2017 Yes Yes
Senegal Enquê e Na ionale su l’Emploi (Na ional
Employmen Su ey)
2019 No No
Se bia LFS 2019 Yes No
Sie a Leone Sie a Leone In eg a ed Household
Su ey
2018 Yes Yes
S i Lanka LFS 2019 Yes Yes
Swi ze land Enquê e Suisse su la Popula ion Ac i e
(Swiss Labou Fo ce Su ey)
2019 Yes Yes
Thailand LFS 2019 Yes No
Togo Enquê e Regionale In eg ée su l’Em-
ploi e le Sec eu In o mel (Regional
In eg a ed Su ey on Employmen and
he In o mal Sec o )
2017 Yes Yes
Tü kiye LFS 2013 Yes Yes
Uganda LFS 2017 Yes No
Uni ed S a es o Ame ica Cu en Popula ion Su ey 2019 Yes Yes
46 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Coun y/Te i o y Su ey Yea Su ey used o
igu esB.2.1and
B.2.2inbox2
Su ey used
o  igu eB.2.3
inbox2
U uguay Encues a Con inua de Hoga es
(Con inuous Household Su ey)
2019 Yes No
Vie Nam LFS 2019 Yes Yes
Yemen LFS 2014 Yes Yes
Zambia LFS 2019 No Yes
LFS = Labou Fo ce Su ey
47 ILO Wo king Pape 107
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52 ILO Wo king Pape 107
Acknowledgemen s
We would like o hank se e al colleagues a he ILO, especially Ca he ine Sage , Pa ick Belse ,
Rosina Gamma ano, Tahmina Ka imo a and Giulia de Lazza i, o hei help ul commen s on
his pape .
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