Producing Feminism: Television Work in the Age of Women's Liberation

Cla k, Jenni e S.
Book
P oducing Feminism: Tele ision Wo k in he Age o
Women's Libe a ion
Feminis Media His o ies, No. 6
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess
Sugges ed Ci a ion: Cla k, Jenni e S. (2024) : P oducing Feminism: Tele ision Wo k in he Age
o Women's Libe a ion, Feminis Media His o ies, No. 6, ISBN 978-0-520-39930-3, Uni e si y o
Cali o nia P ess, Be keley, CA,
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PRODUCING
FEMINISM
PRODUCING
FEMINISM
Jenni e S. Cla k
TELEVISION WORK IN THE
AGE OF WOMEN’S
LIBERATION
PRODUCING FEMINISM TELEVISION WORK IN THE AGE OF WOMEN’S LIBERATION
CLARK
ISBN: 9780520399297
9 780520 399297
In his a chi ally in o med wo k, Jenni e S. Cla k explo es he mul iple ways in which
he eminis p io i ies o he
1
97
0
s we e s eng hened by women who labo ed in he
Ame ican ele ision indus y. Ca e ully syn hesizing an a ay o in e iews and p ima y
sou ces— om ele ision ne wo k memos o p og amming schedules, p oduc ion no es
o execu i e mee ing agendas—Cla k ells he s o y o how women o ganized in he
wo kplace o o m collec i es, a ec p oduc ion labo , and de elop e o m‑o ien ed
policies and philosophies ha eshaped ele ision behind he sc een. She u ges us o
conside how in e en ions, o en a localized le els, can collec i ely shi he dynam‑
ics o media wo kplaces and he cul u al p oduc s c ea ed he ein.
“A e i ic model o eminis media his o iog aphy. Jenni e Cla k expands ou unde ‑
s anding o
1
97
0
s Ame ican ele ision, he women’s libe a ion mo emen , and he deep
connec ions among gende , labo , and ac i ism while inno a ing new s a egies o
examine he media indus ies.”—Elana Le ine, au ho o He S o ies:
Day ime Soap Ope a and US Tele ision His o y
“A massi ely impo an and enligh ening con ibu ion o he ield, o e ‑
ing a nuanced ea men o indus y coope a ion and comp omise. Cla k
uses a e a chi al indings and a wide ange o cul u al objec s and
case s udies o gene a e esh, bold conclusions a ound second‑
wa e eminism and Ame ican ele ision.”—Annie Be ke, au ho o
Thei Own Bes C ea ions: Women W i e s in Pos wa Tele ision
Jenni e S. Cla k is Assis an P o esso o Communica ion
and Media S udies a Fo dham Uni e si y.
_______________________________________
FEMINIST MEDIA HISTORIES, 6
Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess
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in Film and Media S udies.
P oducing Feminism

FEMINIST MEDIA HISTORIES
Shelley S amp, Se ies Edi o
1. Thei Own Bes C ea ions: Women W i e s in Pos wa Tele ision, by Annie Be ke
2. Viola ed F ames: A mando Bó and Isabel Sa li’s Sexploi s, by Vic o ia Rue alo
3. Recollec ing Lo e Eisne : Cinema, Exile, and he A chi e, by Naomi DeCelles
4. A Quee Way o Feeling: Gi l Fans and Pe sonal A chi es in Ea ly Hollywood,
by Diana W. Anselmo
5. Incomple e: The Feminis Possibili ies o he Un inished Film, edi ed by Alix Bees on
and S e an Solomon
6. P oducing Feminism: Tele ision Wo k in he Age o Women’s Libe a ion, by Jenni e S. Cla k
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESS
P oducing Feminism
Tele ision Wo k in he Age o Women’s Libe a ion
Jenni e S. Cla k
Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess
Oakland, Cali o nia © 2024 by Jenni e S. Cla k
This wo k is licensed unde a C ea i e Commons (CC BY-NC-ND) license.
To iew a copy o he license, isi h p://c ea i ecommons.o g/licenses.
Sugges ed ci a ion: Cla k, J. S. P oducing Feminism: Tele ision Wo k in he
Age o Women’s Libe a ion. Oakland: Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess, 2024.
DOI: h ps://doi.o g/10.1525/luminos.180
Lib a y o Cong ess Ca aloging-in-Publica ion Da a
Names: Cla k, Jenni e Susanne, au ho .
Ti le: P oducing eminism : ele ision wo k in he age o women’s
libe a ion / Jenni e S. Cla k.
O he i les: Feminis media his o ies (Se ies) ; 6.
Desc ip ion: Oakland, Cali o nia : Uni e si y o Cali o nia P ess, [2024] |
Se ies: Feminis media his o ies ; 6 | Includes bibliog aphical
e e ences and index.
Iden i ie s: LCCN 2023040997 (p in ) | LCCN 2023040998 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780520399297 (pape back) | ISBN 9780520399303 (ebook)
Subjec s: LCSH: Women in ele ision b oadcas ing—Uni ed S a es—
His o y—20 h cen u y. | Feminism and mass media—Uni ed S a es—
His o y—20 h cen u y.
Classi ica ion: LCC PN1992.8.W65 C54 2024 (p in ) | LCC PN1992.8.W65
(ebook) | DDC 791.45082/0973—dc23/eng/20230919
LC eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2023040997
LC ebook eco d a ailable a h ps://lccn.loc.go /2023040998
Manu ac u ed in he Uni ed S a es o Ame ica
33 32 31 30 29 28 27 26 25 24
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Con en s
In oduc ion 1
1. Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m a Ne wo k Tele ision’s
Co po a e Headqua e s 18
2. F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” o Feminis Exp ession:
Billie Jean King, Eleano Sange Rige , and Women’s Spo s on Tele ision 49
3. Wo king in he Lea Fac o y: Ann Ma cus, Vi ginia Ca e ,
and he Women o Tandem P oduc ions 79
4. Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”: Expe imen s in Public
and Regional Tele ision o Women 120
Epilogue: Wha he 1970s Can Teach Us abou Feminis Media Re o m 153
Acknowledgemen s 163
No es 167
Bibliog aphy 195
Index 203
6 In oduc ion
as his app oach conside s p ocesses enac ed by agen i e women who ac i ely
challenged and e o med ele ision wo kplaces and p oduc ion p o ocols.
Assessing women’s gains in media indus ies equi es mul iple e alua i e means,
as schola ship by Na alie W ey o d and Shelley Cobb, Mi anda Banks, and Vicky
Ball and Melanie Bell demons a es.19 By he ea ly 1970s, wi h changing employ-
men laws and egula o y p essu e o hi e mo e women, ele ision s a ions ac oss
he coun y we e compelled o hi e women in g ea e numbe s, and ne wo k ele-
ision p omo ed women o execu i e posi ions. P og am con en also changed
and included an a che ype o a “new implici ly eminis woman coping wi h he
e e yday wo ld.”20 While he indus y used hese ac ions o announce a new ound
awa eness o eminism h ough quan i a i e (s a is ics on employmen ) and quali a-
i e (p og am con en ) means, nei he da ase on i s own p o ides compelling e i-
dence o eminis in luence o e ele ision. Rising employmen numbe s o women
a s a ions we e manipula ed by eca ego iza ion o jobs; p omo ions a ne wo ks
in ol ed newly c ea ed job i les wi hou co esponding inc eases in p es ige, powe ,
o compensa ion; and p og essi e on-sc een con en was no necessa ily ied o
women wo king on i s p oduc ion.21 The e o e, an up ick in sc een ime o women
cha ac e s, “imp o ed” ep esen a ion o women, and inc eased employmen and
p omo ions o women do no necessa ily e ince achie emen s o eminis goals.
A p oduc ion s udies app oach o he ad ancemen s o women in ele ision
ells us wha employmen s a is ics o image analysis alone canno . Wo ke s’ pe -
spec i es and documen s in e nal o he ele ision wo kplace e eal how women
ac ually expe ienced supposed o eal oppo uni ies. This e idence augmen s and
complica es he “objec i e” in o ma ion con eyed in indus y p ess eleases, o -
malized policies, and s a is ical epo s. I also showcases how wo ke s hemsel es
enac ed impo an poli ical changes in ele ision h ough logis ical decisions,
in e pe sonal dynamics, and he e e yday ope a ions o making ele ision, as o -
ma i e p oduc ion s udies schola ship demons a es.
People who wo ked on inno a i e p og ams o he la e 1960s h ough he 1980s
o e pa icula ly ich insigh s in o how ans o ma i e momen s in ele ision hap-
pen. In he analysis o Soul!, a public ele ision show o he la e 1960s and ea ly
1970s p oduced by and o Black Ame icans, Gayle Wald ecognizes he plans
made abou se design, in e iewing echniques, came a angles, and edi ing as
i al con ibu ions o he p og am’s “in imacy and connec ion wi h iewe s.”22 In
his ca e ully conside ed ideas abou unning he show, p oduce Ellis Haizlip cul-
i a ed “black cul u al sel -de ini ion ha e used o accep whi e aes he ic s an-
da ds and, in so doing, con ibu ed o he emo ion and spi i ual well-being o he
collec i e.”23 Despi e p oclama ions by he show’s p oduce ha 1980s emale-cop
d ama Cagney & Lacey was no a ehicle o eminism, Julie D’Acci cha s how
he p oduc ion eam c a ed “explici gene al eminism” o he show.24 D’Acci’s
esea ch o communica ions and planning in e nal o he p oduc ion e eals ha
“commen a ies and memos on a ious d a s o he sc ip s ac ually bespeak e o s

In oduc ion 7
o be bla an ly and ‘co ec ly’ eminis ” and coun e public s a emen s o he con-
a y.25 Jenni e Keishin A ms ong’s p oduc ion his o y o 1970s single-gi l wo k-
place si com The Ma y Tyle Moo e Show loca es he oppo uni ies p esen ed o
women on he p oduc ion eam in small, in e pe sonal momen s. Show coc ea o
Allan Bu ns p omo ed Pa Nando om sec e a y o w i e when he walked he o
he ca and encou aged he o w i e o he show, saying, “I hink you can do i .”26
These accoun s make i clea ha p og essi e changes in he ele ision indus-
y ake place no jus h ough egula o y measu es, indus y-wide e o m eco-
nomic incen i es, o o he la ge-scale, sys emwide ac o s. These changes also, and
pe haps mo e o en, anspi e in he g anula de ails o planning and logis ics,
con e sa ions bo h pe sonal and p o essional, and minu iae o behind- he-scenes
ela ionships. In co esponding ashion, P oducing Feminism calls upon in e -
iews, memoi s, and p ima y documen s gene a ed in he wo kplace, jus as i
ci es s a is ical da a abou employmen numbe s, a ings, sala ies, and p o i s.
Th oughou he book, I u n o mul iple na a i es gene a ed by women wo k-
e s, as well as quali a i e e idence om sou ces ha we e no public- acing and ha
coun e balance da a used o indus y sel -p omo ion. Using in e iew ansc ip s,
jou nalis ic in e iews conduc ed by o he s, and my own in e iews wi h wo ke s,
I ela e i s hand accoun s o he changing na u e o ele ision labo ac oss a wide a ay
o occupa ions, including p oduce s, hos s, ac o s, epo e s, w i e s, esea che s, con-
sul an s, c ea i e di ec o s, and execu i es. I call upon ma e ials housed in a chi es—
including memos, wo kplace communica ions, mee ing schedules and minu es,
p oduc ion plans, wo kplace memos, loo plans, diag ams o se s, and employee
newsle e s— o u he con ex ualize policies wi hin expe ien ial and in o mal
aspec s o hei execu ion. These ma e ials a e housed in a ange o collec ions ocused
on ele ision (Mass Media and Cul u e Special Collec ions, Uni e si y o Ma yland;
No man Lea Sc ip Collec ion, Eme son College; Uni e si y o Wyoming, He i age
Cen e ; and Howa d Go lieb A chi al Resea ch Cen e , Bos on Uni e si y), women’s
poli ical and cul u al his o y (Schlesinge Lib a y, Radcli e Ins i u e o Ad anced
S udy; Sophia Smi h Collec ion o Women’s His o y, Smi h College), s a e go e n-
men (Commonweal h o Massachuse s S a e A chi e), and co po a e b oadcas ing
(CBS News Re e ence Lib a y). Collec i ely, hese esou ces spo ligh women who
expe ienced and in e ened in he gende ed poli ics o ele ision and e eal he ope -
a ions o ele ision wo kplaces as impo an si es o eminis e o m.
TELEVISION RESPONDS TO THE WOMEN’S MOVEMENT
Wi h he g ow h o he US women’s mo emen a he beginning o he 1970s,
ele ision was compelled o ake no ice. To cap u e an eme ging demog aphic o
women iewe s and o capi alize on popula ideas abou libe a ed women, ic-
ional p og ams deployed wha Bonnie J. Dow and Ka he ine Lehman iden i y
as “li es yle eminism.”27 This consume is - iendly media ion o eminis poli ics,
8 In oduc ion
acco ding o Pa icia B adley, was ine i able, as “ he mo emen ’s goals would be
me only in ways ha we e consis en wi h he alues o comme ce.”28 Lau en
Rabino i z’s assessmen o eminis -in lec ed si coms leads he o a simila conclu-
sion. “A gene ic add ess o ‘ eminism’ became an impo an s a egy,” she a gues,
“because i se ed he needs o Ame ican ele ision execu i es who could cul i a e
p og amming ha could be iden i ied wi h a ge audiences whom hey wan ed o
measu e and deli e o ad e ising agencies.”29
When eminis s, like o he ac i is g oups, demanded ha ele ision be p essed
o uphold i s esponsibili y o he public, ele ision ied o con ain he impac o
hose demands. In 1969, WLBT-TV, a ele ision s a ion in Jackson, Mississippi, had
i s b oadcas ing license e oked when i e used o ai ci il igh s pe spec i es and
iola ed he Fai ness Doc ine, he Fede al Communica ions Commission (FCC)
policy adop ed in 1949 ha s ipula ed equal ai ime be gi en o opposing iew-
poin s on an issue. The case p o ided p eceden o media e o m g oups o ile
simila pe i ion- o-deny cases. Local s a ions needed o espond o such ac ion,
bu hey “ egula ized hei ela ionship wi h ac i is g oups in hei communi-
ies,” as Ka h yn Mon gome y explains, and sa is ied hei demands by p o iding
hese g oups wi h low-cos , low-impac p og amming; such ac ics “placa ed he
g oups, wi hou cu ing in o he s a ions’ p o i s.”30
E en hough ele ision eac ed o he women’s mo emen h ough con ain-
men , co-op a ion, and supe icial appeasemen , eminis schola s iden i y i-
umphs and gains ha we e made despi e such esponses. While Bonnie J. Dow
concu s wi h p e ailing na a i es abou he eminis p o es o he 1968 Miss
Ame ica pagean as he sou ce o “image p oblems ha ha e plagued eminism
e e since,” she also ega ds he e en as a “success in e ms o ene gizing he adi-
cal wing o he second wa e.”31 Mon gome y’s schola ship on ad ocacy g oups
no es ha e o m e o s paid o when he Na ional O ganiza ion o Women
(NOW) began a ge ing ne wo k-owned s a ions and p ime- ime p og amming
and iden i ied hem as “ ulne able” o p o es .32 Rega dless o he e icacy o
NOW’s licensing challenges, Allison Pe lman ecognizes ha he o ganiza ion’s
pe i ions- o-deny demons a ed eminism’s legi imacy as an o ganized poli ical
mo emen . By engaging in ele ision e o m, eminis s insis ed on hei “con-
sume o economic powe as iewe s” and de ined hemsel es as “ac i e ci izens”
who wa an ed ecogni ion h ough ede al policy.33 Be nade e Ba ke -Plumme
demons a es how eminis g oups we e able o exploi a “dialogical” ela ionship
be ween hemsel es and comme cial news ou le s.34 As such nuanced schola ship on
he mee ing o he ele ision indus y and eminism in he 1970s makes plain, any
analysis o his ela ionship mus acknowledge he complexi y o he dynamics
in ol ed. By ocusing on women wo ke s and hei eminis in luences on hei
espec i e ele ision wo kplaces and p oduc ion cul u es, P oducing Feminism
adds u he issu es o accoun s o he indus y’s co-op a ion o , o blanke hos-
ili y owa d, eminism.
In oduc ion 9
To exempli y his poin , I u n b ie ly he e o ne wo k ele ision’s engage-
men wi h he Women’s S ike o Equali y, a momen ous public ac ion o he
women’s mo emen . NOW o ganized he s ike, which ook place on Augus 26,
1970, and in ol ed a numbe o e en s ac oss he coun y, including chu ch se -
mons conduc ed by women, boyco s o p oduc s deemed demeaning o women,
women e using o p o ide unpaid domes ic labo in hei own homes, mo he s
b inging child en o a he s’ wo kplaces o demons a e he need o childca e,
and adio s a ions gi ing o e b oadcas ing o women s a and lis ene s o he
day’s p og amming. A b oadside published by Women’s Coali ion S ike Head-
qua e s encou aged women, “CONFRONT you own un inished business o
equali y a you o ice, on you job, o a home,” and exho ed hem o join he
ma ch on Fi h A enue.35 Anne Ladky, women’s wo kplace ac i is and p esiden
o he Chicago chap e o NOW (1973–75), desc ibes he s ike as “a big, big,
big deal” ha “launched Chicago NOW,” “b ough all so s o membe s in,” and
“ eally did sca e he o ces o he s a us quo.”36 When NOW “in i ed women
om ac oss a ange o ac i is o ganiza ions o o e look hei di e ences and
uni e o womankind,” i p o ed a success ul call o ac ion.37 The New Yo k Ci y
ma ch included “ adical eminis s, lesbians, Black Powe ad oca es, paci is s,”
women o all ages, and some men, and he “di e si y o he c owd as ounded
e en he NOW o ganize s.”38
Gi en he scale, coo dina ion, and poli ical signi icance o he s ike, ele ision’s
esponse o he e en was bo h su p ising and disappoin ing. Ba ba a Wal e s,
who was wo king a Today (NBC 1952–) a he ime, ecognized ha he collec i e
ac ion o he o e i y housand women who ma ched in New Yo k Ci y’s S ike o
Equali y was a newswo hy e en . Bu when she u ged NBC p esiden Reu en F ank
o inc ease special co e age o he p o es and o ai in o ma ional epo s on
he women’s mo emen , he ne wo k did no espond a o ably. F ank ejec ed
Wal e ’s pi ch o a one-hou special, elling he , “No enough in e es .”39 Ul ima ely
all h ee ne wo ks ended up co e ing he s ike, bu when hey did, hei ea men o
he e en , acco ding o Pa icia B adley, “had no been sympa he ic.”40 Co e age
o he e en ei ied he sexis ep esen a ional p ac ices o comme cial ele ision.
In Bonnie J. Dow's assessmen , all h ee ne wo ks amed he s ike o he “ isual
pleasu e” o an imagined male spec a o and deployed “shee spec acle,” “absu dis
en e ainmen a he han easoned p o es ,” and anxie y- ueled conce ns abou
“ eminini y unde a ack” in hei epo age.41 The in es men s o ele ision and
eminis s in depic ions o he s ike we e, acco ding o Dow, undamen ally an i-
he ical: “Al hough he eminis s who c ea ed he s ike we e a emp ing o exe
con ol o e he image o he mo emen —by making i isible, by demons a ing
widesp ead suppo o i , and by d ama izing i s demands— ele ision’s aming
o he ac ion wi hin dominan cul u al ep esen a ional no ms unde mined hose
pu poses.”42 Feminis eac ion o ele ision epo s on he s ike was no a o able,
and hei “ange a ne wo k co e age was p o ound.”43
10 In oduc ion
Tele ision co e age o he S ike o Equali y ma ked an inauspicious s a o
he ela ionship o he women’s mo emen and ele ision and seemed o o es all
hope ha eminism could make meaning ul in oads in o ele ision. Ye esponses
o wo ke in ol emen in he s ike sugges ano he way in which ele ision could,
and did, espond o eminis ac i ism a his s age o i s de elopmen . I on-sc een
images epu posed, dilu ed, and i ialized some hing as o ma i e in he women’s
mo emen as he s ike, women wo ke s a he ne wo ks expe ienced a di e en
esponse o he e y same e en . This di e ence sugges s he mo e success ul impac
o eminis ac i ism om wi hin, a he han om wi hou , he ele ision indus y.
In an icipa ion o he e en , CBS acknowledged ha i s employees migh pa icipa e
in he day’s ac i i ies and o e ed hem he op ion o aking ei he unpaid ime o
o a paid aca ion day. NBC and ABC had “no enuncia ed policy” bu ins ead “le
i up o depa men heads” o de e mine how o deal wi h absen wo ke s on he
day o he s ike.44 In con as o on-ai ea men o he S ike o Equali y, ne -
wo k managemen ’s policies abou wo ke pa icipa ion—e en i only a nonpuni i e
esponse—ma ked acknowledgmen o , and a deg ee o espec o , he e en .
The single example o he S ike o Equali y (some hing I discuss u he in
chap e 1), sugges s a b oade pa e n o ele ision’s esponsi eness o eminism
in wo kplace ma e s, which o en ope a ed independen ly om he indus y’s
decisions abou on-sc een depic ions o he women’s mo emen . By uncoupling
ele ision’s decisions abou how o depic eminism om i s in e nal esponses
o wo ke s’ eminis poli ics, we can conside he impac o he women’s mo e-
men on ele ision’s p ac ices beyond ep esen a ion. This pe spec i e allows
us o see, ega dless o he messages abou eminism ha ul ima ely made hei
way o iewing audiences, he p esence and e icacy o eminis in luence wi hin
he ele ision indus y.
To ex end conside a ions o eminism’s impac on ele ision beyond he sc een,
I call upon mo e- han- ep esen a ional and ma e ial eminis amewo ks. This
app oach helps loca e eminis poli ical ac i i y inside he indus y and h ough
expe ien ial aspec s o he wo kplace. “Mo e- han- ep esen a ional” heo iza ion
eo ien s analysis om assump ions abou he ixi y and inali y o images o con-
side a ions o “how li e akes shape and gains exp ession in sha ed expe iences,
e e yday ou ines, lee ing encoun e s, embodied mo emen s, p ecogni i e ig-
ge s, p ac ical skills, a ec i e in ensi ies, endu ing u ges, unexcep ional in e ac-
ions and sensuous disposi ions.”45 In c i ical geog aphy s udies, his app oach
os e s schola ly emphasis no on landscapes ha a e ex s o be ead bu a he on
si es ha a e expe ien ial, embodied, and a ec i e. In i s conce ns wi h “ac ions
and p ocesses” and wi h he luidi y and mobili y o p e ep esen a ional momen s,
a “mo e- han- ep esen a ional” amewo k ansla es well o s udies o wo ke s,
labo , and expe iences in image-p oducing ealms.46
Al hough my p ojec in es iga es eminis ac i ism wi hin he labo and spaces
o p oduc ion, i is no a e u a ion o ejec ion o he immense alue o ep esen-
In oduc ion 11
a ional analysis. Wi h an emphasis on he “mo e han” a he han he “an i-” o
“no - ep esen a ional, P oducing Feminism does no en i ely dis ega d he co -
ela ion be ween p oduc ion cul u es and hei ou pu . In ins ances when wo ke s’
eminis p ac ices esul ed in meaning ul changes in ele ision con en , I end o
he planning in ol ed in c ea ing images and he hoped- o impac on audiences.
C ea ing images, howe e , is bu one o many in he labo s o ele ision p oduc-
ion, and I conside ep esen a ions no as p ima y indica o s o eminis in lu-
ence in ele ision bu as a co espondence wi h nume ous o he eminis e o s
in p oduc ion.
Indeed, ep esen a ions ma e o his p ojec because hey e eal some hing o
us abou he na u e o p oduc ion. This pe spec i e e e ses adi ions o ele i-
sion his o ies, in which indus y issues o e a means by which o unde s and wha
happens on sc een. Maya Mon añez Smukle ’s wo k on women ilm di ec o s o
he 1970s o e s a help ul model o his app oach. While ilm con en and biog a-
phies a e pa o he examina ion o women di ec o s, “ ex ual analysis is no he
amewo k o he p ojec as a whole.” Ins ead, Smukle u ilizes hese ex s o con-
side “a c ucial his o ical junc u e du ing he 1970s” ha a o ded women g ea e
in oads in o he ilm indus ies.”47 By ega ding labo p ac ices and he places in
which hey occu ed, I am able no jus o look a he p oduc o women’s wo k
in he ele ision indus y bu o see he p ocesses by which hey c ea ed ha p od-
uc and he condi ions ha a o ded ha c ea ion. This pe spec i e ge s a c i i-
cal engagemen s and expe ien ial quali ies o ele ision ha exis alongside—and
some imes apa om—on-sc een ep esen a ions. This pe spec i e also si ua es
eminis s as ac i e and s a egic agen s in he p oduc ion o ele ision a he han
only eac i e c i ics o passi e odde o sensa ionalized media co e age.
SCOPE AND ARRANGEMENT OF PRODUCING FEMINISM
P oducing Feminism ocuses on he 1970s, wi h a s a a he beginning o he
decade. While he exis ence o he women’s mo emen p eceded his ime pe iod,
i s popula iza ion and e e yday p esence in Ame ican li e eached c i ical mass
in 1970. Feminis his o ian Sa a E ans desc ibes ha yea as one du ing which
“ ‘women’s lib’ was on e e yone’s lips.”48 In i s assessmen o eminism’s g ow h,
Newsweek iden i ied 1970 as a wa e shed momen , “ he yea in which Ame ican
women became in ellec ually awa e o he mode n eminis mo emen ,” and p e-
dic ed ha , in he yea s o come, women’s libe a ion would “become pa o [wom-
en’s] e e yday li es.”49 This was he poin a which eminism achie ed isibili y in
legal and poli ical ealms and made signi ican in oads in o popula cul u e. New
Yo k S a e libe alized abo ion laws; he House o Rep esen a i es passed he Equal
Righ s Amendmen (ERA); and he a o emen ioned Women’s S ike o Equali y in
New Yo k Ci y became he “la ges demons a ion o emale equali y in Ame ican
his o y.”50 Sexual Poli ics, The Dialec ic o Sex, and Sis e hood Is Powe ul all became

12 In oduc ion
bes selle s, and ac i is in e en ions in popula cul u e, such as he occupa ion o
Ladies Home Jou nal’s co po a e o ice wi h demands o a “libe a ed issue o he
magazine o be done by women,” we e highly publicized e en s.51
The yea 1970 also ma ked ele ision’s engagemen wi h he women’s mo e-
men and eminis in e en ions in he indus y. NOW es ablished i s Media
Task Fo ce and success ully lobbied he FCC o include “sex” as pa o Equal
Employmen Oppo uni y ules. Bonnie J. Dow main ains ha his was he ime
when ne wo k news “ga e hei mos sus ained a en ion o he second wa e as a
mo emen .”52 On May 25, 1970, ABC ai ed “Women’s Libe a ion,” a news epo
aimed o in o m iewe s abou he “un inished e olu ion o Ame ican women.”53
Ma lene Sande s, w i e , p oduce , and on-ai epo e o he p og am, se ed as
a “ eminis sympa hize ” who was “sel -conscious” in he a emp s o “ ep esen
he mo emen ai ly.”54 Sande s’s in ol emen ma ked a signi ican oppo uni y
o a woman o helm co e age o he mo emen and in luence how ele ision
news would pay a en ion o i .
While he ela ionship be ween ele ision and women’s libe a ion has a clea
o igin poin in 1970, he end poin o he ela ionship is less ce ain. By and la ge,
comme cial ele ision ound eminism a ac i e when i p o ided compelling
s o ies and easily diges ible images and con eyed ela i ely conse a i e libe al
eminis ideas. This limi ed pe spec i e no only o e looked he complexi y o he
mo emen bu also has ened a p ema u e end o i s media co e age. Acco ding
o Pa icia B adley, wo kplace equali y o e shadowed conce ns o he mo emen
a icula ed ea ly in i s exis ence ha “sough o pu on he public agenda issues
o how women’s seconda y na u e in U.S. socie y ad e sely e lec ed a en ion o
women’s heal h, child suppo conce ns, ape and legal p o ec ions, and domes-
ic abuse—issues ha we e disc e e p oblems o be co ec ed well as ela ed o
he o e all pa e n o cul u e.”55 E en s like he high-p o ile ele ised ennis ma ch
be ween Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs in 1973 helped con i m he na a i e
ha women’s equali y had been achie ed. By 1975, his pe cep ion had solidi ied,
and ull-scale media in e es in he mo emen had e ec i ely come o an end.
By compa ison, p oduc ion cul u es e eal mo e sus ained in es men s be ween
eminism and ele ision. The in es men s and endea o s o women ele ision
wo ke s ex ended he impac o he women’s mo emen on ele ision beyond he
1975 expi a ion da e ha B adley es ablishes. Women’s ca ee s exceeded sho -
li ed media in e es in he mo emen , and hei unde s anding o eminis issues
su passed he single issue o wo kplace equali y wi h which ele ision co e age
was p eoccupied. In ending o women whose ca ee a cs con inued h oughou
he 1970s and beyond, P oducing Feminism acknowledges hei con inued ene gies
and iden i ies he ways ha eminis in es men s ope a ed in ele ision yea s a e
he indus y’s ini ial in e es had waned.
The i s chap e o P oducing Feminism, “Women’s G oups and Wo kplace
Re o m a Ne wo k Tele ision’s Co po a e Headqua e s,” explo es women’s
In oduc ion 13
g oups ha o med a he headqua e s o all h ee ne wo ks in he ea ly 1970s,
wi h a ocus on he Women’s Ad iso y Council (WAC) a CBS.56 This chap e
conside s he impac o women’s wo kplace g oups on co po a e media cul u e.
These g oups ga e oice o eminis conce ns a ne wo k ele ision’s co po a e
headqua e s, a sec o o he indus y ha was no o iously inhospi able o ac i -
is e o m e o s. As a wo kplace collec i e, he women’s g oups o ganized ac oss
occupa ional di isions and ocused on employmen conce ns o all women wo k-
e s employed a he co po a ion. WAC, in pa icula , ha nessed he will o he
collec i e o success ully modi y policies and p ac ices a CBS ha anged om
ep oduc i e heal h ca e, he sexism o he ne wo k’s o ice cul u e, and conscious-
aising measu es in he wo kplace o mo e expec ed issues o equi able p omo ion
and job aining.57
By s a ing P oducing Feminism wi h wo ke s o en employed a a emo e om
ele ision p oduc ion, con en ionally de ined, I signal he p ojec ’s in es men
in he b ead h o labo s women unde ook and e o med in ele ision h oughou
he cou se o he 1970s. Sec e a ies and suppo s a , esea che s, and accoun an s,
as well as “c ea i es,” pa icipa ed in he ne wo k women’s g oups and collec i ely
agi a ed o imp o ed wo kplace condi ions. This communi y o media wo k-
e s b idged hie a chical di isions o he co po a ion and ecognized unpaid and
unde alued labo as cen al o he ope a ions o he ne wo k. In doing so, WAC
p o ides an ins uc i e model o success ul, i a ypical, eminis ele ision e o m.
By ocusing on he wo kplace and ope a ing om wi hin he indus y, WAC was
able o in oduce eclec ic eminis p inciples in o ne wo k ele ision a he e y
hea o i s ope a ions.
P oducing Feminism’s second chap e , “F om ‘Jockoc a ic Endea o s’ o Femi-
nis Exp ession,” explo es ele ision’s ole in exp essing he eminis po en ial o
women’s spo s. In a con ex whe e eminis leade ship and emale a hle es we e
ambi alen , a bes , abou he need o join o ces, comme cial ele ision p o ided
an en i onmen in which women could demons a e he p oduc i e co espon-
dence o eminism and a hle icism. This chap e ocuses on wo igu es who
helped ac ualize his dynamic: ennis p o, ele ision celeb i y, and spo s com-
men a o Billie Jean King and Eleano Sange Rige , he i s woman p oduce a
ABC Spo s.
King’s amed Ba le o he Sexes ma ch wi h Bobby Riggs in 1973, he ad ocacy
o legalized abo ion and equal pay o women, and he spo s celeb i y made
he one o he mos isible and e ec i e ambassado s o women a hle es in he
1970s. He celeb i y ansla ed o a ele ision ca ee as a commen a o o ABC
Spo s, a posi ion ha Rige helped b oke . Rige was hi ed as a di ec esul o
eminis p o es s agains ABC’s sexis employmen p ac ices and spen he ca ee
a he ne wo k championing emale a hle es as iable on-ai alen , men o ing and
aining women o ake on he ole o on-ai announce s, and c ea ing new ypes
o p og amming o women’s spo s. She challenged assump ions abou oices,
14 In oduc ion
announcing s yles, and colo commen a y ha we e implici ly and powe ully
gende ed and biased agains women. Rige also c ea ed a coope a i e and collegial
wo kplace in spo s ele ision, which welcomed mo e women in o i s p oduc ion
and helped ensu e hei success he e.
As a p oduce in a highly compe i i e, male-domina ed p ese e, Rige aced
conside able challenges o he ca ee ad ancemen and o he changes she wished
o b ing o ele ision. Despi e hese obs acles, Rige helped ushe in a new e a o
women’s ele ised spo s. When ABC in es ed in spo s in he ea ly 1970s, Rige
helped mode nize i s aes he ics and ou each. She en isioned women’s spo s in
new ways, pa icula ly h ough s o y elling, aining o on-ai alen s, and ech-
niques o came awo k, which ede ined women’s spo s as a iable pa o ele i-
sion p og amming and helped es ablish ABC as a leade in he gen e. This chap e
conside s how Rige ’s e o s o showcase women in spo s ele ision—e inced
in he de ailed sc ip s, sho se ups, and co espondence o execu i es and col-
leagues—success ully le e aged he indus y’s economic sel -in e es o imp o e
i s ea men o women in spo s, bo h in co e age and in he hi ing and ea men
o p oduc ion s a .
Chap e 3, “Wo king in he Lea Fac o y,” u ns o Tandem P oduc ions, he
in luen ial independen p oduc ion company helmed by p oduce s No man Lea
and Bud Yo kin. The no ion o Tandem as a ac o y, as alluded o in he chap e ’s
i le, ci cula ed in popula co e age o he company a he heigh o i s success
and was deployed o bo h p aise and c i ique he apid, seemingly inexhaus ible
ou pu o he company. A concep ha Lea himsel oundly ejec ed, he ac o y
se es as a use ul desc ip o ha decen e s Lea as he singula , au eu is p oduce
and makes oom o he con ibu ions women made o Tandem’s success. This
pe spec i e also acknowledges he wo kload women shoulde ed in keeping pace
wi h he company’s ou pu and he eminized skills—such as w i ing e iciency
and high le els o p oduc i i y honed in wo k on soap ope as—as cen al o he
c ea ion o Tandem’s enowned “ ele an ” ele ision. Al hough Lea is c edi ed
wi h e olu ionizing ele ision in he 1970s, his chap e supposes ha he was bu
one elemen in Tandem’s inno a ion and cen e s he mul iple eminis o ces and
playe s who we e also esponsible o he g oundb eaking na u e o he company.
To be e unde s and he impac women had on he making and selling o Tan-
dem’s p og ams, I conside women who played key oles in c ea i e and execu i e
capaci ies. Thei ou pu included he much-belo ed cul se ies Ma y Ha man, Ma y
Ha man (syndica ed, 1976–77), as well as sho e -li ed and lesse -known p og ams,
such as All Tha Gli e s (syndica ed, 1977). While he eminis sensibili ies o hese
p og ams e lec he ou look o he women who wo ked on hem, hey also in lu-
enced Tandem’s p oduc ion and employmen p ac ices ha p i ileged unlikely
decision-making by and a ound women. Whe he hi ing physicis Vi ginia Ca e
as di ec o o c ea i e a ai s on he basis o he c eden ials as a eminis ac i is o
c ea ing a new dis ibu ion model necessi a ed by he ne wo ks’ eluc ance o pick
In oduc ion 15
up p o oca i e p og ams, Tandem’s business p ac ices challenged p e ailing indus-
y models. To do so, i elied on he p esence o women and eminis poli ics bo h
on- and o -sc een. The chap e concludes by acing how women a Tandem ans-
la ed hei wo k expe ience he e o o he ca ee accomplishmen s, o heigh ened
c ea i e con ol, and o inc easingly eminis p og ams.
As he women’s mo emen gained momen um and isibili y, he US ele ision
indus y de eloped p og ams ha challenged long-s anding adi ions in women’s
ele ision. Chap e 4 looks o ele ision’s “se ious sis e s,” as a 1972 B oadcas ing
a icle called hem, p og ams made o women ha we e p oduced o local, syn-
dica ed, and public ele ision.58 Unlike comme cial, ne wo k ele ision, hese p o-
g ams we e suppo ed h ough modes inancial backing, employed la ge numbe s
o women, and a icula ed a wide ange o eminis poli ics bo h on-sc een and
wi hin he spaces o ele ision p oduc ion. In his chap e , I ocus on Woman Ali e!
(1974–77) and Yes, We Can (1974), no able examples o ele ision’s “se ious sis e s.”
Cop oduced by Ms. magazine and public ele ision s a ions in Dallas and New
Yo k Ci y, Woman Ali e! employed a majo i y- emale p oduc ion eam and used
decidedly eminis app oaches o making ele ision o women. Coo dina ed
wi h a woman’s ai by he same name, Yes, We Can ai ed on Bos on s a ion WBZ.
Join ly p oduced by a ea eminis s, women employees a WBZ, and membe s o
he Go e no ’s Commission on he S a us o Women, he p og am was b oadcas
o six een hou s on a single day, in e up ed only by he local nigh ly news.
In his ou h chap e , I conside how he “se ious sis e s” managed educa ional
ou each o hei audiences and p agma ic and poli ical issues in ol ed in making
hei p og ams. The women on he p oduc ion eams employed adap i e emi-
nis poli ics o mee unique p oduc ion challenges, om nego ia ing esou ces
and wo k low in o med by sexis adi ions in he indus y o balancing highly
ained media acumen wi h an ieli ism and accessibili y o iewe s. Thei inno-
a i e p oduc ion p ac ices esul ed in dis inc i e aes he ics, s o y elling de ices,
and p oduc ion spaces ha signaled a eminis e hos o hose who wo ked on he
p og am, o public and p i a e unding agencies, and o audiences.
Collec i e cul u al memo y celeb a es he impac o he women’s mo emen on
ele ision h ough p og ams and cha ac e s om he 1970s bu la gely o e looks
women who wo ked behind he scenes in he indus y o enac eminis change.
While his endency has shaped popula and academic unde s andings abou
ecen his o y, i also has se ious consequences o con empo a y media e o m.
In a b ie epilogue, I explo e his conce n wi hin he con ex o he #MeToo mo e-
men and i s a e ma h. As women’s expe iences o exploi a i e and abusi e condi-
ions in media indus ies came o ligh ye again in he 2010s, li le was ul ima ely
done o sys ema ically o e haul he wo kplaces ha os e ed such abuse. This is
ue, in pa , because o he pauci y o well- unded, high- isibili y o ganiza ions
dedica ed o eminis media e o m. Those ha do exis , such as he Geena Da is
Ins i u e on Gende and Media and i s co po a e and academic pa ne s, ha e
22 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
The alac i y wi h which bo h ABC and CBS esponded o hei espec i e wom-
en’s g oups sugges s ha he ne wo ks we e inc easingly awa e o he dis up i e
po en ial posed by o ganized wo ke s and he alidi y o hei complain s. WAC,
in pa icula , bene i ed om managemen ’s g owing awa eness o eminis ac i -
ism ha included ac ions aken by he NBC and ABC women’s g oups. News o
a lawsui om ABC women and plans by he Na ional O ganiza ion o Women
(NOW) o ile sui s agains all h ee ne wo ks p omp ed CBS o ake a p oac-
i e s ance. As a esul , acco ding o NBC’s Equal Oppo uni ies Commission
co ounde Ka he ine Kish, CBS was “ he mos ecep i e o he h ee ne wo ks” o
inpu om i s women’s g oup. WAC also bene i ed om s ong in-house suppo
om wo ke s in depa men s ac oss he company’s holdings. P iscilla Toumey,
one o he o iginal membe s o he CBS women’s g oup, es ima ed ha —in com-
pa ison o he o ma i e mee ing o ABC’s Women’s Ac ion Commi ee, a ended
by an es ima ed hi y- i e o o y women—“upwa ds o h ee, ou hund ed
women” pa icipa ed in WAC’s elec ion o commi ee membe s, and ou o i e
hund ed women a ended mee ings in he ea ly days.8
The o ma ion o women’s g oups a he US ne wo ks coincided wi h he ise
o women’s wo kplace g oups ha exp essed eminis -o ien ed media e o m
du ing he 1970s. Resea ch by Jeannine Bake and Jane Conno s on he Aus a-
lian B oadcas ing Commission, by Ma ama Why e on he New Yo k Times, and
by Anne O’B ien on I ish newspape s illumina es a global mo emen o women
wo ke -ac i is s ac oss a ange o media indus ies, occupa ions, and na ional
con ex s.9 While hese g oups deployed di e en s a egies and p i ileged di e -
en p io i ies, o a ying deg ees o success, hey all sha ed ad an ages as indus y
inside s: p o essional expe ise o g oup membe s; ela ionships wi h wo kplace
leade ship; and knowledge o hei espec i e media indus y’s cul u e, p o ocols,
and p io i ies.
Like hei con empo a ies, he women’s g oups a NBC, ABC, and CBS bene-
i ed om hei s a us as indus y inside s. The na u e o hei wo kplace, howe e ,
dis inguished hem om o he media wo ke g oups. Fi s , unlike public sec o
b oadcas e s in o he coun ies, US ne wo ks managed hei obliga ions o he
public in ways ha p o ec ed hei comme cial in e es s. This limi ed he impac
o ac i ism om ou side s and in ma e s o p og amming. Second, co po a e
b oadcas ing headqua e s we e nei he ocused on a single media p oduc no
dedica ed exclusi ely o media p oduc ion. This shaped hei wo k o ce, which
was bo h sizable and dispe sed. Wo ke s we e employed ac oss mul iple di isions
and, in addi ion o media p oduc ion, pu chased and managed media con en and
conduc ed and suppo ed he business ope a ions o he company. These condi-
ions shaped he composi ion and ac ions o he women’s g oups a b oadcas ing
headqua e s: hey needed o ep esen he in e es s o women wo ke s who we e
no uni ied by occupa ion and o con end wi h hei employe s’ esis ance o pa -
icula modes o media e o m.

Figu e 3. A ansc ip o he i s mee ing be ween he Women’s Ad iso y Council and CBS
p esiden A hu Taylo and CBS’s esponse o he Council’s conce ns we e published in a mul i-
page epo made a ailable o employees. (CBS News Re e ence Lib a y)
24 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
In ecalling he o igins o WAC, esea che Judi h Hole highligh s he abili ies
o wo ke s o u ilize co po a e esou ces and hei p o essional expe ise o hei
ad an age. A policy no e issued o execu i es on Feb ua y 13, 1973, p o ed o
be he ca alys o women o ganizing a CBS. The documen claimed ha he
company did no disc imina e on he basis o sex, ace, o na ional o igin. Skep-
ical o his accoun , Hole and he colleagues called upon hei aining and
esea ched CBS’s claims. “We wen o he CBS in e nal phone book, which in
he back o i had e e y depa men and he di ec o o ha depa men , he
manage o ha depa men ,” Hole ecollec ed, “and he e was no one emale
any w he e.”10 P iscilla Toumey, CBS Radio Ne wo k publicis , also emembe s
ha e idence o a male-domina ed o ganiza ion p o ided WAC wi h le e age
o mee wi h CBS p esiden A hu Taylo . In Toumey’s accoun , a small g oup
o women “disag eed” wi h some o he poin s Taylo made in he Feb ua y 13,
1973, policy no e.11 On he basis o disc epancies be ween Taylo ’s s a emen
and indings om hei own esea ch, hey eques ed a mee ing wi h Taylo o
“discuss he a eas o disag eemen .”12 The women’s eques o a mee ing was
“g an ed quickly,” and Taylo issued a o malized esponse o he conce ns p e-
sen ed in ha mee ing wi hin h ee weeks’ ime.13 A ha poin , he women
sugges ed ha hey ha e an “ongoing me hod o communica ing wi h op man-
agemen egula ly on a mo e o ganized basis,” o which Taylo ag eed.14 WAC’s
access o Taylo ma ks i s success among he ne wo k women’s g oups. Bu
al hough WAC e ec i ely pushed CBS o acknowledge he “ lood o p oblems
being iden i ied by he women’s mo emen ,” he co po a ion was no always
amenable o eminis poli ics and e o m p essu es, pa icula ly when hey o ig-
ina ed om women ou side he company.15
CBS AND FEMINISM
“We do no dislike women.” So said CBS boa d chai William S. Paley in 1970 a he
company’s annual boa d mee ing. The mee ing p o ed unexpec edly e en ul when
he eminis g oup Women’s Libe a ion F on (WLF) dis up ed he p oceedings. In
compa ison o NOW’s legisla i e pa h o igh ing sexism, WLF’s adical eminis
app oach in ol ed consciousness- aising o women and ac i ism di ec ed owa d
“changing socie al s uc u e, in o ma ional e o s, and shock ac ics.”16 The WLF
demanded ha he company imp o e employmen oppo uni ies o women, allo-
ca e hal o all jobs and hal o he sea s on i s boa d o women, p o ide ai ime o
eminis ideas, and emo e sexis p og amming and ad e ising om he ai . These
ac ions compelled Paley o weigh in on he ne wo k’s a i ude, o i s lack o “dislike,”
owa d women. Paley’s ambi alen s a emen e eals he undamen al gende p ob-
lems o he ele ision indus y. Tha ne wo k leade ship would espond o eminis
p o es in such unde whelming ashion indica es he magni ude o he s uggle em-
inis s aced in changing he ele ision indus y and he unp epa edness o indus y
Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 25
leade s o espond hough ully o eminis demands, pa icula ly when hese came
om indus y ou side s. CBS was so a on ed by he WLF ha a i s nex annual
s ockholde s mee ing in 1971, he ne wo k ook “ex a secu i y measu es” and hi ed
eigh plainclo hes L.A. police o he e en .17
Indus y publica ions suppo ed he CBS boa d’s esis ance o he ac i is s’
demands, ampli ied Paley’s epid esponse, and we e disinclined o ea hese
women wi h espec o o ake hei ac i ism se iously. Les his seem like a ma e
o ypical jou nalis ic a i udes o he ime, he Wall S ee Jou nal’s co e age o e s
an ins uc i e di e ence. O e all, he Wall S ee Jou nal s uck a mo e objec i e,
dispassiona e one han he leading media indus y publica ions. The Wall S ee
Jou nal’s a icle i le, “Ten Women Dis up CBS Mee ing, Asse Day ime Ne -
wo k Shows Tu n Them O ,” d aws upon he he o ic—being “ u ned o ”— ha
he eminis s hemsel es used o p o es CBS’s sexis language in ad e ising.18 In
compa ison, Va ie y’s i le, “ ‘Libe a ion’ Women Explode, Finally Ge Bounced,”
places sca e quo es a ound “libe a ion” and cha ac e izes he p o es e s as ou -o -
con ol, emo ional women.19
Beyond i le choice, he Wall S ee Jou nal’s co e age a oids sexis language
and desc ibes WLF’s ac ions in poli ical e ms. The a icle leads o wi h WLF’s
ac ion. I goes on o ela e ha once he WLF women le he mee ing, hey encoun-
e ed a p o es agains he Vie nam Wa , which hey g ee ed wi h a “clenched is ”
and shou s o “Righ on!”20 De ails o poli ical legi imacy and solida i y do no
appea in Va ie y’s o B oadcas ing’s co e age o WLF’s ac ions. In B oadcas ing,
he ac i is s we e no e en men ioned in he a icle i le, “CBS S ides in o he 70s,”
and hei ac ions cons i u e ela i ely li le o he a icle. When indus y publica-
ions did men ion he eminis s, hey in alida ed he poli ical cha ac e o hei
g oup. B oadcas ing desc ibed WLF women by hei “unwelcomed s iden ones”
and seemed mo e conce ned wi h he ac i is s’ iola ions o Robe ’s Rules and gen-
de no ms han wi h he me i s o he c i icisms hey lodged agains he ne wo k.21
Va ie y did li le be e . I desc ibed he ac i is s as a “co ey o qua elsome, cu s-
ing women” who “b oke up” he boa d mee ing wi h hei “complain s.”22 When he
“la gely male boa d” yelled a hese “loud lasses,” WLF women esponded wi h “ce -
ain p o ani ies.” Wi h an inc edulous one, Va ie y no ed ha , upon exi ing, he p o-
es e s “e en e used o alk o male epo e s—speaking only o newshens [sic].” 23
Bo h Va ie y and B oadcas ing cha ac e ized he p o es as an unwelcome
dis up ion o he eal business o ele ision. Despi e Va ie y’s easing news abou
“explosi e” women ge ing “bounced” om he mee ing in i s sensa ionalized
headline, WLF’s p o es essen ially was used o ame he business epo o he
mee ing, which cons i u ed he majo i y o he a icle. Va ie y’s a icle opened
wi h a wo-pa ag aph desc ip ion o he ac i is dis up ion and hen mo ed o he
scheduled business o he mee ing. Fou ou o he a icle’s wel e pa ag aphs deal
wi h he women’s p o es ; he emainde epo ed on he ne wo k’s conce ns abou
he ban on ciga e e ad e isemen s and Fede al Communica ion Commission
26 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
(FCC) es ic ions on he ne wo k’s s a ion owne ship.24 Like Va ie y, B oadcas ing
p esen ed CBS business as he cen e piece o i s co e age and assu ed eade s ha ,
agains he “backd op” o “ he unscheduled cacophony,” “CBS leade ship ... man-
aged o ge i s message ac oss.”25 In bo h a icles, Paley was cas as a sympa he ic
igu e ying o keep o de , someone who, in Va ie y’s epo , was “ inally o ced o
s op he session un il he women could be bounced om he building.”26
Though eminis ac i ism om ou side he indus y p o oked anxious and
de ensi e eac ions om he ne wo k and indus y publica ions, eminis ac i ism
exp essed by CBS wo ke s ga ne ed a ma kedly di e en esponse. Soon a e he
in amous Ap il 1970 boa d mee ing and Paley’s apa he ic s a emen abou no dislik-
ing women, CBS o mula ed a mo e cogen s ance on i s ela ionship wi h women
and wi h he women’s mo emen . In Augus 1970, jus ou mon hs a e he WLF
in e up ed he CBS boa d mee ing, Va ie y no ed in on -page co e age ha “CBS
ha[d] come a long way, baby,” when i “ex ended o mal ecogni ion o he Women’s
Libe a ion Mo emen ” on he e e o he Women’s S ike o Equali y.27 In an icipa ion
o he s ike, CBS execu i e ice p esiden John Schneide p o ided employees wi h
a backg ound on he women’s mo emen and a gued bo h publicly and wi hin he
company o he need o ake eminism se iously. Schneide wa ned ha “ ‘emba led
women’ ” would “ ‘no be p epa ed o wai ’ ” o igh s, an icipa ed a o ce ul and long-
las ing eminis mo emen , and a gued ha eminis demands “ ‘dese e[d] calm,
espec ul and unde s anding conside a ion.’ ”28 As Schneide ’s eac ion o he s ike
indica es, CBS was mo e inclined o acknowledge he ela ionship o i s own wo k-
e s o he women’s mo emen han i was o espond o eminis ac i ism om ou -
side s. The con i med and po en ial in ol emen o he CBS wo k o ce in eminis
ac ions p o ed a signi ican ca alys in changing he co po a ion’s a i udes.
As he discussion o he Augus 26, 1970, Women’s S ike o Equali y in he
in oduc o y chap e o his book indica es, he ne wo ks ecognized ha hei
wo ke s would pa icipa e in he ac ion in New Yo k Ci y. Wo ke s a he ne wo ks
we e a wo s no punished and a bes gi en lea e o pa icipa e in he S ike,
and CBS led he way in i s esponse o i s wo ke s. Unlike NBC and ABC, which
came up wi h an ad hoc policy on employee absences on he day o he s ike, CBS
o mula ed a cohe en , company-wide policy ha o e ed women he op ion o
ake unpaid ime away o o use a paid aca ion day in o de o a end he ac ion.
B oadcas ing ega ded CBS’s policy on he S ike as exempli ying he company’s
o e all ou look; CBS now unde s ood ha he women’s libe a ion mo emen was,
in Schneide ’s wo ds, “ ‘se ious business.’ ”29
The dissimila ways ha CBS ea ed i s own wo ke s and ou side ac i is s
could easily be a ibu ed o he g oups’ dis inc i e app oaches o eminis e o m:
WLF’s di ec ac ion and demands o change as opposed o WAC’s esea ched
esponses o policy no es and eques s o mee ings, o example. Ye he dis inc-
ion be ween CBS women and o e ly poli icized eminis g oups appea s mo e
complex when one conside s he poli ical leanings o CBS women who joined
Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 27
eminis p o es on he s ee s o he commonali ies be ween he poin s o e o m
WLF demanded and he ones ha WAC exp essed o CBS. I is p oduc i e, hen,
o see ha CBS women we e no wholly di o ced om eminis o ganiza ions and
ha WAC’s goals we e simila o hose o eminis g oups, e en adical ones. How
WAC achie ed gains o women a CBS was no so much a ques ion o poli ical
in es men s o engagemen wi h media e o m. Ra he , WAC’s almos exclusi e
ocus on wo kplace e o m, i s knowledge o CBS cul u e and ela ionships wi h
company execu i es, and i s expe ise in engaging company policies accoun o
he g oup’s successes.
OUTSIDER VERSUS INSIDER MEDIA REFORM
In he US, media e o m has been de ined by media ad ocacy adi ions and by cam-
paigns moun ed by poli ical ac i is g oups. In he ea ly 1970s, NOW, he “la ges
o ganiza ion o eminis g ass oo s ac i is s,” coo dina ed challenges o FCC b oad-
cas ing license enewals, which was one o he mos signi ican media e o m e o s
associa ed wi h he women’s mo emen .30 NOW’s pe i ions- o-deny, as documen ed
by Pa icia B adley, Ka h yn Mon gome y, Anne W. B anscomb, Ma ia Sa age,
and Allison Pe lman, posi ioned women as an unde se ed public o whom media
indus ies we e beholden.31 WAC does no easily align wi h p e ailing adi ions
o eminis media e o m. I was a g oup nei he composed exclusi ely o like-minded
eminis s no engaged wi h public-o ien ed impac . None heless, i s e o s a ec ed
he labo condi ions o women media wo ke s and al e ed a media indus y wo k-
place, he eby con ibu ing o he eminis media e o m mo emen o he ime.
WAC’s pu pose a he co po a ion and hei obliga ions o all women wo ke s
mean ha WAC was no , s ic ly speaking, a eminis o ganiza ion. This was he
case wi h many women’s wo kplace g oups o he ime. In he explo a ion o
he Women’s Caucus a he New Yo k Times, Ma ama Why e add esses a limi a ion
in p e ailing unde s andings o eminis mo emen s. Ra he han looking only o
“women who sel -iden i ied as eminis s o pa icipa ed in ac i ism coo dina ed by
eminis o ganiza ions,” schola s mus also conside how o assess and ecognize
“women who unde ook eminis ac ions while ac i ely no iden i ying as emi-
nis s.”32 The e is clea e idence ha , while WAC was no a eminis o ganiza ion, i s
membe ship included ac i e eminis s and women amilia wi h he s a egies and
e hos o he women’s mo emen . Fo ins ance, g oup membe s Judi h Hole
and Ellen Le ine ook an app o ed lea e om CBS o esea ch and w i e Rebi h
o Feminism (1971), a “comp ehensi e su ey o he mode n women’s mo emen
based on ex ensi e in e iews and pains aking esea ch in o he mound o ecen
eminis li e a u e.”33 And, while some WAC women clea ly iden i ied wi h he
women’s mo emen , he e we e o he s who likely did no . This does no , as Why e
help ully a gues, p eclude a g oup om unde aking ac ions wi h eminis conse-
quences. I does, howe e , equi e a nuanced sense o how eminism ope a es in

28 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
non eminis g oups and/o g oups wi h non eminis membe s. I also complica es
how eminism appea s and egis e s in g oup ac ions.
Pe haps coun e in ui i ely, CBS shaped WAC’s capabili ies o ake on he wo k
o he women’s mo emen and p o ided he g oup wi h ce ain ad an ages in i s
ela ionship o eminis poli ics. Unlike he uni ocal e o m e o s o NOW o chal-
lenge license enewals, WAC was able o—indeed, compelled o—engage in eclec ic
s a egies and o ms o eminis hough o mee he needs o a a ie y o women
wo ke s a CBS. I de ined i s ope a ions and agenda acco ding o mul iple p ac ices
and alues o he women’s mo emen : consciousness- aising, an i acism and an i-
ageism, ecogni ion o p i a e sphe e conce ns in employmen , and iden i ica ion
o gende ed powe imbalances in cul u al and economic o ms. Al hough WAC was
no a eminis g oup, i s e hos and impac unde sco e My a Ma x Fe ee and Pa i-
cia Yancey Ma in’s idea ha o ganiza ions bea eminis alue no jus h ough he
o hodoxy o “ideal” poli ical a ilia ion and iden i y bu also h ough “ he places in
which and he means h ough which he wo k o he women’s mo emen is done.”34
Wo kplace e o m, as Y onne Benschop and Mieke Ve loo poin ou , e-
quen ly u ilizes libe al eminism, as i “meshes well wi h he poli ical ideals o
ee ma ke labou and he me i oc a ic wo kplace, and uses hose ideals o c i-
ique exis ing gende inequi ies like hose in wages and posi ions o au ho i y.”35
Gi en he p o i -d i en and hie a chically a anged o ganiza ion o he ne wo ks’
co po a e ope a ions, WAC called upon ene s o libe al eminism o iden i y
“s uc u al impedimen s o women’s p og ess” and ways ha women could ai ly
compe e wi h male cowo ke s.36 While i s use o libe al eminis app oaches
may seem unsu p ising, WAC complica ed a uni ocal app oach o imp o ing
wo kplace condi ions. I d ew upon an asso men o eminis p ac ices and
p io i ies, including consciousness- aising, an i acis measu es, ecogni ion o p i-
a e sphe e issues in employmen , and explo a ion o a ec i e and in e pe sonal
aspec s o labo and powe . The eclec ic eminism deployed by WAC demons a es
he adap abili y o he women’s mo emen , he ways ha eminis poli ics in lu-
enced he business o ele ision, and he ans o ma i e possibili ies o eminis
ac i ism wi hin he s aunch conse a ism o co po a e cul u e.
Comme cial ele ision was disinclined o espond o ac i is p essu es when
hey h ea ened wha CBS epo e Ma lene Sande s called he “sac osanc ” na u e
o “p og am con en .”37 The in iolable na u e o p og amming mean ha , a bes ,
ac i is s who ied o in luence on-sc een con en would be “placa ed i possible
bu no a he cos o changing p og amming.”38 When ad ocacy g oups p o es ed
objec ionable con en , as Ka h yn Mon gome y demons a es, he ne wo ks de el-
oped s a egies o “managing” ad ocacy g oups, p ima ily h ough i s s anda ds
and p ac ices depa men .39 A hu Taylo made CBS’s posi ion on he ma e clea
in Augus 1973 in a special issue o Columbine, he CBS company newsle e , ha
epo ed on he co po a ion’s ela ionship o a newly o med WAC. “ ‘The ques ion
o p og amming,” he w o e, “is an a ea in which CBS has his o ically esis ed p es-
Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 29
su e om all g oups ou side i s p og amming o ganiza ion: go e nmen , eligious
g oups and coun less o he en i ies ha wish o in luence p og amming deci-
sions.’ ”40 E en as Taylo suppo ed women’s ad ancemen in he wo kplace and
p o ed ecep i e o he majo i y o WAC’s demands, his s ance on p og amming
po ends he ways ha he ne wo ks would ea calls om hei own women’s
g oups o e o m ele isual ep esen a ion.
When p essu e o e o m on-ai con en came om wi hin he indus y, ia he
ne wo k women’s g oups, he ne wo ks esponded e en mo e di ec ly and de en-
si ely han hey had wi h ou side ac i is s. While i is clea ha he Equal Oppo u-
ni y Commi ee a NBC aced esis ance om managemen because i was he i s
o he women’s g oups o o m, i also encoun e ed e usals om NBC because o he
na u e o i s complain s agains he co po a ion. Along wi h imp o ed oppo uni ies
o women in he wo kplace, NBC women also pushed o imp o ed ep esen a ions
o women. This agenda “added o hei di icul ies” in nego ia ing wi h managemen ,
so much so ha nego ia ions g ew “hos ile” and “legal in e en ion became neces-
sa y.”41 In 1973, a e a yea o s alled nego ia ions, wen y- wo women a NBC iled a
class ac ion sui agains he ne wo k. Cha ged wi h “ac oss- he-boa d sex disc imi-
na ion” by he Women’s Commi ee o Equal Employmen , NBC los he lawsui .
As a esul , i was o ced o pay ou a cash se lemen o employees and o ins i u e a
se ies o policies o ensu e an equi able wo kplace o women.42 Bu , e en wi h his
ic o y o NBC wo ke s, issues o p og amming emained unadd essed.
Al hough i exp essed less hos ili y han NBC did, CBS ook an unapologe i-
cally p o ec ionis s ance when dealing in e nally wi h c i iques o p og amming.
CBS women we e wa ned agains “seeking a oice in CBS p og am con en ,”
which was deemed by John Schneide , p esiden o he B oadcas G oup, o be
a “highly con o e sial issue, ouching as i does on Fi s Amendmen (F eedom
o he P ess) conside a ions.”43 When WAC membe s did eques ha CBS add ess
he issue o ep esen a ion, which appea s only once in ansc ip s o hei p e-
sen a ions o managemen , hey we e ca e ul o link he issue o ha o wo k-
place in es men s, an a ea ha p o ed less con o e sial o company leade ship.
In an icipa ing gains in women’s p omo ions, WAC a gued ha a woman in powe
a CBS would equi e imp o ed p og amming o he “sel - espec ”: “Any execu-
i e will be p oud o say ha he company was in he angua d, was i s o de e -
mine ha some hing should be done o po ay he new woman as she eally is.”44
Tellingly, CBS did no espond di ec ly o his p esen a ion poin . Ins ead, Taylo
made a s a emen ha he was “in ag eemen ha he public image o women was
ano he a ea in which CBS would p o ide leade ship” and welcomed “commen s
and sugges ions” om CBS women.45 Bu Taylo ul ima ely insis ed ha he com-
pany e ain i s au ho i y, wi h himsel and he p esiden o he B oadcas G oup as
he ep esen a ion o ha au ho i y, o e p og amming.
John Schneide , he same execu i e who, in esponse o he Women’s S ike o
Equali y, ci cula ed in o ma ion o CBS employees abou he women’s mo emen
30 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
and called o espec o he mo emen , also cau ioned CBS women agains
seeking in luence o e p og amming. In a 1974 Columbine a icle, “B oadcas ing:
The Issue o In luence,” Schneide opined ha i CBS women o e saw changes
o p og amming, “p ac ical and philosophical p oblems” would a ise, including
issues o wha con en would bes ep esen women’s in e es s and eli is assump-
ions ha CBS women we e posi ioned o ell women audiences wha hey “ ‘should’
a he han wan o see.”46
On ep esen a ional issues, CBS s uggled o ep esen he women’s mo emen .
I did a e be e when dealing wi h i s wo k o ce and he cul u e o i s wo kplace.
To be clea , CBS’s in e nal esponses o eminism we e no wi hou disappoin -
men and comp omise. Ye i s esponses included legi ima e a emp s o e o m
sexism in he co po a ion, p ima ily h ough educa ion o i s wo k o ce and coop-
e a i e policymaking be ween managemen and women wo ke s. The a iabili y
wi h which CBS add essed eminis issues con i ms wha Kylie And ews iden i ies
as he “pa adoxical” na u e o media o ganiza ions. In he s udy o women wo k-
e s a he Aus alian B oadcas ing Commission, And ews iews he b oadcas e
no as a monoli h bu as an en i y cons i u ed by human in e ac ions, d i es, and
engagemen s. By looking o b oadcas ing his o y h ough wo ke s and he condi-
ions o labo , as And ews does, i becomes “possible o ecognize he compe ing
ac ions and pe sonali ies, mo i a ions and missions o i s pa icipan s, o con ex-
ualise he indi iduals who a ec he policy and p ocesses o b oadcas ing and o
his o icise how b oadcas e s imagine he social unc ion o hei wo k.”47
ARTHUR TAYLOR, ACTIVIST EXECUTIVE
While CBS p esiden A hu Taylo ell in line wi h ne wo k ele ision adi ions
in e ms o ou side ac i ism and p og amming e o m, in o he ways he p o ed
a signi ican o ce o p og ess. Hi ed in 1972, Taylo was hailed as an “Ac i is
Execu i e” and posi ioned among “an inc easing numbe o co po a e heads” in
he ea ly 1970s who ook “agg essi e oles in imp o ing he s a us o women
in business.”48 WAC c edi ed a ious membe s o managemen , including CBS ice
p esiden Sheldon Wool, wi h a willingness o mee wi h he g oup o hea hei
conce ns. Bu no one was acknowledged mo e eadily o equen ly as an ally o
he g oup han Taylo , who was in es ed in equi able employmen oppo uni ies,
which he saw bo h as e hically co ec and good o he pe o mance and s anding
o he company. Taylo ’s suppo was so i al o u u e WAC membe s ha hey
called hemsel es “ he Taylo Commi ee” when hey i s o ganized.
While so-called ac i is execu i es we e iewed as a new b eed o leade s, hey
we e no he i s o ope a e acco ding o wha coun ed as p incipled poli ics in
business. In he 1950s and 1960s, as Lynn Spigel poin s ou , “co po a e libe alism
was a gene al men ali y o he e a,” and ele ision execu i es, along wi h o he
business leade s, “pu ai h in he idea ha co po a e g ow h would c ea e no jus
Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 31
a s onge economy bu also a be e wo ld.”49 Taylo e ained aspec s o co po a e
libe alism in his business philosophy, bu he adap ed o he poli ical un es o he
ime and i s ole in he labo condi ions o he wo kplace. This aligned him wi h a
s yle o co po a e leade ship ha eme ged in he 1970s. In 1971, Ha a d Business
Re iew polled 3,453 o hei subsc ibe s o ind ha one-six h o one-hal o hem
we e “willing o encou age ac i is elemen s in a company.”50 The s udy also indi-
ca ed ha execu i es we e pa icula ly ecep i e o an “employee insu gen g oup”
i he issues i aised we e “less con o e sial, less ela ed o public p essu e, and
mo e ela ed o e e yday s anda ds o decency, hones y, and e hical beha io .”51
Soon a e he ook he job as p esiden , Taylo coun e ed CBS’s sexism by co -
ec ing gende dispa i ies in job p omo ions, which he cha ac e ized a “ e ible
si ua ion.” “You had women who had wo ked he e o many yea s,” explained
Taylo . “A good many o hem had ad anced deg ees as sec e a ies because e e y-
one wan ed o ge in o he ele ision indus y. And hey had passed hese men in
h ough hei o ices o o he o ices who ha e now become execu i es and hey’ e
s ill si ing he e as sec e a ies and assis an s.” When William S. Paley, hen-
boa d chai and o me p esiden o CBS, ook a aca ion ea ly in Taylo ’s enu e,
Taylo mo ed swi ly and wi hou Paley’s pe mission o ec i y he p oblem. Taylo
p omo ed e e y woman who had wo ked a CBS o i e yea s o mo e. By Tay-
lo ’s es ima ion, his included a ound i y women. “So e e yone go p omo ed,”
ecalled Taylo , “And hen we had all kinds o new policies which would allow
women o ad ance as quickly as men.”52
While p omo ions demons a e a commi men o women’s ad ancemen on
business ledge s, in annual epo s o in es o s, and as compliance wi h ede al
laws on equal employmen , i les alone did no gua an ee co esponding gains in
powe , p es ige, and wo kplace condi ions. In an o al his o y o he Academy o
Tele ision A s and Sciences, E hel Winan ecoun ed he p omo ion o ice p esi-
den o cas ing and alen a CBS in 1973, he i s o a woman a any US ele i-
sion ne wo k. Winan explained ha , wi h he g oundb eaking p omo ion, he e
was no discussion o a sala y inc ease o any nego ia ion o bene i s ha would
come wi h he i le. Once p omo ed, she encoun e ed a lack o accommoda ion,
qui e li e ally, o he p esence as he sole woman in he execu i e anks. When she
s a ed using he execu i e dining oom, Winan ealized ha she would ha e o
ake an ele a o o a lowe loo each ime she needed o use he ba h oom, since
he e was only one acili y, which he men used. One day, a e deciding, “I’m no
going o do his anymo e,” Winan used he men’s oom, which did no ha e a lock
on he doo , and le he shoes ou side o signal he p esence and p e en men
om walking in on he .53
While Winan ’s p omo ion was g oundb eaking in he ea ly 1970s, women’s
ad ancemen o ice p esiden ial posi ions accele a ed soon a e . Un o u-
na ely, hese appoin men s signaled a co esponding de alua ion o he job. Anne
Nelson, whose six y-eigh -yea ca ee a CBS saw he ad ance om a emp o he
38 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
ope a ions a he han membe s o any pa icula p oduc ion.”86 Likewise, women
who wo ked as sec e a ies, suppo s a , esea che s, accoun an s, and ma ke ing
s a a ne wo k headqua e s se ed he ope a ions o he co po a ion a he han
he c ea ion o a single ele ision p og am.
In addi ion o hei con ibu ions o he c ea i e aspec s o he ele ision indus-
y, women in suppo s a oles we e essen ial o he indus y’s co po a e wo k-
ings. E hel Winan unde s ood and elied upon hese con ibu ions as essen ial
bo h o he cul u e o he ne wo k and o he ca ee . Because o he ela ionship
wi h in o mal ne wo ks o in o ma ion sus ained by sec e a ies, Winan gleaned
i al in o ma ion a CBS. When he p omo ion o ice p esiden was kep a sec e
om he , only o be e ealed in a su p ise announcemen in 1973, Winan consid-
e ed he plan’s success comple ely a ypical o he expe ience a CBS. “They kep i
a sec e om me,” she ecalled. “Now ha ’s eally ha d o do because nobody’d e e
kep any hing a sec e om me a CBS. Because I wen o he ladies’ oom wi h all
he sec e a ies, and hey knew e e y hing. And so hey always old you e e y hing.
And so I always knew wha was going on. And i I didn’ know, my sec e a y could
ind ou .” Winan con inued o ely on his cul u e in he execu i e posi ion. As
he sole woman in such a posi ion, Winan had a “g ea ela ionship wi h a mil-
lion sec e a ies” ha p o ided he wi h in o ma ion ha he male colleagues did
no ha e access o. The e o e, Winan ’s unique s a us as a woman ice p esiden ,
acco ding o Winan , “was ac ually so o an ad an age.”87
Jus as hey did in coun less o he o ices, he sec e a ial and cle ical s a a CBS
wo ked unde ci cums ances ha ende ed hei labo eminized, dis espec ed, and
un ecognized by waged compensa ion. In addi ion o he echnical o logis ical sup-
po hey p o ided, hese wo ke s p oduced wha A lie Russell Hochschild amously
desc ibes as “emo ion wo k,” o he ype o labo ha “a i ms, enhances, and cele-
b a es he well-being and s a us o o he s.”88 In explo ing he labo unc ion o women
in Hollywood du ing he s udio e a, Hill a gues ha “all women’s wo k” wi hin he
s udios se ed he “la ge pu pose o abso bing ou ine asks and unwan ed emo ion
a ound men’s c ea i e p ocess,” and he e o e quali ied as emo ion wo k.89 Wi hin a
p esumably nonc ea i e suppo unc ion, s udio women’s wo k consis ed o “bo h
he explici labo hey we e assigned on he basis o gende — yping, sewing, inking,
and pain ing—and he implici ‘shadow’ labo — he in e pe sonal compe encies,
gende pe o ma i i y, and emo ion wo k hei jobs equi ed.”90
WAC iden i ied gende ed bu dens o labo o women a CBS in he 1970s simi-
la o he ones Hill calls ou in he Hollywood s udio sys em. This demons a es he
applicabili y o Hill’s assessmen o many, i no all, women ac oss media indus ies
and his o ical pe iods. WAC unde sco ed he p oblems o women’s labo on bo h
he explici and shadow on s and made i clea ha women’s wo k a CBS was
exploi ed, unde alued, and unde compensa ed. I demanded an end o he unpaid
and a ec i e labo s women we e asked o pe o m and insis ed on a wo kplace cul-
u e ha would no longe demean wo k conduc ed by women. Since hese conce ns

Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 39
we e pa icula ly applicable o sec e a ies, WAC ocused much o i s occupa ionally
speci ic e o m on hose wo ke s. I de ised aining and ad ancemen schemes
o sec e a ies ha challenged belie s ha he “explici labo ” o hese posi ions ully
sa is ied women’s occupa ional goals and u ilized hei p o essional compe encies.
When CBS o e ed aining o he execu i e ca ee pa h and eimbu semen o
college cou ses o all employees, WAC a gued ha hese oppo uni ies should be
ea ma ked o sec e a ies. As o he “shadow labo ” o sec e a ial jobs, his was no
longe o be expec ed. WAC s ipula ed ha job desc ip ions o sec e a ies be clea ly
de ined and adhe ed o by supe iso s and ha male supe iso s be e ained abou
hei sexis beha io s owa d suppo s a .
Sec e a ial wo k was a pa icula p io i y o WAC’s e o m e o s, so much so
ha WAC dedica ed an en i e subsec ion o “Sec e a ial P oblems” in he p esen-
a ion i s leade s made o Taylo in 1973. WAC’s ecommenda ions o imp o ing
wo k condi ions o sec e a ies included o mal policies and aining as well as
expe ien ial aspec s o powe di e en ials in he wo kplace. The g oup ad ised
CBS o e ise he company manual o sec e a ies o “make i accep able o in el-
ligen , p o essional” women and o es o e he once-clea unc ion o a sec e a ial
posi ion as a “ aining g ound o managemen .”91 No ing in i s 1974 p esen a ion
ha he e we e “some places in CBS whe e a woman mus no i y he supe iso
when she goes o he ladies’ oom,” WAC ebuked CBS o in an ilizing i s emale
wo k o ce and o e s epping p o essional bounda ies wi h hem.92 WAC a gued
ha when “sec e a ies a e ea ed mo e like ‘o ice wi es’ han employees,” he ela-
ionship was no coope a i e bu based on exploi a ion and an abuse o powe .93
Gi en pa ia chal assump ions ha women we e esponsible o men’s com o
and ease in he wo kplace, WAC had good eason o be conce ned. While pa icu-
la ly eg egious in he ea men o sec e a ies, hese dynamics pe mea ed e e y
ank o women wo ke s who had con ac wi h men in posi ions o au ho i y. E en
a e being p omo ed o ice p esiden a CBS, E hel Winan , he only woman in
any gi en oom whe e execu i e decisions we e made, was cha ged wi h emi-
nized asks ypically associa ed wi h sec e a ial wo k. Winan ecalls ha William
S. Paley would go h ough his mail and hen “always u n o” he and ins uc he
o con ey he mail o his sec e a y Ra he han ag ee, Winan “would ake a deep
b ea h and hink, no, I’m no going o do ha ,” and would ins ead ins uc Paley o
ask he CBS bu le in he oom o ca y ou such wo k.94
A i udes such as Paley’s we e ing ained in he cul u e o CBS, which WAC
needed o con on i women we e e e o be seen as colleagues and cowo ke s
a he han wo k-wi es. Men’s lea ned helplessness o ced women, ega dless
o posi ion, o ake on he wo k o dealing wi h pape wo k, mail, and phone
calls and a anging and packing o business a el. Winan ’s e usals o wo k
o which she was no compensa ed es i y o he ypes o labo ha women a
CBS—e en execu i e women—we e assumed by men o pe o m. “I was jus
au oma ic,” Winan ecalled. “I he e was a woman in he oom, you we e he
40 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
one who ook he mail, and you we e he one who made he phone call. And
he u h was, nobody in ha oom knew how o make a long-dis ance call. They
didn’ know how o ge an ou side line.”95 When a eling wi h o he senio ice
p esiden s, all men, Winan ealized ha she was he only one among hem who
knew how o buy an ai line icke since his had always been he esponsibili y
o hei sec e a ies o wi es.
CONTENDING WITH RACE
Gi en he ela i ely high a e o employmen o women o colo in suppo s a
jobs, by p io i izing he needs o sec e a ies and o he employees who labo ed
a he pe iphe ies o media p oduc ion, WAC implici ly add essed in e sec ional
issues o ace and gende a CBS. As a g oup ha ocused explici ly and solely on
women’s issues, WAC acknowledged i s di icul ies in add essing issues o ace and
success ully ec ui ing women o colo o he g oup. CBS con ibu ed o hese
p oblems, as i iden i ied “mino i y” conce ns as sepa a e om hose o women’s
issues in i s policies; employmen p og ams; and o he e o s o ec ui men , hi -
ing, aining, and ad ancemen . In de ining conce ns o acial equi y as dis inc-
i e om hose o gende equi y, CBS ein o ced cul u al sc ip s ha led o wha
WAC membe P iscilla Toumey desc ibed as he “hesi ancy” o Black women in
joining WAC. Acco ding o Toumey, hese women we e a aid ha , in suppo ing
wo kplace imp o emen s o women, hey we e dep i ing people o colo simi-
la oppo uni ies. Wi h pe cep ions o CBS suppo as ini e and compe i i e—
pa icula ly in issues o acial e sus gende equi y—women o colo we e con-
ce ned ha CBS’s e o s o imp o e acial inequali ies “may be comp omised in
his ush o do hings o women.”96
I is di icul o de e mine he acial composi ion o WAC’s membe ship. In o -
ma ion abou indi idual membe s, when a ailable a all, is gene ally es ic ed
o a sho lis o names o women who a ended a mee ing, issued a memo,
ea ned a p omo ion, o sa o a adio in e iew. I women occupied highe -
isibili y, highe -p es ige jobs, hey we e pic u ed in indus y publica ions,
which p o ides some e idence o hei acial iden i y. Unsu p isingly, an o e -
whelming majo i y o hese women we e whi e. Sheila Cla k p o es a no able
excep ion. She was lis ed among he wen y-nine women om he WAC S ee ing
Commi ee who me wi h CBS managemen on July 11, 1974.97 By 1978, Cla k
was wo king as he di ec o o mino i y p og ams a CBS; he posi ion mean
ha she se ed as he public ace o he company’s di e si y ini ia i es. In 1981,
Billboa d published a pho o o a luncheon whe e s uden s who aspi ed o ca ee s
in music me wi h CBS execu i es.98 Cla k was iden i ied in he pho o cap ion as
one o hose execu i es. This pho og aph p o ides isual con i ma ion o Cla k’s
iden i y as a Black woman and indica es a leas a small deg ee o acial di e si y
wi hin WAC’s leade ship.
Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 41
Mos o he women in ol ed in he CBS g oup whose acial iden i ies a e asce -
ainable occupied execu i e anks o highe -le el c ea i e wo k a he ime o hei
g oup membe ship o la e ascended o hese posi ions. This lea es ou o he pic-
u e WAC membe s who wo ked in sec e a ial, cle ical, and suppo s a posi ions
and likely included la ge numbe s o women who we e no whi e. The impac and
in ol emen o women o colo in WAC and he o he ne wo k women’s g oups
a e, o hese easons, unquan i iable. Ne e heless, women o colo we e pa o
he g oups and con ibu ed o hei unc ioning and agenda-se ing, e en i he
long-s anding acism o he ele ision indus y mean ha hey made up a less
isible pa o he wo k o ce han hei whi e coun e pa s.
The di icul ies o quan i ying he ole women o colo played in WAC, e en
in he mos basic o measu emen s, illus a e a la ge esea ch p oblem in assess-
ing women’s con ibu ions o and p esence in media wo kplaces. In hei esea ch
on women’s employmen in he B i ish ilm indus y, Na alie W ey o d and Shelley
Cobb needed quali a i e da a o demons a e he scale and consis ency o gen-
de inequali y’s ope a ion in he sys em. Al hough his da a was indispensable o
hei p ojec , employmen igu es a ailable o hem we e “impe ec and uns a-
ble.” Acco ding o he adi ions o os ensibly objec i e esea ch, his e iden ial
de iciency comp omised he alidi y o he p ojec . Bu a he han le i sideline
schola ship o alue o women p oduc ion wo ke s and eminis schola s alike,
Cobb and W ey o d eassessed he impac o lawed da a and p oceeded wi h hei
p ojec . By doing so, hei esea ch acili a es new unde s andings o he issue o
women’s employmen in B i ish ilmmaking speci ically and mo e b oadly illus-
a ed he illuso y na u e o comp ehensi e da ase s by unde sco ing he “ellipsis”
ha unde lies he “p esen a ion o academic w i ing in a nea and o de ed way.”99
In he absence o s a is ical da a on he employmen o women o colo a
CBS and hei pa icipa ion in WAC, con ex ual labo ends o e one way o
iden i y hei p esence. Following he ci il igh s mo emen , Black women and
men mo ed om a mwo k and p i a e se ice wo k o whi e-colla jobs. The
US Depa men o Labo epo ed ha , ou o all o he Black women employed
in wage-ea ning labo , 22.7 pe cen wo ked in cle ical jobs in 1972; by 1980, ha
igu e had isen o 29.3 pe cen .100 Employmen in he ele ision indus y ol-
lowed a simila pa e n, wi h a signi ican numbe o women o colo wo king in
cle ical posi ions. In hei 1977 publica ion Window D essing on he Se : Women
and Mino i ies in Tele ision, he US Commission on Ci il Righ s epo ed ha
“mino i y” women cons i u ed 28.7 pe cen o cle ical wo ke s a he ele i-
sion s a ions in ol ed in hei s udy and ha 58.9 pe cen o “mino i y” women
employed a he s a ions we e o ice and cle ical s a .101 Gi en hese igu es,
i is s a is ically p obable ha women o colo we e employed in conside able
numbe s as cle ical, suppo , and sec e a ial s a a he ne wo ks. Do o hy Sue
Cobble’s labo his o y indica es as much. Cobble’s esea ch inds ha “A ican-
Ame ican women did no en e cle ical wo k in any app eciable numbe s be o e
42 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
Wo ld Wa Two, bu by he 1970s almos as la ge a pe cen o A ican-Ame ican
women we e in cle ical jobs as held jobs in he o e all labo ma ke .”102 Since
he e is clea e idence ha WAC p io i ized ou each o sec e a ial and cle ical
s a and de eloped policies aimed o imp o e he exis ence o hese wo ke s,
i is easonable o su mise ha women o colo we e pa icipan s in WAC and
bene icia ies o he g oup’s ac ions.
F om he s a , WAC ook s eps mean o add ess acial dispa i ies in employ-
men . In 1974, i s i s yea o exis ence, he g oup pushed CBS o implemen
equi ed “conscien ious” sea ches o women and “mino i ies” o all job acancies.
On WAC’s sugges ion, he ne wo k also ins i u ed aining p og ams o women
and people o colo in he same yea . These aining p og ams we e in ended o
employees who wan ed o wo k in mo e p es igious posi ions bu had no p o i ed
om “ he ad an ages o aining and expe ience needed o success ully mo e in o
hese highly quali ied a eas.”103 T aining comp ised h ee componen s: “a ach-
men ,” a posi ion ha pai ed employees wi h a supe iso o lea n mo e abou
a depa men ; “in e nship,” in which he employee “lea ns by doing a he han
by obse ing;” and “on- he-job,” which placed employees in a job, “pe manen
in na u e,” ha p o ided ad ancemen in a cu en a ea o en ance o a di e en
a ea o he company in which he employee wished o specialize.104 By he sp ing o
1976, he p og am was s ill in ac . A ha ime, Columbine epo ed o e one hun-
d ed enac men s o he aining p og am in he company’s New Yo k Ci y–a ea
holdings, hi y o o y mo e o come in he upcoming mon hs, and o y- h ee
p omo ions ha esul ed om he p og am.105
In i s epo on hei “women/mino i y aining p og ams,” published in a 1976
issue o Columbine, CBS did no di e en ia e be ween he numbe s o women and men
who pa icipa ed in he aining p og ams, no did i speci y he acial iden i ies o
he women in ol ed.106 The company newsle e , howe e , sugges ed ha women
o colo we e cen al in he p og am’s ou each and a measu emen o i s success.
An illus a ion ha accompanies he Columbine a icle ea u es a Black woman si -
ing a a small desk in on o a ypew i e , lanked by an o e lowing ash can and
ile cabine . Wi h he hand es ing on he chin, she looks a he imagined u u e,
which loa s nea he head in a hough bubble. In his u u e, she is si ing a an o ga-
nized, spacious desk wi h a phone and appoin men book a he elbow. Behind he ,
a eel- o- eel ape playe , a eco d playe , and a speake ill a c edenza and shel es.
The a icle opens wi h di ec add ess o a “sec e a y in adio sales”—p esumably he
igu e ea u ed in he a icle’s illus a ion—who aspi es o an execu i e posi ion, an
assis an o an edi o in publishing who longs o become an edi o hemsel es, and
an assis an in he pe sonnel o ice who wan s o wo k in he news oom.
I he ideal ou come o woman/mino i y aining p og ams was a Black
woman’s p omo ion om sec e a y o execu i e, as he a icle sugges s, i equi ed
long- e m in es men s. CBS demons a ed i s commi men o he p og am by
ex ending i o a leas h ee yea s beyond i s incep ion. I also con inued o
Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 43
ea ma k he p og am as one designed o explici ly co ec inequali ies o ace
and gende . Joan Showal e , di ec o o he aining p og am and WAC membe ,
no ed ha he e had been “a ew complain s o disc imina ion om whi e males”
abou he p og ams bu ha he company would con inue i s ocused e o s on
ca ee aining un il he e we e “mo e women and mino i ies dis ibu ed h ough-
ou all a eas o he Company.”107 Ye e en wi h hei in en ions o co ec dispa i-
ies in wo kplace oppo uni ies o women and people o colo , CBS con inued o
speci y ed ess o acial inequi ies as sepa a e om gende disad an ages, which,
in u n, os e ed a lack o coali ion building among wo ke s. Al hough WAC’s
goals o inclusi i y we e hampe ed by his si ua ion, he g oup ope a ed unde
he assump ion ha i ep esen ed all women. F om his posi ion, WAC add essed
in e sec ional issues o gende iden i y ha included ace, economic s a us, and
age, wi h a p ima y aim, acco ding o P iscilla Toumey, “ o equalize he sys em o
b ing i whe e i should be so ha e e yone has an equal chance.”108
HOLDING THE CORPORATION RESPONSIBLE:
HEALTH CARE AND REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS
Impedimen s o coali ion building a e among many examples o co po a e cul-
u e’s nega i e impac on WAC’s e o m agenda. Ye o all o he es ic ions ha
CBS’s co po a e logis ics, e hos, and design imposed on WAC, he g oup chal-
lenged undamen al philosophies ha unde pinned he co po a ion. Nowhe e is
his mo e e iden han in he ep oduc i e heal h ca e and childca e p o isions
WAC secu ed o wo ke s. This success epudia ed undamen al aspec s o wha
Joan Acke iden i ies as he “non- esponsibili y” o mode n co po a ions. Acco d-
ing o his capi alis ic model, co po a ions seek o es ic hei obliga ions o
Figu e 4.
Illus a ion o a
June 1976 a icle
in Columbine, he
CBS company
newsle e , de ailing
in o ma ion on he
company’s Women/
Mino i y T aining
P og ams p o ided
o employees. (CBS
News Re e ence
Lib a y)

44 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
wo ke s’ well-being, whe he in e ms o en i onmen al p o ec ions, childca e
and heal h ca e, o p o ec ions o a limi ed wo kweek and child labo laws. Poli-
cies de eloped wi hin such o ganiza ions he e o e ein o ce “e e yday ina en ion
o he non-wo k li es o pa icipan s” and “ ende pe iphe al and usually in isible
he essen ial social ac i i ies o bi hing, ca ing, and e en su i ing.”109 Non e-
sponsibili y holds se ious consequences o women wo ke s. They no only a e
cha ged disp opo iona ely wi h he unacknowledged labo in he “nonwo k” li es
bu also a e jeopa dized by he e y concep ualiza ion o a wo ke unde co po a e
non esponsibili y. As Acke a gues, “Non- esponsibili y consigns ca ing needs o
a eas ou side he o ganiza ion’s in e es s, and, hus, helps o main ain he image o
he ideal, e en adequa e, employee as someone wi hou hose obliga ions.”110
WAC’s p oposal o comp ehensi e ma e ni y bene i s p omised, in i s wo ds,
o “pu CBS in he angua d o social esponsibili y.”111 By aming i s plan o
heal h ca e his way, WAC o e ed he co po a ion a means o dis inguish i sel
om compe i o s h ough i s socially esponsible policies, a goal clea ly exp essed
by Taylo and o he CBS execu i es. Thus WAC ecen e ed gende ed conce ns ha
had been e oded in co po a e philosophies o non esponsibili y.
Gi en he b oade sociopoli ical con ex o 1974— he yea in which WAC
secu ed ep oduc i e p o ec ions o employees—WAC’s success in his a ea is
pa icula ly imp essi e. Va ious “ igh -o -conscience” bills and ac s we e p o-
posed immedia ely ollowing he Janua y 1973 Roe . Wade uling. O hese,
he one wi h he mos impac was he “Chu ch Amendmen ” o he 1944 Public
Heal h Se ice Ac . Adop ed in 1973, his e usal law p o ec ed any heal h ca e
p o essional in ol ed in ede ally unded esea ch om pe o ming abo ions o
o he ep oduc i e heal h p ocedu es ha “would be con a y o his [sic] eli-
gious belie s o mo al con ic ions.”112 By Augus 1973, a o al o wel e s a es had
passed legisla ion aimed o “ski o sub e ” Roe . Wade.113 F om May h ough
Oc obe 1974, he Sena e Subcommi ee on Cons i u ional Amendmen s held a
se ies o hea ings o conside “possible Sup eme Cou negligence” in i s decision
o legalize abo ion.114
I was wi hin his eac iona y poli ical clima e ha he CBS Women’s Join
S ee ing Commi ee, a subdi ision o WAC, designed a plan o ede ine abo ion
as a medical need. In July 1974, CBS accep ed signi ican elemen s o he Commi -
ee’s p oposals. In doing so, CBS expanded co e age o women’s medical needs
ha anged om imp o ed ma e ni y lea e o ee, on-si e b eas cance exams
and mammog ams.115 The Commi ee’s p oposal also pushed CBS o no malize
abo ion as pa o medical ea men and heal h ca e when i success ully a gued
ha ma e ni y policies should include no only “p egnancy- ela ed disabili ies”
and illness bu also abo ion and misca iage as g ounds o sick lea e o “ he
pu pose o ecupe a ion.”116 CBS ag eed ha all illnesses and medical p ocedu es
ela ed o p egnancy, including abo ion, would be ea ed “as any o he illness”
and would be a o ded sick days.117
Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 45
While unable o shi CBS policy o inc ease co e age o p egnancy- ela ed
hospi aliza ion, some hing CBS deemed oo expensi e, he Women’s Join S ee -
ing Commi ee succeeded in ede ining he mos conse a i e and pa e nalis ic
aspec s o ep oduc i e igh s and pa en ing oles in company policy. CBS ag eed
o s ike he “dependen co e age” women had p e iously been equi ed o ake
ou while p egnan in o de o “p o ec hemsel es inancially agains he pos-
sibili y o abo ion o misca iage.”118 The Commi ee a gued ha his was an
unaccep able policy based on an inaccu a e de ini ion o a e us as a dependen , a
e lec ion o an ichoice ideologies. CBS ag eed o his ede ini ion o pe sonhood
and dependency and s uck down he ela ed policy. This decision was pa icu-
la ly momen ous, conside ing ha he i h session o he Sena e Subcommi ee
on Cons i u ional Amendmen s, held jus wo mon hs ea lie , on May 1974, had
deba ed whe he a e us was a human being wi h he same a endan igh s and
delibe a ed “a wha ime in he ep oduc i e cycle li e ac ually commences.”119
Unde he in luence o he Women’s Join S ee ing Commi ee, CBS also ei-
magined ca egi ing o child en. The company’s e ised policy assumed ha
a he s as well as, o ins ead o , mo he s would be in ol ed in he labo o child-
ea ing. Ex ended lea e had p e iously been a ailable only o women and o
a ou -mon h pe iod. In 1974, his became a ailable o bo h men and women
o he ca e o child en “na u al o adop i e” and was ex ended o six mon hs.120
This policy was a clea ic o y o he CBS women, and one won h ough pe -
sis ence. When hey i s p oposed his policy e ision in 1973, hey we e denied
and we e old ha CBS did no g an “non-medical lea e, ma e nal o pa e nal,
o he pu pose o child- ea ing.”121 A yea la e , CBS no only ag eed o a mo e
gene ous ime ame o pa en al lea e and mo e expansi e de ini ions o pa en -
ing oles eques ed o hem by he Commi ee bu ac ually imp o ed upon he
Commi ee’s o iginal plan by no longe equi ing ha his lea e be aken “di ec ly
ollowing childbi h.”122
ASSESSING WAC
By 1975, WAC’s e o s had measu able e ec s, which an a icle published in
Columbine, “Wha P og ess Women a CBS?,” con eyed o employees. This
a icle p o ides an unusual assessmen o wo k condi ions o women in ele i-
sion. Repo s on he s a us o women in ele ision gene a ed a he ime ypically
ended o he indus y’s obliga ion o he public in e es ( o p o ec FCC licens-
ing) and adhe ence o legisla ed employmen p ac ices ( o wa d o lawsui s). As a
esul , mos e idence was nume ically d i en and ocused on employmen , hi ing,
and p omo ion o women a ele ision s a ions. In 1974, he Milwaukee Jou nal
exp essed us a ion a he limi ed means o e alua ing women’s p og ess in he
ele ision indus y. While conduc ing esea ch o hei a icle “On o O Came a,
Women Mo e Up in TV Jobs,” i ound ha “ he only comp ehensi e su ey deals
46 Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m
wi h local s a ions, no ne wo ks,” and was es ic ed o he “numbe o women
holding impo an jobs.”123 These igu es no only lacked b ead h bu also we e
subjec o manipula ion. In he same yea ha he Milwaukee Jou nal exp essed i s
conce ns abou he sca ci y o a ailable da a, he Uni ed Chu ch o Ch is (UCC),
who we e cen ally in ol ed in FCC licensing challenges and media ad ocacy
wo k in he la e 1960s and ea ly 1970s, ques ioned he alidi y o employmen s a-
is ics s a ions submi ed o he FCC. While numbe s indica ed imp o ed employ-
men o women, he UCC cha ged ha s a ions likely manipula ed job ca ego ies
o eclassi y posi ions wi hou co esponding inc eases in p es ige o sala y.124 The
Columbine a icle on CBS women, by compa ison, p o ided an unusual and in o -
ma ion- ich ub ic by which o gauge women’s s a us in he indus y. I ocused on
employees a CBS headqua e s a he han s a ions, o e ed a mix o quan i a i e
and quali a i e assessmen s o women’s p og ess, and add essed company inside s
a he han he public and/o he FCC. As a publica ion in e nal o CBS, Colum-
bine was no designed o public ela ions o designed o wa d o b oadcas ing
licensing challenges; he e o e i assumed a less p o ec i e posi ion and, p esum-
ably, p o ided a mo e eliable pe spec i e.
To o e a “ esh se o eyes o he assessmen o ou p og ams o da e,” CBS
“ u ned o an ou side w i e ,” Judi h Hennessee, who was cha ged wi h e alua ing
he p og ess women had made a CBS.125 By hi ing Hennessee, who was a membe
o NOW and was deeply in ol ed in i s media e o m campaigns and whose jou nal-
ism appea ed in eminis publica ions such as Ms., CBS announced i s in es men in
eminis assessmen and ou side e alua ion. A e in e iewing employees, compil-
ing s a is ics, and na a i izing he indings, Hennessee ound ha “se e al hund ed
o CBS’s wo king women seem o ha e al eady bene i ed di ec ly” om changes in
managemen p ac ices.126 P omo ions and aises clea ly demons a e hese bene i s.
In 1971, women cons i u ed 13.2 pe cen o p omo ions wi hin sala ied posi ions; by
he hi d qua e o 1974, his igu e had inc eased o 36.2 pe cen .127
In Hennessee’s e alua ion, women’s p og ess a CBS was no con ined o eco-
nomic indica o s. Hennessee also gauged expe ien ial e idence and ound, o e all,
ha in e pe sonal and cul u al aspec s o women’s wo k li es had imp o ed. The
“subs an ial changes in basic in angibles o a i udes,” some hing ha WAC deemed
necessa y o ue wo kplace e o m, mani es ed in in e pe sonal, a ec i e ways.128
Ka h yn Pelg i , A hu Taylo ’s assis an who had been p omo ed o a ice p esiden-
ial posi ion, no ed ha i was “ ‘no longe ashionable o pu women down a ound
he e.’ ”129 E en a bu eauc a ic de ail, such as he e ision o he i le o a aining
manual om “CBS Sec e a ial Manual” o “CBS O ice P ac ices,” helped ans o m
he one o oca ional ins uc ion om one o condescension o p o essionalism.
Whe eas he ea lie i e a ion o he manual indica ed ha sec e a ial du ies included
making co ee and “playing he g acious hos ess,” he e ised e sion “[s uck] s ic ly
o business.”130 As a esul o such changes, women who wo ked a ious “lowe -le el”
jobs no ed a decline in a ious on- he-job “indigni ies.”131
Women’s G oups and Wo kplace Re o m 47
Despi e he many wo kplace imp o emen s Hennessee iden i ied, no all
employees had been helped by CBS’s new policies, no we e hey con inced ha
hey would be. Al hough some women el he e ec s o he e isions o policies,
“many mo e housands o CBS women (and men) [we e] wa ch ully wai ing o
see i he company’s 18-mon h-old push o change policies and a i udes owa d
women [would], in any di ec way, a ec hem.”132 Hennessee in e p e ed his
skep icism no as an indic men o WAC’s e o m e o s bu as a pe sis en e ec
o he co po a ion’s o ganiza ion and he subcul u es i os e ed. Depending on
he CBS di ision in which she wo ked, equali y employmen measu es a ec ed
an employee di e en ly. News and adio di isions, which epo ed on “women’s
issues in he ou side wo ld,” adap ed quickly, while CBS Reco ds su e ed om a
legacy o “ ‘macho’ and ‘g oupie’ men ali y” and was he e o e slow o change.133
The hie a chical o ganiza ion o CBS also had an e ec , and ickle-down adop-
ion o policy was no ensu ed. One woman in e iewed by Hennessee a es ed o
he p oblem, saying, “ ‘I i doesn’ il e down o my boss, hen i doesn’ ma e
how good A hu Taylo ’s in en ions a e.’ ”134
In he 1975 epo , Hennessee was ca e ul o acknowledge he une en imple-
men a ion o policies wi hin CBS along wi h he posi i e impac o WAC’s e o s,
bu she did no p edic he looming challenges o women’s wo kplace e o m and o
WAC’s e icacy. As he 1970s con inued, WAC became less ac i e and less powe ul,
no leas because o he la ge sociopoli ical en i onmen o he US in he 1980s.
A hu Taylo ’s depa u e as CBS p esiden in 1976 was also a loss gi en his conce n
abou he ad ancemen o women in he wo kplace. And, as wi h so many ac i -
is s, some g oup women expe ienced bu nou , while o he s missed he ene gizing
e ec s o g ass oo s ac i ism. Once WAC and he women’s g oups gained o icial
s a us wi hin hei companies and o mal ecogni ion by hei employe s, “a lo o
he h ill o he o iginal unde g ound eeling [had] gone.”135 Finally, and pe haps
su p isingly, he success o all ne wo k women’s g oups con ibu ed o hei decline.
Women h oughou he co po a ion came o depend upon g oup women o
he poin ha hey g ew complacen and “belie ed ha he ac i is women would
ake ca e o hings.”136 Mo e gene ally, gi en he signi ican imp o emen s o
women in he b oadcas ing indus y unde hei wa ch, g oup membe s el ha
he “mo emen had paid o ” and ha women’s “p oblems we e o e .”137
THE LEGACY OF THE WOMEN’S GROUPS
By 1983, ele ision jou nalis Ma lene Sande s wi nessed “backsliding” on gen-
de equi y issues a ABC, he p e ious employe , and “dissa is ac ion” a CBS,
he cu en employe , bu “no o ganized e o o any signi icance” o add ess
hese p oblems.138 As a esponse o de e io a ing condi ions, women o med
new women’s g oups. Sande s ecalled ha he “mos shocking e ela ion” abou
a women’s g oup ha was o ming anew a ABC a his ime was ha he new
54 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
Equal pay o emale a hle es was an issue ha King ied o celeb i y cul u e
and i s a ec i e impac . In an in e iew wi h Dinah Sho e on Colga e’s Women’s
Spo s Special (ABC, 1974), King a icula ed he connec ion be ween he amo -
phous quali ies o ame, glamou , and celeb i y wi h clea -cu mone a y wo h
o women a hle es. Sho e i s obse ed ha women’s spo s had “come such a
long way” in bo h spec a o ship and women’s pa icipa ion. She hen asked King,
“Wha do you eel is he bigges s ep o wa d ha women’s spo s ha e made?”
King esponded by iden i ying “ wo signi ican s eps: he money as well as app e-
cia ion om he public.” As a esul o gains in bo h a eas, emale a hle es, in King’s
es ima ion, el like “s a s and en e aine s o he i s ime in hei li es and ha e
a lo mo e sel - espec because o i .”
Inc eased public in e es in women a hle es helped King a gue o hei wo h.
Di e ences be ween he games women and men played, which we e based on
assump ions abou women’s in e io physical s amina, jus i ied unequal p ize
money. Wins in women’s p o ennis ma ches depended on winning wo ou o
h ee se s e sus wins in men’s ma ches, in which h ee ou o i e se s cons i u ed
a win. Sho e ma ches a ionalized paying women playe s less han hei male
coun e pa s. King coun e ed his o mula o assessing playe s’ wo h h ough
women playe s’ s a quali y and en e ainmen alue. In a 1972 Spo s Illus a ed
in e iew, King jus i ied demands o signi ican pay o women by iden i ying
he “big business” o spo s and he ways ha a hle es we e inc easingly pa o
an “en e ainmen indus y.” King concluded ha “i we can ge he money, we
dese e i .”16 To illus a e his poin , King consis en ly emphasized in he p ess and
in media appea ances he g owing an base and esul ing icke sales. King’s celeb-
i y was clea by he mid-1970s. In compa ison o he ea lies ma ch, which d ew
wo spec a o s, he ma ches now d ew c owds ha numbe ed in he housands.
King’s media sa y made he , as Wa e succinc ly desc ibes i , he “ igh emi-
nis in he igh spo a he igh ime.”17 King amously bea Bobby Riggs in he
“Ba le o he Sexes,” a ele ised ennis ma ch ha ai ed on ABC on Sep embe 30,
1973. The e en was a highly an icipa ed, well-publicized one ha demons a ed
he migh o emale a hle es, made a compelling case o he iabili y o women
playing spo s on ele ision, and p o ed he co ec ness o Ti le IX. ABC publi-
cized i as a eminis ba ling an ego is ical misogynis . This concep sensa ion-
alized he ma ch and hyped i s en e ainmen alue while, a he same ime, i
exp essed ideas abou gende and women’s legal igh s ha we e a he o e on
o con empo a y cul u al con e sa ions. ABC’s app oach, which hyb idized spec-
acle wi h cul u al ele ance, bo h es ed he iabili y o women’s spo s on ele i-
sion and se a new p eceden o how ele ision would p esen spo s.
The King-Riggs ma ch happened only a yea a e he passage o Ti le IX, he
“ea ly days” o he law when “public awa eness o he law in gene al and i s impac
on women’s spo s in pa icula ” was no clea o widesp ead.18 Ti le IX se ed as a
emedy o he Ci il Righ s Ac o 1964 and add essed disc imina ion in educa ion.

F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” 55
I was b oadly concep ualized h ough “admissions, counseling, cou se o e ings,
inancial aid and schola ships, acili ies and housing, heal h and insu ance ben-
e i s, and disc imina ion based on ma i al o pa en al s a us.”19 The shee scale
o Ti le IX and s a egic e o s o downplay ce ain elemen s o he legisla ion so
as no o d aw undue a en ion and coun e a acks mean ha “disc imina ion in
spo s was simply no on he ada ” in i s i s ew yea s o exis ence.20 Ti le IX’s
impac on spo s only became clea and well publicized in ea ly 1974. A his ime,
he Na ional Collegia e A hle ic Associa ion (NCAA), he egula o y body o col-
lege a hle ics, began in ensi ely lobbying agains Ti le IX o de end he p imacy o
men’s oo ball in college spo s. These e o s esul ed in he Towe Amendmen ,
a legisla i e p oposal ha would es ic Ti le IX’s in luence on college a hle ics.21
This imeline mean ha , a he ime o he Ba le o he Sexes ma ch in 1973,
Ti le IX gains we e no ye pa o he gene al public’s consciousness.22 Acco ding
o Wa e, no publici y o he e en made men ion o Ti le IX. While he King-
Riggs ma ch p eda ed common awa eness o Ti le IX’s ela ionship o spo s, i
inc eased isibili y o women’s spo s and o he alue o women a hle es, which
bols e ed posi i e public opinion abou Ti le IX in he yea s o come. Once Ti le
IX’s impac on women’s and gi ls’ spo s was ecognized, King se ed as a public
and pe suasi e igu e in he success ul igh agains he ep essi e Towe Amend-
men . In 1973, she used he newly min ed s a us as a spo s celeb i y o es i y in
suppo o he Women’s Educa ional Equi y Ac (WEEA), legisla ion ha p o ided
inancial g an s o secu e he aims o Ti le IX.23
Amid legisla i e ba les o e Ti le IX and he g owing pa icipa ion o gi ls
and women in spo s, ele ision eassessed he iabili y o b oadcas ing women’s
spo s, he alue o emale iewe s o ele ised spo s e en s, and he bene i s o
employing emale spo s alen as s a s and commen a o s. Nowhe e we e hese
shi s in he indus y mo e appa en han in he Ba le o he Sexes ma ch. The
game unse led adi ions o spo s ele ision wi h new ypes o gameplay, s o y-
lines, and audience appeals as well as uncon en ional means o p oducing, selling,
and ma ke ing he e en .
Wi h he King-Riggs ma ch, Tandem P oduc ions, he independen ele i-
sion company co ounded by No man Lea and Bud Yo kin, en e ed he wo ld
o spo s ele ision. While bes known o socially ele an si ua ion comedies,
Tandem applied i s uncon en ional app oach o business o his special e en p o-
g am. I bough he igh s o he ma ch om Hollywood p omo e Jackie Ba ne
o $75,000. In a s ance simila o one i would la e use o ge Ma y Ha man,
Ma y Ha man o ai in 1976 (discussed in chap e 3), Tandem was p epa ed o
bypass he ne wo ks, i necessa y, o p ocu e he bes possible deal. I a ne wo k
would no pay i s asking p ice, Tandem planned o “a ange ei he an independen
ne wo k o a closed-ci cui p esen a ion o he ma ch.”24 ABC made a deal wi h
Tandem, paying $700,000 o he wo-hou , li e ele ision b oadcas ; he deal
p o ed p o i able o bo h he p oduc ion company and he ne wo k. Tandem
56 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
eached a $1,000,000 payday wi h an addi ional $300,000 gua an ee om he
Hous on As odome, and ABC eco e ed wha i had paid o ai he ma ch by
mo ing ad ime in a “ as sale,” wi h ad e ise s paying $80,000 pe minu e.25
While igu es indica e bo h he an icipa ed and p o en success o he e en ,
c i ics we e unhappy wi h he p oduc ion quali y o he p og am. In wonde ing,
“Whe e Was he ABC o Yes e yea ?,” Va ie y compa ed he ma ch nega i ely o
ABC’s p e ious b oadcas s. In he 1960s, ABC es ablished i sel as an inno a o
in ele ised spo s by u ilizing new echnologies o co e majo e en s. The ne -
wo k’s handling o he Olympics, in pa icula , es ablished hei epu a ion. ABC
b oadcas he i s ele ised co e age o he Games in he US in 1960. In 1964,
hey lew back oo age om e en s in ime o pu hem on he ai he same day.
Thei co e age o he 1968 Summe Olympics p oduced se e al i s s: eco d-
b eaking emo e co e age wi h he g ea es “numbe o hou s, pe sonnel and
pieces o equipmen ,” colo b oadcas , and sa elli e ansmission ha made li e
iewing o e en s possible.26
Va ie y may ha e lamen ed a decline in quali y associa ed wi h ABC Spo s, bu
King and Riggs p o ided an en e ainmen e en in keeping wi h he ne wo k’s
es ablished s yle. When Roone A ledge became p esiden o ABC Spo s in 1968,
he ushe ed in a new e a o spo s ele ision ha “p i ileged building s o ies o e
displaying e en s and assumed iewe s migh wa ch he ales i packaged no ma -
e hei in e es in spo s. I humanized compe i ions by p esen ing hem h ough
amilia na a i es ( i al ies, eco ds abou o be b oken, ba les agains he ele-
men s) and by making hei pa icipan s ela able.”27 The p oduc ion o he King-
Riggs ma ch p io i ized d ama and spec acle a he han he echnical in icacies
o ennis play. In doing so, i d ew spec a o s, bo h in pe son and a home, who
we e no ennis ans o e en spo s ans.
Al hough by his poin ou sized na a i es and exci ing isuals had become
he co ne s ones o ABC Spo s p og ams unde A ledge’s guidance, he Ba le
o he Sexes d ew pa icula ly poin ed c i icism. Va ie y a ibu ed wha i consid-
e ed subs anda d p oduc ion alues o he celeb i y-d i en aspec s o he e en
Figu es 5 & 6. G aphics e lec he “Ba le o he Sexes” heme: he sco e boa d heade and a
spli sc een o Billie Jean King and Bobby Riggs a ma ch poin . ABC, Sep embe 20, 1973.
F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” 57
and complained ha ABC “ce ainly we en’ shy abou using hei g ound le el
came a o show us he celebs in he $100 sea s.”28 By p i ileging he celeb i y
elemen o he ma ch, ABC minimized a en ion o he on-cou ac ion. O he
c i icisms o ABC’s co e age ocused on undamen al echnical elemen s, includ-
ing poo came a placemen ha ailed o highligh he inesse and a hle icism o
he ma ch, Howa d Cosell’s “inep i ude” in announcing plays, and he in equency
o sco e in o ma ion.29
Wha e e he laws in he b oadcas , iewe s we e no de e ed. Wi h an
a e age audience o o y-eigh million iewe s and a leas se en y- wo million
iewing he b oadcas o some pa o he co e age, he “wildly p omo ed e en ,”
se in he “ca ni al a mosphe e o he Hous on As odome,” “domina ed TV iew-
ing.”30 T endex epo ed a 34.2 a ing and a 52.4 sha e o he ma ch. NBC and CBS
p og ams ha ai ed a he same ime lagged in a ings, wi h CBS’s The Wal ons
ea ning 14.4 and 22.0 and NBC’s The Flip Wilson Show ea ning 12.0 and 18.4.31
ABC’s a ings win p o ed women’s spo s o be a sound in es men and emale
spo s ans a new audience o be conside ed. As T a is Vogan a gues in his his-
o y o ABC Spo s, i d ama ic and spec acula ized o mulas “quickly became
clichés” and we e he e o e “easy o discoun as comme cialized pande ing,” hey
also “ unc ion[ed] h ough engaging he cul u al codes ha make TV so impo -
an .”32 Rega dless o i s comme cialized aspec s, he King-Riggs ma ch cap u ed
he changing gende poli ics o he day and had emendous iewe impac . I
signaled a new s age o de elopmen o ABC’s spo s b oadcas ing, which would
equi e ha esou ces be alloca ed o women on he playing ield, in ele ision
p oduc ion, and in he audience.
A “LIBBER-LOBBER” AND TELEVISION CELEBRITY
King eme ged om he Ba le o he Sexes a celeb i y. Mo e han ha , she a ained
“sex symbol” s a us, some hing she acknowledged, hough as an “ad oca e o
women’s libe a ion” she did no “know wha o do abou i .” A 1974 Bos on Globe
p o ile on King desc ibes how, since he ma ch wi h Riggs, King had been he
ecipien o “mash no es, sexy sugges ions and passes h own by amo ous makes
[sic] .” 33 Al hough no an ou lesbian by his poin —some hing ha would no hap-
pen un il he pe sonal assis an Ma ilyn Ba ne iled a palimony sui agains he
in 1981—King implici ly p esen ed an uncon en ional gende iden i y and incom-
pa ibili y wi h he e ono ma i i y, some hing ha co e age abou he sex symbol
s a us bo h sugges ed and managed. The Globe a icle desc ibed King’s “ e ching”
appea ance when she wo e a pink swea e , p in ed lowe ed blouse, and gold jew-
el y as some hing ha made he look, “well, eminine.” In his assessmen , King’s
eminine allu e p o ed a su p ising coun e poin o he a hle icism a he han
con i ma ion o quee iden i y. King “looked like any hing bu one o he g ea
a hle es o ou imes.” The Globe epo e indica ed ha , despi e he eminine
58 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
appea ance, King had no been o he hai d esse o “wo [n] a speck o makeup”
and ha “clea ly, she hinks li le abou ” he sex appeal.34
Cha ac e iza ions o King’s “sex symbol” s a us a i med he a hle icism and
he eminism. King coun e ed media cons uc ions o eminis s as unlikable,
una ac i e ac i is s who agg essi ely wo ked o des oy long-s anding social
ins i u ions. She ins ead ope a ed “ou on he i ing line, commanding espec
on he ennis cou and in he compe i i e ield o comme ce.”35 He a hle icism,
discipline, and s i ing made he a eminis celeb i y who meshed easily wi h all-
Ame ican no ions o accomplishmen and indi idual endea o and e amed neg-
a i e associa ions wi h eminism.
When ABC hi ed King a he end o Decembe 1975, he celeb i y eminis c e-
den ials played an impo an ole. In he publici y su ounding he hi e, King was
desc ibed as a “libbe -lobbe ,” a new ype o hyb idized eminis -spo s celeb i y
ha spo s ele ision eage ly emb aced.36 Immedia ely ollowing he Ba le o he
Sexes, King was hi ed as a commen a o on ABC’s Wide Wo ld o Spo s (1961–98)
and a ious spo s specials, and as hos o Women’s Spo s Special (1976). A his
same ime, King also de eloped a syndica ed show, The Billie Jean King Show
(1974–78), wi h ABC Spo s’ Jim Packe as execu i e p oduce .37
King’s success in ele ision indica es he accep abili y o eminis celeb i y
when i unde sco ed capi alis ic e ms o success. King pa layed he in e es in
he con ac nego ia ions and luc a i e ele ision con ac s, as e inced by a icles
like “How G een Was He Volley” and “Billie Jean Cou s Fa TV Con ac .”38 Bu
despi e he conse a i e ashioning o King’s celeb i y and publici y ha used
King’s accomplishmen s o ou ele ision’s p og essi eness, King b ough c i ical
a en ion o gende ed inequali ies unde capi alism and sexis employmen p ac-
ices in ele ision. When she nego ia ed he con ac wi h ABC, King unde sco ed
he issue o income pa i y o women in ele ision, jus as she had wi h p o es-
sional spo s. Ra he han esponding o media specula ion abou he exac dolla
amoun o he “ a TV con ac ” wi h ABC, King sides epped he sensa ionalized
aspec s o he sala y. She ins ead epea ed he simple man a ha she used in he
demands o equal p ize money in ennis: “I won’ ake less han he guys.”39
ELEANOR SANGER RIGER AND THE DEVELOPMENT
OF WOMEN’S SPORTS AT ABC
P oduce Eleano Sange Rige was a d i ing o ce behind he decision o hi e
Billie Jean King. Th oughou he ca ee , Rige helped in oduce women’s spo s
o ele ision and agi a ed o inc eased oles o women in i s p oduc ion. Rige
wo ked a ABC om 1965 o 1969, mo ing up he ladde om manage o clien
ela ions o p oduce o p omo ional ilms o w i e and p oduce . In 1973 she was
hi ed a ABC Spo s, he i s woman “ o hold ull p oduce ship and execu i e
posi ion in ne wo k ele ision spo s.”40 In his posi ion, Rige p oduced nume ous
Figu e 7. Eleano Sange Rige behind he came a (da e unknown). (Eleano Sange Pape s,
Sophia Smi h Collec ion SSC-MS-00286).

60 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
segmen s o Wide Wo ld o Spo s, including he US–Eas Ge many Swimming
and Dual Di ing E en om Eas Be lin, Wo ld Weigh li ing Championships, he
Na ional Figu e Ska ing Championships, Women’s Wo ld Cup Skiing, Eu opean
Women’s Gymnas ics, and he P o Bowle Tou . She p oduced and w o e “ wo
landma k p ime- ime specials on women’s spo s;” he Colga e’s Women’s Spo s
Special (ABC, 1974), hos ed by Dinah Sho e; and he second edi ion o he Colga e
Special, The Lady Is a Champ (ABC, 1975), hos ed by Billie Jean King. Rige also
p oduced and cop oduced segmen s o he 1976 Summe and Win e Olympic
Games, o which she won wo Emmys.41 Th oughou he 1970s, Rige would play
a pi o al ole in asse ing he iabili y o women’s spo s a ABC Spo s and iden i-
ying ac ions he ne wo k needed o ake o compe e in he inc easingly p o i able
a ea o ele ised women’s spo s.
Wi h he exp ess pu pose o guiding he ne wo k in i s “de elopmen o spo s
p og amming o women,” Rige was hi ed in esponse o NOW’s FCC license
enewal challenge o WABC-TV in 1972.42 Wi h a ca ee so deeply enmeshed in
libe al eminis ac i ism, Rige wo ked owa d equal employmen o women and
inc eased ep esen a ions o women in spo s ele ision. While hese app oaches
made in oads, hey we e no wi hou limi a ions. By ocusing on inclusion
o women in exis ing sys ems, as Jenni e Ha g ea es a gues, libe al eminis
app oaches ail “ o examine he ex en and na u e o male powe in spo s in he
speci ic con ex o capi alism” and “ o inco po a e he ideological and symbolic
dimensions o gende opp ession.”43 Rige , howe e , did no only depend on he
admission o g ea e numbe s o women o he anks o spo s ele ision as a
co ec i e o i s sexism. She also wo ked o e o mula e wha women’s spo s on
ele ision looked like, o change p oduc ion s anda ds o accommoda e women’s
a hle es as ele ision wo ke s, and o al e he ways ha women’s spo s we e p e-
sen ed o audiences.
Rige ’s unai ed p ojec on Olympic igu e ska e and US na ional champion
Ma ibel Vinson Owen illus a es he in es men in ele a ing women’s achie e-
men s in spo s and he me hods o a icula ing women’s a hle icism on-sc een.
In 1976, Rige coau ho ed a biog aphical eleplay on Owen. I was unde conside -
a ion a 20 h Cen u y-Fox ele ision bu was ne e p oduced. Rige ’s sc ip old a
d ama ic s o y o Owen’s s uggles o gain ecogni ion as an a hle e, he disas ous
ma iage and yea s o abuse a he hands o he alcoholic husband, he a emp s
o sus ain he p o essional aspi a ions alongside domes ic obliga ions and child-
ea ing, and he un imely dea h in a plane c ash. In he mids o his compelling
melod ama ic na a i e, Rige s essed he s uc u al issues o pa ia chal powe
ha had shaped Owen’s li e and balanced upli ing, pionee ing s o y elemen s
wi h sobe ing eminde s o wha Owen and o he emale igu e ska e s o he ime
expe ienced. These a hle es we e dep i ed o access o acili ies and coaching, mis-
ea ed by a he s and coaches (o en he same pe son), and o ced o elinquish
hei ca ee s a oo ea ly when hey ma ied (o en o abusi e husbands).
F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” 61
As she would in o he p og ams she p oduced, in elaying Owen’s s o y Rige
maximized ele isual echniques o balance emo ional s o y elling wi h a hle ic
accomplishmen s and skilled a hle icism. One scene ea u es Owen in a p ac ice
session in which d ama ic music plays unde he oices and sound e ec s and hen
mo es o mul iple momen s o aining. A his poin , Rige o e s de ailed ins uc-
ions on came awo k in a sc ip ha , un il hen, was la gely composed o na a i e
con en a he han s aging and shoo ing di ec ions. She di ec s he came a o
ocus on he “in ica e wis s and u ns o he ska e; he in ense concen a ion o
ska e and coach; he beau y o he p ecise and ascina ing mo emen s which a e
he basis o all ska ing.”44 The echnical aspec s o p oduc ion included in Rige ’s
sc ip in ol ed ela i ely complex came awo k, sound design, and edi ing. They
unde sco e he p io i ies in ep esen ing a hle ic pe o mances: o pai emo ion-
ally ich s o y elling quali ies o an a hle e’s s uggle o succeed wi h he in ensi e
physicali y o he spo and he spec acle o a hle ic achie emen .
PIONEERING WOMEN’S SPORTS IN FRONT
OF AND BEHIND THE CAMERAS
While women we e making gains in ele ision p oduc ion, hey s ill lagged behind
in spo s ele ision. Rige ’s conce ns o women’s ad ancemen s in spo s ele-
ision we e as much abou he wo kplace as hey we e abou p og amming. In
1973, when ABC Spo s hi ed Rige as a p oduce , ne wo k news had al eady hi ed
“hund eds” o women as w i e s, p oduce s, and epo e s bu spo s ele ision
had none in simila posi ions. “Why was I he i s ? Why was i such a a e hing—
a news i em—when I go he appoin men ?,” wonde ed Rige . He ques ions we e
he o ical ones, as she unde s ood ull well he ic ions ha kep women om
his job: only male spo s we e “salable” on ele ision, women lacked in e es in
and had no “ eeling” o spo s, women lacked he “in elligence o dedica ion o
s amina equi ed o he admi edly demanding ou ine” in ele ision spo s, and
women could no cope wi h he g ueling a el schedule equi ed o he job.45
Rige wo ked o coun e hese my hs and o close he gap be ween women wo k-
ing in spo s ele ision p oduc ion and o he a eas o ele ision p oduc ion. To
accomplish his, Rige linked he pionee ing accomplishmen s o women a hle es
wi h he capabili ies o women o spo s ele ision wo k. Th ough his connec-
ion, she a gued o he sui abili y o women o spo s ele ision on bo h sides o
he came a.
To Rige , he success and alen o women as a hle es, on-ai alen , and behind-
he-scenes p oduc ion s a we e all ela ed. She saw he inc ease in collegia e
a hle ic p og ams o women—556 colleges wi h a hle ic p og ams o women in
1974–75 and 806 in 1976—as a eason o ABC o pay mo e a en ion o women’s
spo s. The g ow h o a hle ic p og ams, se in mo ion by Ti le IX, p o ided e i-
dence o a s eady supply o in e es in women’s spo s and made p og amming
62 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
women’s spo s a low- isk p oposi ion. Tele ision spo s and college a hle ics, o
Rige , we e inex icably linked. She a gued ha “ he mos impo an ac o o he
u u e in ol emen s o women in spo s on ele ision is he accele a ing wo h o
college spo s o women,” since men’s college spo s se ed as he “backbone”
o pa icipa ion in he Olympics and in “majo ” p o essional spo s, which,
oge he , made up “99 pe cen o he spo s ele ision p og amming.”46 Rige
also capi alized on he g owing celeb i y o women in p o essional spo s o pi ch
women’s in ol emen s in ele ision spo s. She epea edly made he case o ABC
ha he e y quali ies ha made hese a hle es in e es ing o iewe s would ans-
la e o hei wo k on ele ision as commen a o s and hos s. Thei pe sonali ies
would d aw audiences o he b oadcas jus as hey had o hei spo s ma ches.
Unsu p isingly, gi en bo h he public suppo o Ti le IX and he celeb i y
s a us, Billie Jean King was a c ucial igu e in Rige ’s plans. King’s celeb i y and he
au ho i y as an a hle e-ac i is b oadened he appeals beyond ennis and ga ne ed
iewe in e es ac oss mul iple spo s e en s, making he a c edible ele ision pe -
sonali y. This was pa icula ly so a e he Ba le o he Sexes, a ime when Rige
u ged ABC o make he mos o he success o he King-Riggs ma ch. In a No em-
be 13, 1973, memo o Roone A ledge, p esiden o ABC Spo s, Rige exp essed
he need o mo e quickly. The “qui e u gen ” ci cums ances, acco ding o Rige ,
in ol ed inc eased compe i ion among ne wo ks o hi e King and an unp ece-
den ed oppo uni y o add ess g owing demand o women’s spo s on ele ision.47
Rige equa ed King’s unp eceden ed a hle ic accomplishmen s wi h he own
g oundb eaking s a us as a woman p oduce hi ed o help shephe d ABC in o he
un es ed a ena o women’s spo s. In ad ising A ledge o hi e King, Rige empha-
sized he in es men s ABC had al eady made, he ole women would play in ABC’s
u u e success, and he bene i o con inued in es men s in women:
A e all you ha e done in ying o ge mo e ecogni ion o women’s spo s by hi -
ing me and [p oducing] ha kind o p og amming, ha we should lose he bigges
a ac ion o all would be e ible. You eally buil Billie Jean up wi h he elecas o
he King-Riggs ma ch. You ook a gamble on he p ice and i paid o . ... I am su e
you wouldn’ wan o see all he momen um ABC Spo s has buil up dissipa ed by an
NBC coup wi h Billie Jean King. Ce ainly wi h women’s Olympic Spo s like gym-
nas ics, ska ing, skiing, ack and ield, swimming and di ing, olleyball and owing
becoming mo e and mo e popula because o ou ele ision exposu e, we would be
a a disad an age in his a ea oo.48
Gi en Rige ’s logic, i was no enough o women in spo s o occupy mo e p o-
g amming ime: i was also necessa y o ain and cul i a e he expe ise o women
wo king in p oduc ion i ABC was o emain compe i i e.
By 1974, Rige el ha , wi h he g owing numbe o emale a hle es, he inan-
cial secu i y o majo ad e ise s sponso ing p og ams, and he eady-made audi-
ence o “spo s-conscious women” and men who would wa ch women’s spo s on
F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” 63
ele ision, ABC needed o in es in p oduc ion ia emale employees. Wi h key
elemen s in place o a ings, p o i , and con en , he only “ eal challenge” acing
ABC was i s need o “de elop emale commen a o s” who could announce wom-
en’s spo s “bo h on ac ion co e age shows and mo e ea u e-o ien ed p og ams.”49
A e sponso ing a Women’s Spo s Special in 1974, p oduced by Rige , Col-
ga e conduc ed a s udy ha ound ha women we e inc easingly inclined o wa ch
women’s spo s. This in o ma ion was somewha su p ising o hem, since hey
“didn’ know i women would eally wan o wa ch a show abou women a hle es”
and had commissioned he special wi h some ese a ions. The s udy, su eying
a i udes be o e and a e wa ching he show, ound ha “ he special gene a ed
de ini e inc eases in in e es among women in wa ching TV p og ams dealing
wi h women’s spo s” and ha all o he spo s ea u ed in he special “showed a i-
ude gains.” Al hough Colga e acked women’s in e es in spo s ele ision o he
pu pose o co po a e p o i s, he p o en impac o Rige ’s special also helped c e-
a e change ha bene i ed women, albei in capi alis ic e ms. The special demon-
s a ed he iabili y o women’s spo s o a majo company who could sponso and
und u u e p og amming; i also made he company e hink i s concep ualiza-
ion o women consume s. Sally O’B ien, di ec o o ma ke esea ch a Colga e,
epo ed ha he company could no longe depic women in “some ne e -ne e
land, o whe e she’s in ha acky old ole some ma ke e s s ill hink women a e
playing, o whe e a p oduc is posi ioned as some kind o a he igu e.” Ins ead,
ads would need o acknowledge ha “housewo k isn’ un and games” and o ec-
ognize he in e es s o women had ou side domes ic wo k.50
Rige le e aged co po a ions’ changing pe cep ions o women in o inc eased
and imp o ed p og amming o women’s spo s. When companies wan ed o
cap u e a new ma ke o women iewe s, as Sea s, Palmoli e, and Fabe gé did
when hey sponso ed women’s gol , ennis, gymnas ics, and ama eu a hle ics,
Rige ans o med hei in e es in women as consume s in o oppo uni ies o
women o wo k a ABC. She used co po a e sponso ship o pe suade he ne wo k
o “de elop a whole new slan on i s spo s p og amming, bo h expanding he
co e age o women’s e en s and b inging women in o he behind- he-scenes p o-
duc ion and on-ai alen a eas.”51
THE COLGATE WOMEN’S SPORTS SPECIAL:
RIGER’S PLANS IN ACTION
B oadcas on Janua y 10, 1974, on ABC, he Colga e Women’s Spo s Special eal-
ized Rige ’s goals o women’s spo s ele ision. The special employed emale
celeb i y spo s igu es as on-ai alen , displayed women’s a hle icism h ough
high-impac p oduc ion alues, and in i ed audience iden i ica ion wi h inspi-
a ional momen s o women’s a hle ic iumphs. In he buildup o he special,
Rige emphasized he p og am’s a ings po en ial o p omo e he p og am and o
70 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
The di icul ies Rige encoun e ed in ele ision p oduc ion we e magni ied by
wo king in spo s. As he o ma ion o a Women’s Ac ion Commi ee a ABC in
1972 demons a es, he ne wo k was no inclined o acknowledge he needs o i s
emale employees o o e o m sexis p ac ices wi hou a wa chdog g oup. As dis-
cussed in chap e 1, NBC women o med he i s o h ee women’s g oups ha
sp ang up a each ne wo k’s headqua e s in he ea ly 1970s. The Women’s Ac ion
Commi ee comp ised women employees who ep esen ed women’s conce ns
o managemen and ins i u ed an a i ma i e ac ion p og am, sensi i i y ain-
ing, and a G ie ance Commi ee. They also p og ammed lec u es ha add essed
“in e es s o in e es o all ABC women,” such as he ERA, gende disc imina ion
in language, asse i eness aining, and legal ad ice on wo kplace disc imina-
ion. In i s Janua y 1976 newsle e , he Commi ee awa ded he spo s depa -
men one o i s “b ickba s” o i s “con inued locke oom mo ali y” and called
ou an unnamed ABC execu i e who “expec [ed] his sec e a y o ake ca e o his
di y squash clo hes.”70 Whe he mani es ing in he wo king en i onmen o he
depa men o he leisu e ac i i ies o powe ul male employees, spo s ele ision
con ibu ed o a hos ile and beli ling wo kplace o women a ABC. Pe haps no
one wo king in ele ision knew he p opensi y o sexism in ele ision spo s be -
e han Rige . Acco ding o Rige , “Tele ision was mos ly a man’s business,” and
he “locke oom a ionale” ( he a gumen ha all-male encla es we e unsui able
o women) made ca ee s in spo s ele ision pa icula ly di icul o women.71
While Rige achie ed success a ABC Spo s, as e inced by he nume ous
Emmy wins o he wo k as p oduce he e, she encoun e ed obs acles o ca ee
ad ancemen . She expe ienced beha io s on he pa o he bosses and ne wo k
execu i es ha she ega ded as wo kplace disc imina ion. By 1976, she sough
legal ep esen a ion in an icipa ion o nego ia ing a new con ac wi h ABC.
She supplied he legal counsel wi h documen a ion o he “cons an s uggle o
ge mo e assignmen s and mo e li e assignmen s.”72 She acked decisions and
kep eco ds o a ious momen s in aining and job assignmen s denied he . In
a ile she labeled “ABC Spo s—His o ic Disc imina ion,” Rige kep dozens o
memos she had w i en o execu i es a a ious le els in he spo s depa men —
including John Ma in, ice p esiden , Roone A ledge, p esiden , and Chuck
Howa d, ice p esiden o p oduc ion—asking o mo e p oducing expe ience
ha would expand he skill se . These eques s s a ed as ea ly as 1975 and ca ied
h ough in o he 1980s and he end o Rige ’s ca ee in ele ision.
Rige made he sexis p ac ices o ele ision public in 1977 when she ecoun ed
he expe iences a ABC in Judy Fi eman’s TV Book: The Ul ima e Tele ision Book.
In “Women in TV Spo s,” Rige ’s con ibu ion o he edi ed collec ion, Rige con-
as ed he expe ience she had in ilms and p e aped shows wi h he ela i e lack
o expe ience she had in o he o ms o p oduc ion. ABC’s eluc ance o assign
he li e b oadcas s made Rige “suspec ha unce ain y abou whe he a woman
is up o he p essu es o he li e elecas ” mo i a ed decisions o p e en he om

F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” 71
p oducing such e en s.73 This p ejudicial assessmen kep Rige om de eloping
women’s spo s as she wished and p e en ed he om highly alued oppo uni ies
o p oduce li e e en s.
Rige ’s us a ions cen e ed on a gene al unwillingness o ABC Spo s exec-
u i es o g an he on- he-job expe ience ha would posi ion he o ake on
inc eased, imp o ed, and a ied assignmen s. In addi ion o assump ions abou
a woman’s capabili ies o deal wi h high-p essu e b oadcas s, ABC ci ed Rige ’s
inexpe ience when ejec ing he eques s o p oduce pa icula e en s. This
alleged inexpe ience was some hing ha ABC c ea ed, pe pe ua ed, and used
o jus i y denying Rige oppo uni ies and expe ience, he eby c ea ing a sel -
pe pe ua ing cycle. Rige kep logs o he p oducing c edi s e sus hose o o he
p oduce s and e ained handw i en no es made on memos om he bosses a
ABC ha indica ed s alling ac ics and ou igh ejec ion o he eques s o wo k.
These documen s co obo a ed Rige ’s claims abou he dispa i y be ween he
oppo uni ies and hose a o ded he male cowo ke s and he ne wo k’s consis-
en p ac ice o con ining he o lesse p oduc ions.
In one o he ea lies memos kep on ile, w i en in No embe 1975, Rige asked
Chuck Howa d, VP o p og amming o ABC Spo s, o he oppo uni y o build
he p o iciency in li e b oadcas s in an icipa ion o he 1976 Wo ld Se ies o Wom-
en’s Tennis. Rige had al eady been passed o e as a p oduce o he US Women’s
Open gol ou namen in July 1975. Gi en ha women’s spo s we e he “logical
Figu e 9. Eleano Sange Rige ’s ile olde ha held e idence o
disc imina ion she aced in he job as p oduce a ABC Spo s
(Eleano Sange Pape s, Sophia Smi h Collec ion o Women’s His o y,
Smi h College, SSC-MS-00286)
72 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
place” whe e she should wo k, Rige was oubled ha she had missed ou on such
a high-p o ile e en and el i had cos he an oppo uni y o p o essional g ow h.
Women’s gol ou namen s in he mid-1970s we e sca ce and, as “ he mos di icul
o li e shows o p oduce,” would ha e been an in aluable expe ience o Rige as a
p oduce . Rige p esen ed he upcoming ennis se ies as compensa ion o miss-
ing his ea lie oppo uni y and pi ched he in ol emen as i al, since ennis was
“ he mos likely women’s spo o ge inc eased p oduc ion.” Well awa e o ABC’s
p io i iza ion o women’s spo s a his ime, Rige called upon he manda e as he
woman who was hi ed o help ABC expand and imp o e i s co e age o women’s
spo s. She assu ed Howa d ha i she we e gi en he chance o p oduce he Wo ld
Se ies o Women’s Tennis, hen when ABC Spo s co e ed “mo e women’s e en s
li e,” Rige would “be p epa ed o wo k on hem.”74
In ea ly 1976, Rige con inued o push o inclusion in li e e en p oduc ion
h ough he p o iciency in women’s spo s co e age. F esh om an Emmy win o
he ole in ABC’s co e age o he Win e Olympics in Innsb uck, Rige w o e o
eques ha she be jus as in ol ed in he 1976 Mon eal Summe Olympics. Bu
his ime she would ocus on women’s owing, baske ball, olleyball, eques ian,
gymnas ics, swimming, and ack. Rige el she could b ing “a ce ain amoun o
expe ise o he women’s e en s” and ha he “ alen s would be be e u ilized” in
hese li e e en s han “in he ilm uni exclusi ely.”75 In Augus o he same yea ,
Rige again u ilized a s a egy o calling upon a ecen iumph o ask o a be e
assignmen . She eminded Roone A ledge, p esiden o ABC Spo s, abou he
signi icance o he Colga e Special, which was “good o do and made a necessa y
con ibu ion.”76 Wi h Colga e “ha ing done hei bi on ha ,” Rige hypo hesized
ha “ he u u e lies in li e epo age o e en s.”77 She wan ed o p oduce segmen s
on women’s spo s, bu majo co e age would no happen “un il 1984,” p esumably
in conjunc ion wi h he Olympics. In he mean ime, Rige asked o be assigned
o egional college oo ball games and ack and swim mee s. She ein o ced his
eques in ano he memo a ew days la e o Howa d, in which she exp essed he
in e es in p oducing li e oo ball b oadcas s and men ioned mul iple a emp s o
b oach he opic wi h A ledge and o he s.
By No embe 8, 1976, Rige had enewed eques s o wo k on li e oo ball
e en s. When asking o p oduce he Ha a d-Yale game, Rige called on pe sonal
connec ions o Ha a d. The e i ing a hle ic di ec o was a iend o he s, he son
was applying o Ha a d in he nex yea , and he amily had long-s anding ies
o he school. In a memo o Chuck Howa d, Rige explained ha he expe ience
“would be so o a nice ela ionship since my a he was class o ‘15, and ou g ea -
g and a he s e c. going back o Zedichiah Sange , Class o 1771,” had a ended Ha -
a d.78 Valida ing he in e es in and abili ies o p oduce he Ha a d-Yale game
h ough pa ia chal lineage was a necessi y. Rige had no a ended Ha a d and
did no pe sonally possess inside knowledge ha would en ich he p oduc ion.
She did, howe e , s a egically deploy his disad an age. She eminded Howa d
F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” 73
ha i she had wan ed o a end school in he home own o Camb idge, Massachu-
se s, Radcli e would ha e been he only op ion. Ha a d did no admi women a
ha ime. By calling on he pas expe iences wi h ins i u ionalized sexism and loss
o oppo uni y, Rige implici ly, bu none- oo-sub ly, called ou he same p oblems
she aced a ABC.
Despi e Rige ’s pe sis ence and mul iple he o ical s a egies, he eques s o
wo k on li e p oduc ion we e epea edly ejec ed. In a Decembe 1976 pe i ion
o p oduce he Colga e T iple C own, Rige again called upon he p e ious asso-
cia ion wi h Colga e as he quali ica ion o con inue wo king on hei sponso ed
e en s. Howa d w o e back o in o m Rige ha he was planning o p oduce i . Fo
he 1977 Women’s Supe s a s, a special ema ch om an ea lie Ba le o he Ne wo k
S a s p og am, Rige asked o be in ol ed in o de o “imp o e.”79 Dennis Lewin,
coo dina ing p oduce , esponded by in o ming Rige ha , a e discussing “ a i-
ous possibili ies,” Roone A ledge “wan ed o see [p oduce /di ec o ] Doug Wilson
do i .”80 Ra he han being de e ed by hese ejec ions, Rige con inued o ask o
wo k on li e b oadcas s as well as on ape in 1977. Th oughou he yea she w o e
memos ha asked he bosses o assign he o a numbe o li e e en s, including
he Ken ucky De by and P eakness, baseball egionals, NCAA Foo ball, and he
P o Bowle ’s Tou .81
By Ma ch 28, 1978, he si ua ion had no imp o ed, and Rige exp essed he
us a ion o A ledge abou he upcoming p oduc ion schedule. Wi h no li e
shows assigned o he o h ee mon hs, she was conce ned ha he quali y o
some o he ecen p oducing e o s was being used agains he . Rige chal-
lenged pe cep ions abou he sho comings as a p oduce ; she desc ibed a lack o
suppo p o ided o he by o he s (namely men) on he p oduc ion eam and ushed
p oduc ion imelines. A ecen Na ional Figu e Ska ing Show, which A ledge had
ound “choppy wi hou enough ansi ion,” was comp omised by lawed supe i-
sion o he p ojec : she had ecei ed “li le guidance” om Lewin and had been
e oneously old ha she could ix p oblems in pos p oduc ion wi h a la ge win-
dow o ime han she was g an ed. The p oduc ion alues o he show we e u he
comp omised by he “expe imen al di ec ion” o di ec o Te y Jas o.82
This co espondence ma ked a u ning poin in Rige ’s ca ee and he a i ude
owa d he job. Ra he han accep blame, Rige poin ed ou he disappoin ing
e o s o o he s wo king on he p oduc ion and he challenging ci cums ances
o p oducing o e which she had no con ol. She asked o be e suppo s a
ha would allow he o “do as good a job” on li e e en s as “any o he Associa e
P oduce s who ha e been gi en he chance.”83 She also asked “ o be b ough along
wi h a easonable amoun o help o de elop a s eng h in doing li e shows,” a
eques ha ma ked a new app oach in Rige ’s appeals o managemen . Whe eas
Rige had p e iously called upon he own s eng h and successes in p e ious
p oduc ions, in his communica ion wi h A ledge she began o iden i y ex e nal
o ces ha impeded he ype and quali y o wo k she wan ed o unde ake.
74 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
Rige ook a p oac i e s ance o add ess he lack o expe ience. In ea ly 1978,
she o e ed o ake on bowling and o he lowe -p es ige p og amming in p epa a-
ion o highe -le el p oduc ions bu was in o med by John Ma in, ice p esi-
den o ABC Spo s, ha she “was oo ‘good’ ” o such assignmen s. When she
was kep o he p oduc ion schedule, she ci ed Ma in’s objec ion and sa doni-
cally commen ed, “I guess I’m oo good o wo k o h ee mon hs.”84 Rige also
bypassed he usual channels o communica ion a he p oduce le el and oiced
he conce ns o highe -le el membe s o he execu i e anks. In Janua y o 1978,
Rige w o e di ec ly o Ma in o p o ide him wi h e idence o being e used p o-
duc ion expe ience. She enclosed wi h he co espondence he memos she had
p e iously w i en o A ledge, Howa d, and o he s abou he “in e es in becom-
ing a mo e p oduc i e and aluable p oduce a ABC spo s.” While she el “ o -
una e” o be assigned o h ee oo ball egionals in all o 1978, his oppo uni y
was he excep ion o he ule. She ecoun ed he “discou aging” esponses she had
o o he eques s and he lack o esponse o o he memos. She also exp essed
how “anxious” she was o alk o Ma in, along wi h he managemen a ABC
Spo s, “abou he chance o do mo e li e shows and mo e esponsible Wide
Wo ld [o Spo s] shows.”85
In ol ing Ma in seemed o imp o e Rige ’s oppo uni ies in p oducing li e
and elec onic p oduc ions, ye when Rige con inued o campaign o oppo uni-
ies she was me wi h ejec ion a bes and hos ili y a mos . In a memo o Ma in
on Augus 6, 1979, Rige oiced he app ecia ion o being assigned o p oduce he
Women’s and Men’s Gymnas ics T ial, he P esco Rodeo, and he Lumbe jacks
and Fi emen’s compe i ions and asked o do he same o su ing shows based
in Hawaii. Rige used wha had become by his ime he s a egy: app oaching
mul iple execu i es a di e en le els o powe wi hin he spo s depa men . She
in o med Ma in ha she had asked Howa d and o he s i she could p oduce he
su ing shows and asked o Ma in’s “conside a ion and help in his ma e as
well.” Ma in w o e in esponse, “Don’ ge g eedy now!”86
CULTIVATING WOMEN ATHLETES
AS SPORTS COMMENTATORS
Al hough many o Rige ’s ca ee ambi ions we e hwa ed, she i elessly cham-
pioned o he women and c ea ed a men o ing wo kplace, pa icula ly o on-ai
alen . She saw he aining and suppo o commen a o s as a majo con ibu-
ion o ABC and emphasized i as one o he “asse s” when she communica ed
he wo h o he bosses a he ne wo k. When w i ing o Ma in in 1978 in
an exchange o memos conce ning he s agna ion o he ca ee , Rige a gued
ha she “wo k[ed] well wi h alen and [ ook] g ea pains and e o o help colo
people and announce s.” She backed up hese asse ions wi h a long lis o colo
commen a o s—including high-p o ile alen Al Michaels and F ank Gi o d,
F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” 75
emale commen a o s Ca hy Rigby and And ea Ki by, and male a hle es- u ned-
commen a o s Ron Johnson, Ma k Spi z, and Ve ne Lundquis —who would a es
o he skill and dedica ion o alen de elopmen .87
I ABC unde s ood he alue o “expanded p og amming” because o iewe
in e es and comme cial in es men s, Rige a gued, hey should ega d he de el-
opmen o women in p oduc ion as equally impo an . Women a hle es should be
hi ed and ained as play-by-play announce s and colo commen a o s, as hei
expe ise and “poin o iew” would “add o he exci emen o he elecas .”88 Play-
by-play announce s “desc ibe he pe inen ac ion” o he game “wi hou del ing
oo a in o minu iae,” while colo commen a o s o e analysis based on hei own
expe ience in spo s and c ea e na a i e a cs, o en wi h emo ional elemen s, o
gameplay.89 In supplemen ing he echnical aspec s o play-by-play announcing,
colo commen a o s help a ac iewe ship, ele a e iewe enjoymen , and p o-
ide a sense o “quali y” and “enhanced en e ainmen alue.”90 Bo h a e i al o he
success o ele ised spo s, and Rige el women could ul ill bo h oles.
When p oposing e ospec i e highligh s o he Olympics o be ai ed in
Decembe 1975, Rige app oached bo h B uce Jenne (Cai lyn Jenne , who was
hen known as B uce and publicly p esen ed as male) and Do o hy Hamill as on-
ai alen who would speak o he Olympic expe ience e en be o e she app oached
ABC wi h he de ails o he p oduc ion plans. When she did p opose commen a -
ing eams o he ne wo k, she sugges ed ha i Hamill was no a ailable speed
ska ing champion Sheila Young could be he nex pe son o conside o he job.
Thus Rige buil in o he p oposal a (p esumed) male and emale pai ing o he
commen a o s and al e na e plans o he emale (bu no male) commen a o .
This ex a ca e p ese ed he gende balance in on-ai alen and es i ies o Rige ’s
p io i ies: c ea ing space o women in spo s b oadcas ing and na u alizing hei
p esence he e. When Rige p omo ed women o commen a o jobs, she was
no jus p o iding hem wi h impo an ca ee oppo uni ies, she was also shap-
ing ep esen a ions o women a hle es. The language o commen a y on ele ised
spo s is s eeped in ideological assump ions abou gende and ace and “ ends o
wea e a aken- o g an ed supe o dina e, adul masculine s a us a ound male a h-
le es. Typically women a e “linguis ically in an ilized and amed ambi alen ly”
acco ding o physicali y and ai s (e.g., agg ession ha makes hem good a hle es
bu a ypically gende ed women) and all a he bo om o he “hie a chy o nam-
ing” (e.g., a e called by hei i s a he han las names and a e e e ed o as
“gi ls” a he han women).91 Mo e women commen a o s, e en when pai ed wi h
men, p omised o co ec hose issues.
Rige con e ed he p o i abili y o women’s spo s in o oppo uni ies o women
o wo k in ele ision in posi ions p e iously conside ed unsui able o hem. She
ough o Olympic gymnas Ca hy Rigby as a colo commen a o and a gued o
Rigby’s po en ial in spi e o c i icism abou he on-came a pe sona and deli e y.
As she did in many cases o a hle es who we e wo king on ele ision o he i s

76 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
ime, Rige olun ee ed o unde ake Rigby’s aining. She had b ie ly assumed
esponsibili y o he ask when Rigby wo ked as a commen a o on a gymnas ics
e en in Moscow. Rige el ha Rigby did “ e y well on he on-came a pieces” and
was ca e ul o explain any laws in Rigby’s pe o mance. The p oduc ion con ex
was a challenging one: a “ho endous edi ing iasco” caused an eigh -hou delay
in he oice-o e , which s a ed a 11:30 p.m. and ended a 3:00 a.m.92 Conside ing
he ci cums ances, Rige el Rigby had pe o med well.
Rige also add essed he olume and pi ch o Rigby’s oice. She no ed he di -
e ences in male and emale oices bu minimized conce ns abou he “di icul
con as ” c ea ed “wi h a male announce o came a.” When Rigby appea ed
wi h a male cohos on came a, Rige old Chuck Howa d ha “ he so ness o
he oice is no so ja ing in con as wi h he male oice.”93 Rige ’s assu ances
abou he quali y o women’s oices o b oadcas ing add ess long-s anding anxi-
e ies abou women and sound echnologies. As nume ous eminis media schol-
a s demons a e, women’s oices ha e been sc u inized and deemed unsui able
o a ious sound echnologies, om phonog aphs, adio, and elephones o ilm
and ele ision.94 Amy Law ence’s his o ical o e iew o sound-based media no es
ha “woman’s place has been an issue a gued in ma ke ing epo s, hi ing p ac-
ices, ad e ising s a egies, in sound s udios and in p og amming. And he ‘place’
in sound media is measu ed by he p esence o he oice.”95 In a 1975 LA Times
a icle ha ocused on he g owing numbe s o women in spo s adio and ele i-
sion, Roone A ledge acknowledged ha he “sound o women’s oices” was one
o he many “p ejudices” acing hem in spo scas ing.96 Unde A ledge’s leade -
ship, ABC had in es ed in Billie Jean King wi h he hopes ha she would make an
“excellen ” commen a o . Acco ding o A ledge’s c i e ia, King possessed knowl-
edge ha en iched play-by-play analysis as well as “a ce ain kind o oice, a hea y
oice” ha would “cu h ough c owd noise” and o e come “ echnical p oblems”
o li e b oadcas ing.97
When ad oca ing o women o join he anks o ABC Spo s, Rige called
upon known signi ie s o “excellen ” p oduc ion wo k while iden i ying addi ional
quali ies ha we e speci ic o he own expe ience and p io i ies as a woman in a
male-domina ed indus y. In he i s yea as p oduce a ABC, Rige pushed o
hi e swimme Donna de Va ona as he “ i s woman commen a o unde con ac
o a TV Ne wo k o egula wo k on ele ision spo s.” He memo o A ledge
unde sco ed he alue in he o wa d- hinking hi e, wi h a subjec line “ABC’s
Fi s S a Woman Commen a o ” and language ha ein o ced he payo o
ABC. Rige used he own hi e as a “ i s ” and he subsequen publici y i b ough
o he ne wo k as incen i e o hem o hi e he “FIRST egula [ emale] com-
men a o .” Jus as she had done wi h King’s hi e, Rige called on u u e demand
and he possible loss ABC would expe ience i hey we e no he on unne s
in all a eas o women’s spo s. She empha ically p edic ed he “expansion o p o-
g amming in women’s spo s,” which she saw e idence o in “clien s’ in e es ,
F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s” 77
magazine co e age, public esponse.” Wi h his gua an eed u u e in women’s
spo s, Rige pain ed a oubled u u e o he ne wo k i i los a i al wo ke
who could assis in hei success in a compe i i e ma ke place: “WE MUST STAY
AHEAD! CBS is ying o make up g ound and hey al eady used Donna and a e
making noises abou mo e wo k o he . We should eally pu he unde exclusi e
con ac o we will lose he .”98
Rige ’s commen posi ioned de Va ona as a symbol o ABC’s p og essi eness
and as a sough -a e wo ke wi h s ong quali ica ions o he job, all o which
challenged assump ions o women’s unsui abili y o spo s announcing. Rige ook
ca e o s ess de Va ona’s p o essional capabili ies. He “ alen and expe ience,”
e inced in local b oadcas s and alk show in e iews, and he knowledge o spo s,
including and beyond swimming, made he capable o commen a ing on a a ie y
o e en s. Rige also c edi ed de Va ona wi h a ec i e and in e pe sonal skills ha
we e less ypical quali ica ions o he job and ins ead we e used o disquali y women
om commen a ing. As someone who “knows and is liked by he a hle e pee s,”
de Va ona possessed quali ies ypically associa ed wi h women and eminini y—
likabili y and coope a ion—which Rige iden i ied as asse s o he job.99
RIGER’S LEGACY, OR DOES IT MATTER
IF A WOMAN WORKS IN SPORTS TELEVISION?
Unlike he legacy o he on-ai con empo a y Billie Jean King, Rige ’s con ibu ion
o women’s spo s on ele ision is no an ob ious one, in pa because o he ela i e
in isibili y o p oduc ion s a e sus a spo s celeb i y and in pa because o he
lack o oppo uni ies Rige expe ienced a ABC Spo s. E en as Rige ad oca ed
o women in spo s ele ision, she me obs acles in he own ca ee aspi a ions o
he poin ha , in he la e 1970s, she publicly ai ed ABC’s disc imina o y p ac ices
and ook legal ac ion. A e ha , she con inued o p oduce o ABC, mos no a-
bly segmen s o he 1980 and 1984 Olympics. In 1985, Rige shi ed o pa - ime
employmen a he ne wo k, whe e she con inued o p oduce high-p o ile e en s
like he 1988 Summe Olympics bu inc easingly ocused on lowe -budge p oduc-
ions in cable ele ision.
As he p oducing ca ee shi ed o cable, Rige con inued o champion emale
alen in spo s ele ision. While she had wo ked in p es igious ne wo k p og am-
ming, Rige el ha women’s p og amming in cable o e ed an oppo uni y “ o
en e aining as well as enligh ening women.”100 She wo ked on Basic Fi ness wi h
Diana Nyad, a en-minu e exe cise segmen o Day ime (1982–84), a ou -hou
p og amming block o women on cable ele ision ha , h ough a se ies o me g-
e s, would become Li e ime Tele ision Ne wo k in 1984. Rige was commi ed o
he alue o cable ele ision o women and p oposed, in 1982, “ u u e p og am-
ming” ea u ing Nyad.101 In 1985, Rige con inued o wo k in exe cise p og ams
wi h women a he cen e , p oducing ABC Fun i (1985–86), hos ed by Olympic
78 F om “Jockoc a ic Endea o s”
gymnas hos Ma y Lou Re on. She sugges ed ABC-Hea s hi e Kao u Nakamu u,
he “Ba ba a Wal e s o Japan,” as someone who should become pa o Day-
ime and a anged o ideo apes o Nakamu u’s show in Japan o be iewed by
he head o p og amming.102 In 1983 she w o e o James Spence, he senio ice
p esiden o spo s a ABC, o exp ess how “imp essed” she was in his in e es in
“de eloping emale alen ” and his “pe cep i e way o going abou i ” and ecom-
mended a “se ious aining p og am o new and also mos cu en alen ” ha
she would supe ise.103 In 1984, Rige also pu he sel o wa d as someone who
could de elop Eu opean p og amming o ESPN.104 While ew o he plans came
o ui ion, Rige con inued, o he end o he ca ee , o iden i y a eas o g ow h
o women’s spo s on ele ision and pai ed he own ambi ions wi h hose o o he
women who wan ed o b eak in o spo s ele ision.
In addi ion o he in luence on spo s ele ision, Rige ’s legacy was one o
making isible he gende -speci ic ci cums ances women had o deal wi h ac oss
p o essions. In 1981, Rige joined he boa d o di ec o s o he Wonde Woman
Founda ion, an o ganiza ion ha awa ded g an s o women o e he age o o y
so hey could pu sue hei occupa ional goals. The o ganiza ion’s ecogni ion ha
women’s ca ee s we e equen ly delayed because o ma iage and child- ea ing es-
ona ed wi h Rige ’s own expe iences. She knew ha he ime away om p oduc ion
in he la e 1960s had pu he behind he male con empo a ies when she was hi ed
as a p oduce by ABC in 1973. In a 1977 le e o Roone A ledge, Rige desc ibed he
disad an ages she aced wi h he gap in he ca ee a ABC: “Un o una ely he yea s
I missed we e hose yea s o aining in li e p oduc ion which p oduc ion assis an s
and associa e p oduce s ecei ed a ABC Spo s. I ha e obse ed how associa e p o-
duce s like Te y O’Neil, Te y Jas ow, Bob Good ich, e c. ha e been b ough along
by his ou e. I hope I can s ill be allowed o ca ch up.”105 By 1979, Rige nego ia ed
o be e pay, ealizing ha she did no ha e “ ha many mo e maximum ea ning
ye a s .” 106 In addi ion o he p o essional de elopmen she had less ime o expe i-
ence, Rige ’s sho ened wage-ea ning li e ime was some hing she el keenly.
Las , and no leas , Rige o e s ins uc i e lessons abou unp eceden ed ele i-
sion ca ee s o women. Wi h he sexism endemic o spo s ele ision and he
eminis ac i is p essu e ha b ough abou he posi ion, Rige was o en ea ed
as a oken hi e a ABC. Despi e his cons ain , Rige in luenced he aes he ics o
spo s p og ams, p o ed an impo an ad oca e o emale alen , and se ed as
a meaning ul men o o women wo king in spo s ele ision. Rige did no jus
p essu e ABC o make oom o women wi hin he adi ions o spo s ele i-
sion, she sough o al e he e ms o hese adi ions. She challenged wha de ined
a iable wo ke , a ma ke able a hle e, and a a ings-winning b oadcas in spo s
ele ision. She used ABC’s in es men , ega dless o mo i a ion, in he pionee ing
ole o a gue ha in o de o succeed in a compe i i e new e a o spo s ele ision,
he ne wo k needed o alue women as iewe s, he subjec o p og amming, and
wo ke s in he indus y.
79
3
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
Ann Ma cus, Vi ginia Ca e , and he Women
o Tandem P oduc ions
When ele ision w i e Ann Ma cus p oposed w i ing a memoi abou he ime
wo king on Ma y Ha man, Ma y Ha man, she desc ibed he p ojec as “ he e y
subjec i e—bu unny (and some imes pain ul) s o y o my expe iences as he
co-c ea o and head w i e o Ame ica’s mos alked-abou ele ision show.” To
illus a e wha she had in mind, Ma cus ecalled a leng hy desc ip ion o he p es-
su es she aced in esol ing he nume ous cli hange s le a he end o he i s
season. She se up an appoin men wi h No man Lea , he show’s p oduce and
head o Tandem/TAT P oduc ions, o discuss he conce ns abou s a ing he sec-
ond season. She w o e abou he exchange wi h Lea as ollows:
“No man,” I said, “we’ e in e ible ouble. The hia us is almos o e . P oduc ion is
going o s a up in wo weeks and we ha en’ decided whe he he bulle icoche ed
o Me le’s bel buckle and shoo s Cha lie’s ball o o no !” “Annie,” said No man,
pinching my cheeks, “ he e a e six hund ed million Chinamen [sic] who ha e ne e
e en hea d o MARY HARTMAN.” Wha he was elling me was ha he wo ld would
su i e whe he he second season o MARY HARTMAN s a ed o no and ha was
all well and good, bu he e we e imes du ing he i s season o MARY HARTMAN
when I damned well didn’ hink I would su i e.1
Ma cus’s anecdo e unde sco es he o bea quali ies o which Ma y Ha man was
amous, as well as he in ensi e demands o managing he p og am’s complex s o y
wo ld. I also e eals ha , e en hough Lea is c edi ed o he inno a i e ou pu
o which Tandem was known, women like Ma cus we e cen al in cul i a ing and
sus aining he company’s signa u e s yle.
While Ann Ma cus was wo king on he second season o Ma y Ha man,
ano he w i e , Paddy Chaye sky, was ponde ing he s a e o ele ision. Wi h he
86 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
impo ence, ene eal disease, and he yellow waxy buildup on Ma y’s ki chen
loo s.” When Wallace asked Ca oll O’Conno , who played A chie Bunke , “Wha
do you hink o Ma y Ha man?” O’Conno alked o e he ques ion, igno ed i ,
and con inued his hough s on his ongoing sala y nego ia ions o his wo k on All
in he Family. When Wallace came back o he ques ion la e , a isibly uncom o -
able O’Conno s uggled o espond. “Uh, I ha en’ seen ... well, I, uh, enjoy i ,”
he s amme ed. He hen asked Wallace, “You’ e no asking o uh, a, uh, a kind o a,
uh, o c i ical hing ... ?” Wallace poin edly coun e ed, “I’m asking o a ele ision
c i icism.” A ha momen , cos a Sally S u he s came o O’Conno ’s escue. She
ins uc ed Wallace o “ask [O’Conno ] again wha he hinks o Ma y Ha man”
and hen held a “Do No Dis u b” sign up o he came a.28
The hesi ancy, equi oca ion, and s onewalling o he All in he Family cas
esponses indica ed wide unease wi h Ma y Ha man. Al hough he pilo was
ini ially sc ip ed o CBS, he ne wo k did no pick up he se ies. CBS’s eac-
ion seems su p ising, conside ing ha Tandem supplied he ne wo k wi h
socially esponsi e con en ha was bo h highly a ed and c i ically acclaimed.
By he 1972–73 ele ision season, he ne wo k had e amped i s image and posi-
ioned i sel as a o midable a ings winne by using “ h ee si com ancho s”
(All in he Family, The Ma y Tyle Moo e Show, and M*A*S*H [1972-83]) o
con end wi h “o e ly wi h social issues o he day.”29 By he ime o Ma y Ha -
man’s ai ing in Janua y 1976, CBS had ai ed Tandem p og ams ha add essed
a hos o “con o e sial” conce ns (All in he Family, Good Times, and The Je -
e sons [1975–85]) and cen e ed emale p o agonis s who ep esen ed changing
gende oles and he in luence o women’s libe a ion (Maude and One Day a a
Time [1975–84]).
Seemingly, Ma y Ha man would ha e complemen ed CBS’s e ol ing ela ion-
ship o ele ance and, mo e pa icula ly, would ha e wo ked wi h wha Elana
Le ine desc ibes as he “poli icized b and o sexual humo ” o i s comedies. In
he ea ly 1970s, CBS led he way in o “new sex- hemed e i o y,” and he o he
Figu e 11.
No man Lea looks
on while Sally
S u he s sa es
Ca oll O’Conno
om an uncom o -
able discussion
abou Ma y
Ha man, Ma y
Ha man.
60 Minu es, CBS,
Ap il 11, 1976.

Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 87
ne wo ks soon ollowed.30 NBC elaxed i s s anda ds and p ac ices, and d amas
a ABC and NBC ea u ed con en in ol ing sexual issues and iden i ies. Wi h
depic ions o and discussions abou sexual dys unc ion, exhibi ionism, bisexual-
i y, a ela ionship be ween wo men, gay ma iage, and g oup sex, Ma y Ha man
e ec i ely me ged he soap ope a wi h comedy and social commen a y ha i in
wi h ele ision’s new sexual ankness and expe imen a ion.
Despi e wha seemed like an ideal p oduc o ele ision a he ime, all h ee
ne wo ks passed on Ma y Ha man, and Lea u ned o Rhodes P oduc ions—
a company ha specialized in syndica ed p og ams, including game shows
and anima ion— o dis ibu ion.31 Publici y gene a ed by Tandem ede ined
ejec ion by he ne wo ks in o a posi i e alue. The p ess ki o Ma y Ha -
man uses he ne wo ks’ eac ions o unde sco e he p og am’s unp eceden ed
uncon en ionali y: “Rega dless o he imp essi e c eden ials o Lea (All in he
Family, Maude, Good Times) and his supe la i e w i e s and cas , all h ee ne -
wo ks ejec ed he se ies on he g ounds ha i was ‘ oo a ou ’ o hei iewe s.”32
Lea ampli ied he oddi y o he p og am by desc ibing Ma y Ha man as “simply
aking a look a ou li e and imes h ough ano he kind o p ism” and ollowed
his innocuous desc ip ion wi h a mo e unse ling one: “O cou se he p ism
may appea o ha e been ashioned by a d unken lens make in a da kly wooded
Ge man o es .”33 This p omo ional amewo k posi ions Lea , he only named
igu e in ol ed in he p oduc ion, as esponsible o shephe ding a pe e sely
inno a i e show pas he unimagina i e ga ekeepe s o he ele ision indus y.
C edi ing Lea as he cen al agen o Ma y Ha man’s success is emp ing and
pe haps ine i able. E in Lee Mock’s schola ship on Ma y Ha man iden i ies he
p oblems o ocusing on indi idualized c ea ion my hologies, gi en he collabo a-
i e dimensions o ele ision p oduc ion. Ye Lea is a di icul igu e o decen e .
Mock main ains ha “Ma y Ha man could only ha e exis ed due o he s ewa d-
ship o Lea , whose p ominence and his o y o gen e play p epa ed him o c ea e
his unique p og am and p epa ed iewe s o accep i .”34 Jou nalis ic co e age a
he ime o Ma y Ha man’s ai ing suppo s his assessmen . A Newsweek a icle
dec eed, “Only No man Lea has he powe —and he chu zpah— o b ing such a
mind-blowing mélange o ele ision.”35 Lea ’s c ea i e abili ies we e ma ched by
his alen o gene a e publici y h ough his dynamic and sel -assu ed pe sonali y,
all o which made him a cen al cha ac e in he s o y no jus in Ma y Ha man
bu in all o Tandem’s p oduc ions. In his 2014 au obiog aphy, Lea looms la ge in
his e ospec i e his o y o he company’s ingenui y and popula i y:
The way I expe ienced he wonde we we e caugh up in was on a numbe o ed-
eye ligh s om L.A. o New Yo k. I would look down anywhe e o e Ame ica and
hink i jus possible ha whe e e I saw a ligh he e could be someone, maybe
an en i e amily, I’d helped o make laugh. In my dissocia ed ashion I ma eled a
his, bu i was no hing compa ed o wha I unde s and now, ha I was he a chi-
ec o all ha .36
88 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
Despi e he mys i ica ion o collec i e labo h ough he excep ional indi idual,
o he wo ke s— he d unken lens make s who skewed con en ional s o y elling
o ell unse ling u hs abou con empo a y cul u e— e y clea ly played c i ical
oles in Tandem’s p oduc s.
A he heigh o his and his company’s success, Lea ook ca e o acknowledge
he collec i e o ce o wo ke s and o minimize his cen ali y in Tandem’s ope a-
ions. Al hough, gi en he ways ha Lea ’s au eu s a us was ad an ageous o he
company and his ca ee , his mo e seemed coun e in ui i e, i was c ucial in chal-
lenging he epu a ion o Tandem as “ he Lea Fac o y.” This monike was used by
Wallace in his 60 Minu es p o ile o Lea o sum up he company’s in ensi e p o-
duc i i y and me hod o con en c ea ion. When, in he in e iew, Lea claimed
ha ele ision’s comme cialism and conce ns o e aining ad e ise s made ge ing
Tandem’s shows o ai di icul , Wallace coun e ed by claiming ha Lea ’s in e es s
we e e y simila o hose o he o ces he c i icized. Wi h se en shows unning
concu en ly a he ime o he in e iew, Wallace asse ed, “ he Lea Fac o y is
in he business o imp o ing las yea ’s p o i s.” In Wallace’s assessmen , he o ga-
niza ion o he company mimicked an assembly line wo k low, wi h Lea unc-
ioning as “a o eman” who “spo s p oblems and sol es hem as , because ime
is money.”37 While Lea e aded he issue o his d i e o p o i abili y, he physical
o ganiza ion o Tandem con i med a goal o maximizing e iciency. The p oduc-
ion o all p og ams a he ime o he 60 Minu es in e iew, wi h he excep ion
o Ma y Ha man, ook place in a single building. This a angemen a o ded Lea
e icien access o he company’s shows and ein o ced he ac o y concep .
A ac o y model posi ions Lea as he cen al igu e who d i es he ou pu o
he company; all o he wo ke s a e ende ed in isible o en isioned as cogs in he
machine y un by Lea as o e see . Lea ejec ed his concep ualiza ion o his
company, and Wallace no ed ha Lea “ha ed” o hea Tandem called he Lea
Fac o y. In a ejoinde o Wallace’s cha ac e iza ion, Lea a gued, “Each show, as
you well obse ed, is s a ed by he bes w i e s, he bes p oduce s, he bes di ec-
o s, he bes ac o s, he bes in his own.”38 Rega dless o Lea ’s ue eelings abou
p o i abili y, in o de o main ain Tandem’s b and Lea needed o o eg ound he
c ea i i y, indi idual pe spec i es, and excep ional skills o each o he company’s
wo ke s. Wi h such quali ies, he company’s wo k o ce posi ioned Tandem as a
unique en i y wi hin he comme cial ele ision indus y.
Lea ’s in es men in Tandem’s image as a isanal and collec i ely d i en was
doub less s a egic as well as ideological. Lea championed p og essi e mo emen s
h ough his own celeb i y and he p og amming his company p oduced, and
his sense o sel and public pe sona we e clea ly g ounded in “libe al” poli ics.
The e o e, his alua ion o wo ke s aligned wi h his poli ical sensibili ies and com-
mi men o inno a i e ele ision p oduc ion. Bu i also made good business sense.
Relying on i s wo ke s o hei unique insigh s and alen s helped Tandem espond
o changing cul u al no ms and en iched he company. This was pa icula ly
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 89
ue o women wo ke s a Tandem. They b ough wi h hem impo an poin s o
iew abou gende , p o essional capabili ies and wo k p ac ices a ypical o p ime-
ime ele ision p oduc ion, and pe sonal commi men s o p ojec s abou women
ha shaped he company, en iched i s p oduc , and os e ed i s s anding as a ma -
e ick o ce in he indus y.
Ma y Ha man was no able o he numbe o women in ol ed in i s p o-
duc ion. In i s i s season alone, he show employed women as p oduce (Vi a
Knigh ), wo ou o ou di ec o s (Joan Da ling and Ha lene Kim F iedman),
h ee ou o se en w i e s (Ann Ma cus, Peggy Goldman, and Lynn Phillips), one
ou o wo p og am consul an s (Elizabe h Haley), wo ou o ou c ea o s (Gail
Pa en and Ann Ma cus), bo h o he cos ume designe s (Ri a Riggs and Sand a
Bake ), he cas ing di ec o (Jane Mu ay), he p oduc ion assis an (Susan Ha is),
and he di ec o o publici y (Ba ba a B oglia i). Wi h a cas ha ea u ed Louise
Lasse as p o agonis Ma y Ha man, he “p ojec was u he enhanced” wi h
Joan Da ling as a di ec o .39
When publici y was no ocused on lauding Lea as he guiding o ce o he
p oduc ion, i highligh ed he accomplishmen s o hese women and, in doing so,
ou ed Tandem as a company ha o e ed women ema kable oppo uni ies o
ad ancemen . The p ess ki o Ma y Ha man included biog aphical in o ma ion
on p oduce Vi a Knigh ha aced he jou ney om No h Texas Uni e si y
o Cali o nia. Along he way, she had wo ked as a sec e a y while aking cou ses
in ele ision p oduc ion, and hen had aken jobs as a s uden alen coo dina o
o a local ele ision show, an assis an o he p oduce o a local public a ai s
p og am, and a sc ip sec e a y o a ne wo k se ies. He success “p o e[d] ha a
woman’s place is anywhe e she has he desi e and ini ia i e o i o be.”40
The s o y o Knigh ’s ca ee a Tandem coun e ed conce ns ha he hi ing
boom o women in ele ision in he ea ly o mid-se en ies was me ely, as he 1977
Repo o he Uni ed S a es Commission on Ci il Righ s desc ibed i , “window
d essing on he se .”41 When Knigh came o he company in 1973, she ose ap-
idly h ough i s anks, and he alen s we e ecognized e en when she was wo k-
ing in a adi ionally eminized and unde alued posi ion. Knigh s a ed ou a
Tandem as a sec e a y o Good Times p oduce Allan Manings and was p omo ed
o associa e p oduce o he show wi hin six mon hs.42 When he show wen on
hia us, she se ed as he associa e p oduce o Lea ’s pilo s, one o which was Ma y
Ha man. Knigh ’s imp essi e “pe o mance” on he job, along wi h a p oduce ’s
unexpec ed lea e, p omp ed Lea o “b eak p ecedence” and make Knigh —who
was no a w i e , as would be expec ed backg ound o such a p omo ion—a p o-
duce o he show. He en i e ajec o y om sec e a y o p oduce a Tandem
ook “some wo yea s and wo mon hs.”43
In an in e iew wi h Ms., Ann Ma cus con i med how he pe sonal backg ound
shaped he ision o Ma y; i was based in he own “sense o he e e yday absu d,
based on yea s o housewi ely domes ici y.”44 Al hough Ma cus shephe ded he
90 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
p og am h ough i s complex de elopmen ac oss wo seasons and 195 episodes
and is named as one o he show’s c ea o s, she c edi ed o he women wi h b ing-
ing he i ula cha ac e and he gende complain s o li e. She acknowledged Gail
Pa en as he o igina o o he cha ac e iza ions o Ma y and he amily, ini ial
ideas ha Ma cus used o build a ully o mula ed s o y. Lea wan ed o make
a “ unny soap ope a,” and om ha guidance alone Pa en wo ked “solo o a
long ime” as a “ i s c ea o ” o p oduce a show bible ha , in he desc ip ion, was
“mo e han a ea men .” Whe eas a ea men would ypically un en pages and
co e wha a show was “going o be abou ,” he bible, in compa ison, “ac ually ook
you a li le mo e in o a season” and was “abou wha could happen.”45 Al hough
Pa en was no di ec ly in ol ed in Ma cus’s wo k on he show—she was wo king
on ano he p ojec by he ime he show mo ed in o p oduc ion—and was “no
he e on a day- o-day basis,” Ma cus hono ed Pa en ’s con ibu ion o he de el-
opmen o Ma y Ha man’s s o y wo ld.46 Pa en also inspi ed Lea o cas Louise
Lasse as Ma y Ha man, as bo h women had a “ e y slow way o alking” and Lea
wan ed o b ing ha aspec o sc een.47 Ma cus also c edi ed Louise Lasse as he
o he p ima y in luence on he cha ac e . Lasse “became Ma y Ha man” and, in
his ans o ma ion, “c ea ed ha c azy li le gi l look ... pu y li le housed ess
and slow way o alking.”48
Lea himsel ecognized he in luence women had on Ma y Ha man. The show
“became an amalgam o wha [he] wished o do and o he g ea gi s ha Louise
Lasse as an ac ess b ough o i and ha Joan Da ling b ough o i .” Lea wen
on o a gue ha one could no “sepa a e” he con ibu ions hese women made:
“ ‘Ma y Ha man’ would no ha e been he same ‘Ma y Ha man’ had ano he
ac ess played he cha ac e , and i p obably would no ha e been he same i
ano he di ec o had di ec ed i . All o hose componen s we e impo an .”49
Acknowledging he collabo a i e na u e o a ele ision show’s c ea ion
answe s back o he ise o au eu ism ha was aking hold o Hollywood and
ilm c i icism, bo h academic and jou nalis ic, du ing he 1970s. Tele ision was
ollowing a simila pa h, sea ching o he singula au ho ing igu e ha would
edeem i om he comme cial mo ass o he indus y. In 1977, Ho ace New-
comb named Lea as he “mos p ominen o he ‘sel -conscious’ p oduce s, a
ype o ele ision wo ke ha b ough added alue o p oduc ions.”50 Thei pe -
sonal ision, Newcomb a gued, made i possible o “suddenly cu h ough he
massi e anonymi y o ele ision.”51 In cen e ing women in Ame ican ilm o
he 1970s, Aa on Hun e and Ma ha Shea e iden i y he “c i ical cons uc ”
ha is New Hollywood and he ways ha he “academic cul o he au eu is New
Hollywood” “only eplica es and ein o ces he indus y’s own exclusions.”52
Cen e ing women in ele ision places simila p essu e on no ions o au ho ship
and how ex s iden i ied as key o he e a o “ ele an ” ele ision in he 1970s
we e p oduced. The women in ol ed in making Ma y Ha man me ged hei
indi idual c ea i e isions and acknowledged as much, he eby accu a ely and
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 91
e hically e lec ing he sha ed labo o ele ision. Thei es imony abou hei
communal c ea i i y also calls in o ques ion Lea as he p ima y c ea o o Ma y
Ha man and he no ion o he “sel -conscious p oduce ” as ele ision’s analogue
o New Hollywood’s au eu .
Women including and beyond Pa en , Lasse , and Ma cus pu hei alen s and
labo owa d c ea ing a “p o o ypical” 1970s housewi e who, in Ma cus’s wo ds,
“ne e el she was li ing up o he ull po en ial and didn’ know wha he po en-
ial was.”53 The impac hese women had on he p og am su passed hei job i les.
Lasse c edi ed bo h he di ec o and he cos ume designe as key con ibu o s o
he cha ac e o Ma y Ha man. The ac o desc ibed Da ling as a “di ec o ha
cas e e y hing, and i was he ision o he show ha go sho , and she was he
one ha was like an ac ing eache , so we we e e y dependen on he .”54 The gen-
esis o Ma y’s look came wi h he unusual in e en ion o cos ume designe Ri a
Riggs. A e consul ing wi h Lasse abou he ypes o colo s she liked, Riggs old
Lasse , “I’d like o make a cos ume o you” —a unique o e ing a he ime because,
acco ding o Lasse , “no one in hose shows had ha kind o a sepa a e cos ume
be o e.”55 Wi h his “b illian cos ume o ake h ough e e y hing,” Lasse and he
women who wo ked on he hai “all so o nu sed [Ma y] along.”56
ANN MARCUS AND THE FEMINIST-HELMED
WRITERS’ ROOM
Ann Ma cus’s expe ise as a soap ope a w i e allowed he o ac ualize Ma y Ha -
man. The p og am needed o bo h sa i ize he con en ions o he soap ope a and
“ha e enough o a s o yline going o i , so ha i would a ac people on ha
le el, oo.” When she in e iewed o he job, Ma cus was wo king on Sea ch o
Tomo ow (CBS, 1951–82; NBC, 1982–86) and unde s ood e y well he wo k
demands o soap ope a w i ing. Ma cus “didn’ ha e a epu a ion as a op com-
edy w i e ” bu won he job as head w i e o Ma y Ha man o e “a lo o male
op comedy w i e s a ha ime” who in e iewed o his highly co e ed posi-
ion. None o hem could cap u e he complexi y o he s o ylines and one o he
show. Ma cus, howe e , knew how o “keep he s o y going” wi h a s o yline, “a
lo o cha ac e s,” and in e mingled s o ies. Such wo k was no jus a e ied bu
one ous. As Ma cus said o he wo k, “I ’s di icul . I ’s ha d. I ’s icky.” Knowing
how o keep up he pace o p oducing a daily p og am was some hing Ma cus
b ough o he p oduc ion. She main ained ocus and e iciency in he w i e s’
oom and mo ed con e sa ions o la ge -pic u e issues when o he s in w i ing
mee ings we e mi ed in smalle de ails. The “cho e” o wo king on a se ial and
he “ha d, ha d wo k u ning ou i e sc ip s a week” was some hing, again, ha
Ma cus knew well.57
As Ma y Ha man’s head w i e , Ma cus ook esponsibili y o s o y s uc-
u e in he de elopmen o sc ip s and o en eminded he w i ing s a and Lea

92 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
abou he s uc u al elemen s ha he se ial o m equi ed. Gi en he backg ound
in soaps, Ma cus was able o p io i ize s o y a cs, economy in eaching clima ic
momen s, and belie abili y in he mids o heigh ened d ama. In one mee ing, he
w i e s s uggled o ind a sa is ying end o an episode ha in ol ed a d ama ic
dea h o a cha ac e and he ongoing decline o Ma y’s ma iage. They deba ed
he consequences o wo choices: a discussion o a une al o a scene wi h Ma y in
he ki chen. The a gumen o he o me was he alle ia ion o wo k o Lasse ,
who al eady had wo ull scenes, o hal o he episode, in which o ac . Any hing
addi ional would be “a nigh ma e o handle.” Ma cus coun e ed wi h a bid o end
wi h Ma y in he ki chen. “All we’ e ying o do is o gi e i a kind o low,” Ma -
cus easoned, “and o emind [ iewe s] o une in omo ow so hey’ll une in.”58
In o he mee ings, Ma cus guided w i e s on wha and how much con en would
success ully cons i u e an ac , wha would help mo e s o ylines along, and wha
would help emind iewe s o mul iple s o ylines and con lic s.
While Ma cus was capable o os e ing a cul u e o p oduc i i y, she also pushed
back agains p essu es on ou pu , pa icula ly when hey comp omised he own
needs and he pacing o wo k she el necessa y o wo k h ough a sc ip . Seem-
ingly wi hou excep ion, hese p essu es came om male cowo ke s. Ma y Ha -
man w i e Daniel G ego y B owne said o Ma cus in a w i e s’ mee ing, “I jus
wan o h ow you ahead o wha No man had said in e ms o he end o his week
and whe e we go om he e.” Ma cus eplied, “I ha en’ inished because I’m ge -
ing o he e,” and p oceeded o e u n o he plo conce n ha was unde discus-
sion.59 A a mee ing held in la e Decembe , be o e a aca ion b eak, when someone
asked Lea when he wan ed an ou line o a complex s o yline, Lea answe ed,
“They’ e due. The sc ip s a e due. They should be done igh be o e you hi he
slopes.” Ma cus esponded, “You’ e kidding. You ha e wo weeks o sc ip s.”60 A e
his commen , Lea elen ed and asked o ou lines a he han comple ed sc ip s
be o e Ma cus le o he aca ion.
As head w i e on Ma y Ha man, Ma cus occupied an au ho i a i e posi ion
on he p oduc ion o he show, some hing ha she wo ked ha d o de ine and
de end. She s uggled in he i s season o he show o balance “wan ing e y
much o succeed, o be lo ed and needed and admi ed,” wi h he di icul ies o
wo king in “ he mids o all hose o he people wi h egos jus as big o bigge
e en han mine.” E en as she nego ia ed he desi e o accep ance, Ma cus kep
sigh o he impo ance o he pe spec i e and held he line on elling s o ies ha
e lec ed women’s expe iences. When Lea and he show’s w i e s p oposed hei
a ious s o ylines, Ma cus was “mos imes he only woman in he mee ing.”61 As
ansc ip s o Ma y Ha man’s w i e s’ mee ings demons a e, Ma cus was keen
o o e women’s pe spec i es and was able o insis on in oducing hem o and
keeping hem in he sc ip .
In a w i e s’ mee ing held on Decembe 30, 1975, p og am consul an Oli e
Hayley aised an objec ion o a s o yline in ol ing a p egnancy ha ended in a
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 93
misca iage. The ensuing con e sa ion e lec s he con es ed e o s o g ound
a s o yline in ealis ic and meaning ul women’s expe iences. Hayley began
he con e sa ion by asking, “May I jus say some hing, and e e yone can ge
o ended? I HATE dead babies. I don’ hink he e is any hing unny abou dead
babies.” He hen pi ched “an ou ageous idea” om di ec o Joan Da ling. Da -
ling sugges ed ha he p egnancy i sel could be a alse ala m: and ha a he
han ca ying a e us, he cha ac e would ha e a misdiagnosed ib oid umo .
Ma cus esponded o his sugges ion by saying, “I hink i ’s hys e ical” and
p oceeded o build, wi h o he s in he oom, a s ing o humo ous scena ios
and lines. W i e Je y Adelman was no con inced by his plan, a guing ha
“ his is a hones - o-God agedy.” A e Hayley u he de ended he comedic
possibili ies o he scena io, Lea asked, “How big a mis ake is ha o a doc-
o o make?” Someone else in he oom a gued, “I ’s a idiculous mis ake.”
Hayley eplied, “I is no . The e a e a g ea many women who hink ha hey
a e p egnan and u n ou o ha e a ib oid umo .”62 The ib oid s o yline ha
o igina ed wi h Da ling made i o ai on he wen y- i h episode o season 1
wi h e y ew changes made o he idea gene a ed in he w i e s’ mee ing. The
success ul co ec i e o he o iginal s o yline e ised a po en ially un unny s o-
yline abou “dead babies” o one ha highligh ed women’s expe iences wi h
ep oduc i e heal h ca e; i also indica es how he w i e s’ oom, unde Ma -
cus’s guidance and wi h collabo a i e e o s, p o ec ed an idea ha o igina ed
wi h ano he woman on he p oduc ion eam.
The e y no ion ha Ma y Ha man should explo e a woman’s dissa is ac ion,
some hing ha de ined he se ies, was a concep ha had o be de ended in i s
ea ly s ages o de elopmen . In a w i e s’ mee ing ha ook place on Janua y 20,
1976, jus wo weeks a e he inaugu al episode ai ed, Lea ou lined he e ms
o Ma y Ha man’s unhappiness as a wo king-class wi e and mo he . The compli-
ca ions o he si ua ion s emmed om he desi e o be some hing mo e, which
con lic ed wi h o he messages women like he ecei ed om powe ul an i-
eminis , an i-ERA o ces and ele ision’s consume is add ess o women. Lea
eminded he w i e s o he class-based dynamics o he cha ac e : “We o ge all
o hese comme cials ha a e in e up ing ou shows a e abou o en cleane s, e c.
and i ’s because he bulk o Ame ica is s ill w apped up in hose p oblems and we
o ge abou all hose p oduc s i we can a o d o ha e somebody do his o us,
we o ge how much ime is spen cleaning o ens, e c.” Lea wan ed o de elop
he complexi y o Ma y’s awakening as someone who “li es whe e she li es, has
only as much knowledge as she has,” and is he e o e “ ying o b eak ou and
denying a he same ime ha ha ’s wha she’s ying o do.” Ma cus suppo ed
his cha ac e iza ion o he e icien way i de e mined he s o y wo ld. “Gi -
ing he his whole inne hing ha you’ e alking abou ,” she a gued, “de ines he
o he cha ac e s immedia ely” because Ma y gauged he sense o sel h ough
he women in he li e who p esen ed a ious op ions o emancipa ion.63
94 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
No e e yone in he oom was suppo i e o his amewo k. W i e Daniel
G ego y B owne esponded nega i ely o cha ac e izing Ma y’s s uggle wi h
empowe men . He desc ibed he cen al con lic as “ e y bo ing and no e y
comedic because i ’s been done o dea h all o e he coun y.” B owne elabo a ed
his misgi ings by asse ing, “I hink i ’s done on ele ision a g ea deal. I hink
ha e e yone is somewha in o i —I hink we’ e e y deep in he women’s mo e-
men now.” A e some back-and- o h wi h o he s in he oom, B owne no ed
ha Alice (CBS, 1976–85) was o hcoming and “we don’ wan o ace Alice ou
on his.” Someone else el ha he us a ion o a woman was no unique and
ha i “doesn’ mani es in o e ibly exci ing o unny scenes because i ’s whe e
e e y woman is a .”64 The objec ions aised in he w i e s’ oom sugges he agil-
i y o launching a p ojec ha exp essed women’s disillusionmen and connec ed
o hemes o he women’s mo emen . Resis ance o such a p ojec was based on
assump ions ha he e was a ini e capaci y o s o ies abou women on ele i-
sion, ha hey we e abundan , and ha women’s conce ns had been mo e han
adequa ely exp essed.
He e Ma cus in e ened and cla i ied ha hose who objec ed o he idea we e
mis akenly “ aking wha No man is saying as a s o y line, his is only a subjec .”
When he discussion con inued along he same lines, Ma cus b oke in o mo e he
discussion o wa d o mo e p oduc i e ou comes. “I don’ hink we should spend
any mo e ime on he philosophical unde pinning o Ma y Ha man,” main ained
Ma cus. “I hink we a e in ag eemen on ha . We need s ong s o ies ha a en’
jus 3 o 4 scenes. Bu based on his kind o cha ac e we ha e o build a s ong
s o y ha has all kinds o hings—we ha e o do wonde ul in en i e hings.
I ha en’ come up wi h hese hings ye because we ha en’ alked abou hem
ye and I hope we can alk abou his.”65 Ma cus pushed he mee ing pas i s s ick-
ing poin . She p io i ized he agenda— he de elopmen o “in en i e” ideas—
while asse ing consensus on women’s libe a ion as a cen al issue in he p og am.
This small bu e ec i e ges u e pu an end o he momen um ha was ga he -
ing agains elling he s o y o a emale p o agonis ’s complex ela ionship o he
women’s mo emen .
In w i ing o Glo ia S einem, whom she c edi ed, along wi h Simone de Beau-
oi , wi h he eminis consciousness, Ma cus desc ibed he s aunch allegiance
o eminism. “I ha e been in he Mo emen , spi i ually, e e since I was a kid,”
Ma cus in o med S einem.66 Ma cus’s eminism played an impo an ole in shap-
ing Ma y Ha man, pa icula ly because, om he pe spec i e, “No man was a
chau inis in 1975.”67 Al hough Ma cus c edi s Lea wi h being a “mode n,” “open-
minded libe al” wi h an “inc edibly inquisi i e kind o mind,” he imeline o his
con e sion o eminism is unclea .68 Some ime in he 1970s, du ing his ma iage
o F ances Lea , whom hei daugh e Ka e Lea desc ibed as a “ eminis who
changed he li es o many women,” No man Lea began o iden i y as a eminis .69
“F ances was e y much engaged in he women’s mo emen ,” Lea ecalled, “and I,
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 95
as he a he o h ee daugh e s a ha ime, was also. So we all became eminis s.”70
Rega dless o when, p ecisely, Lea iden i ied as a eminis , his gende poli ics we e
no ully e ol ed a he s a o his p o essional ela ionship wi h Ma cus. I Lea ’s
chau inism was in ac and on display in he yea p io o he p emie e o Ma y
Ha man in Janua y 1976, hen i ollows ha Ma cus, a he han Lea , was a cen-
al agen in a icula ing eminis sen imen and p og essi e gende pe spec i es
in he planning o he show.
Ma cus’s eminis consciousness helped mo e sc ip ideas in de elopmen away
om o ensi e and eg essi e con en . When one o Ma y Ha man’s neighbo s, who
was a close ed gay man, was ou ed o Ma y by ano he cha ac e , a w i e sugges ed
ha he line ead, “By he way, you neighbo is a ag [sic].” Someone else a he
mee ing sugges ed ha he “bes euphemism you can ind,” along he lines o “They
we en’ eally b o he s a e all, you know,” should be used ins ead o he homopho-
bic slu . Ano he w i e ques ioned how anyone would know someone’s sec e sexual
iden i y: i was “aw ully con enien ha a o al s ange d ops in” and, a e a b ie
encoun e , knows ha Ma y Ha man’s neighbo is “a ag [sic],” epea ing he slu
in oduced ea lie in he con e sa ion. The w i e hen sugges ed ha , a he han
an une en ul, o -sc een encoun e ha esul s in he e ela ion o he neighbo ’s
sexuali y, “ he e has o be some hing he e o build i up. I hink i i ’s made unny,
i will wo k.” Wi hou hea ing u he de ails, Ma cus shu down his po en ial s o-
yline by saying, “Tha isn’ unny.”71 Gi en he o ensi e language used in he pi ch,
i was likely ha any hing else ha would make a gay man’s sexuali y signi y clea ly
enough o a s ange o iden i y i would be equally o ensi e.
HYSTERIA, MONSTROSITY, AND OTHER GENDERED
ANXIETIES ABOUT THE STATE OF TELEVISION
Among i s many accomplishmen s, Tandem in oduced eminized gen es in o
p ime- ime and la e-nigh p og amming, appealed o women iewe s, and acknowl-
edged and accommoda ed ac i is conce ns. Because o his, he company was
c edi ed wi h ushe ing in a new e a o ele ision ha would e e se he indus y’s
wo s o enses. In o he con ex s, howe e , hese e y same changes we e ones ha
ala med he mos ocal o ele ision’s c i ics a he ime. In bemoaning he a e o
ele ision, e en as hey p aised Lea , hese c i ics iden i ied women and mino i ies
as he o ces ha we e dilu ing and pe e ing ele ision and i s a is ic po en-
ial. Mos no ably, as discussed a he opening o his chap e , sel -p o essed Lea
an Paddy Chaye sky wo ied abou eminizing o ces co up ing e en he mos
isiona y c ea i e who wo ked in he indus y in he 1970s.
When he p edic ed Lea ’s co up ion by he “mons ous es pa e n,” Chaye -
sky desc ibed how “hys e ical” Lea would become once he encoun e ed p oblems
wi h a ings.72 In calling on hys e ia, o “ he symp om, o pu i c udely, o being
a woman,” o desc ibe he down all o a ellow ele ision inno a o , Chaye sky
102 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
By he la e 1970s, AWRT had been cha ing inciden s o disc imina ion in he
wo kplace long enough ha i could ack changes in hose a eas. In 1978 i no ed
ha while he “ ypical” AWRT membe epo ed o a man on he job, 40 pe -
cen o he women polled supe ised he wo k o a leas one man, which ma ked
an inc ease o 10 pe cen o e 1974 indings. In addi ion o nume ical da a abou
women’s place in hie a chical s uc u es, he 1978 epo included in o ma ion
abou women’s wo kplace expe iences in i s “Women on he Job” sec ion. AWRT’s
1973 su ey ound ha 23.6 pe cen o membe s “ci ed sex disc imina ion as he
majo obs acle” in he wo kplace, bu be ween ha su ey and he 1978 epo , 75.8
pe cen o membe s had “pe sonally wi nessed o expe ienced an imp o emen in
a i ude owa d women in hei ield o wo k.” By 1978, he “majo i y” o su ey
esponden s indica ed ha hey had “expe ienced nei he sex a o i ism no sex
disc imina ion on he job, and only 12.2% conside ed hei sex a majo de e en
o job ad ancemen .” AWRT belie ed hese indings demons a ed “a change in
a i ude” wi hin he indus y and signaled meaning ul imp o emen s Al hough
hope ul abou he p og ess women we e making, he epo was ca e ul o iden i y
new challenges o women in he wo kplace, p ima ily in he “lack o oppo uni y”
ha “impede[d] hei p og ess.”90
In he wo k on equal employmen p ac ices du ing he 1970s, Mi anda Banks
co ec s assump ions abou wo kplace oppo uni ies o women and mino i-
ies when hese a e gauged by s a is ics alone. She dissec s nume ical igu es and
supplemen s hem wi h expe ien ial e idence om women as hey wo ked on
p oduc ions. E en when women we e employed on ele ision shows ha we e
“compa a i ely p og essi e abou acial o gende inclusi i y ( ew we e bo h), he
expe ience o women wo king on he se ies o en in ol ed playing educa o o
male colleagues abou sexism.” When women we e no in posi ions o au ho i y
on a p oduc ion o in a company, hei e o s a educa ion gene ally had no mea-
su able e ec . Fo ins ance, when w i e T e a Sil e man wo ked on Ma y Tyle
Moo e and called a en ion o sexism in a sc ip , “ he head w i e s we e un espon-
si e.” E en in “bes case scena ios,” Banks a gues, “p oduce s esponded well o
c i icism and made adjus men s—bu wi h i ually all se ies un by whi e men,
he pa ame e s o inclusi i y we e s ill de e mined by whi e men.”91
VIRGINIA CARTER AND FEMINIST OVERSIGHT
AT TANDEM
When FCC chai Robe E. Lee add essed he AWRT a hei 1975 mee ing, he
ad ised hem on how bes o make eal gains in hei p o essions.92 Cha ac e ized
as a “champion” o equal employmen , Lee iden i ied he “di ide and conque ”
s a egy he ele ision indus y used o “pi women agains mino i ies o jobs”
and ad oca ed o “uni ed ac ion” among all ma ginalized wo ke s.93 Lee espe-
cially u ged “women in mino i ies” o seek ou high-le el jobs as “news di ec o s,

Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 103
p og am di ec o s, p oduce s, di ec o s and edi o ial w i e s,” whe e “ he eal
powe ” in b oadcas ing was loca ed.94 Finally, Lee called ou he en i e ilm and
ele ision indus y, including ins i u ions ha ope a ed beyond FCC ju isdic-
ion, o accoun o acis and sexis employmen p ac ices. Tele ision ne wo ks,
ilm s udios, and p oduc ion companies alike we e esponsible o imp o ing he
numbe o women and mino i ies hey employed wi hin and beyond c ea i e jobs,
pa icula ly in execu i e posi ions ha held conside able au ho i y and in luence.
In 1973, wo yea s be o e Lee’s speech, Vi ginia Ca e was hi ed as an assis an
o No man Lea and as a consul an o eminis guidance and o e sigh wi hin
Tandem. Conce ns abou women’s ole in ele ision mo i a ed Lea o hi e Ca e .
Lea unde s ood ha his own p oduc ion company was no immune om gende
inequali ies, pa icula ly a i s mos powe ul le els. In a planning mee ing o All
Tha Gli e s (1977), a gende - ole e e sal sa i e in which women domina e he
execu i e anks o mul ina ional co po a ions, Lea e lec ed on he pe sis ence
o sexism in business, including ele ision. “This company is pe haps as open in
ha espec as any company I know,” obse ed Lea , “and ye look a ound. T ue,
Vi ginia [Ca e ] and I ha e alked abou his. ... The doo s ha e no been opened
enough.” Lea specula ed ha a woman would no ascend o his job “un il he
doo s ha e been opened long enough, enough women ha e been able o w i e
long enough, p oduce long enough, di ec long enough. Women a e only begin-
ning o di ec . They’ e ne e had he oppo uni ies.”95 Lea ’s assessmen e lec s
his awa eness o s uc u al ba ie s and sexis adi ions ha es ic ed women’s
ull pa icipa ion in he indus y. In spi e o Tandem’s sho comings, women did
possess he all- oo- a e abili y o con ol and counsel on ce ain p oduc ions and
in speci ic oles in he company.
Ca e was an unlikely hi e, in e ms o bo h he job desc ip ion and he p o-
essional backg ound. He p ima y pu pose a Tandem, acco ding o Lea , was o
“es ablish and main ain equi y in ou hi ing and in ou sc ip s.”96 A he ime Lea
hi ed he , Ca e was a ained physicis wo king a he Ae ospace Co po a ion.
Lea acknowledged he uno hodox decision o hi ing a esea ch scien is o a job
in he en e ainmen indus y bu explained Ca e ’s wo h h ough he eminis
c eden ials. Lea alued Ca e because o “ ‘wha she could each [him] and [his]
company abou he ledgling women’s mo emen and, in ac , abou being a decen
human being.’ ”97 Gi en Tandem’s s a us as an independen p oduc ion company,
which ope a ed ou side o FCC egula ions, Ca e ’s hi ing, in luence, and ascen
in he execu i e anks he e indica es he company’s in es men in he ypes o
equal oppo uni y p ac ices endo sed by Robe E. Lee.
Ca e came o Lea ’s a en ion h ough he ela ionship wi h F ances Lea , No -
man’s hen-wi e and he “ esiden EEOC” in “ he Lea household.”98 A e hea ing
Ca e speak in he capaci y as he p esiden o he Los Angeles chap e o NOW,
F ances championed Ca e as a eminis ac i is whose c eden ials and expe i-
ence would bene i Tandem and u ged Ca e o mee wi h he husband.99 Ca e
104 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
ag eed o he mee ing only as a a o o F ances, who “was a iend a ha poin
because she was so suppo i e as I wen abou my business in NOW.”100 O he wise,
Ca e “couldn’ imagine why” she would ake he mee ing.101 “I was emba assed
abou i ,” she ecalled. “I was a was e o my ime.”102 Ca e had no expe ience in
he ele ision indus y, o he ex en o being unawa e o who No man Lea was. I
was only when Ca e ’s pa ne , Judi h Osme , old he ha F ances’s husband was
on he co e o Time magazine he week she planned o mee wi h him ha Ca e
unde s ood he magni ude o he mee ing.
Al hough Ca e ini ially was unin e es ed in a ca ee in ele ision, he ben-
e i s o wo king a Tandem quickly became clea o he . F om he i s mee ing
wi h Lea , Ca e was imp essed wi h Lea ’s sensi i i y, which sugges ed a simila ly
enligh ened wo kplace and a welcome ep ie e om he masculinized wo ld o
science o which Ca e was accus omed. Since Lea knew no hing abou phys-
ics, and Ca e “didn’ know any hing abou show business wha soe e ,” hey “ ell
back on one issue we had in common,” hei pas encoun e s wi h cance . Ca e ,
a b eas cance su i o , and Lea , who had had a p ecance ous g ow h on his
ace, bonded o e hei heal h conce ns. “And we sa he e, wi h acing dea h as
ou common g ound,” Ca e emembe s, “and we bo h wep a li le. And I had
Figu e 13. F ances Lea and No man Lea in he ea ly 1980s. (Pho o es )
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 105
only known men in enginee ing and physics- ype subjec s. I had no known his
kind o a man who would c y.” Lea ’s emo ional in elligence was one o he easons
Ca e ook he job a Tandem, and he immedia e in e pe sonal, a ec i e bond
be ween Lea and Ca e de ined hei wo king ela ionship om ha poin on.
When, in 2019, Ca e looked back on he ini ial imp essions o Lea , she s essed
how much she alued Lea ’s pe sonali y. “I ne e me anybody like No man,” she
said. “I’ e ne e me anyone like No man since. Jus he mos amazing man. A
gen le, ca ing man.”103
Ca e had aced conside able sexism and pay inequi ies in he job as a esea ch
physicis , and he p ospec o app op ia e compensa ion and espec o he labo
was ano he key ac o ha led he o accep Lea ’s job o e . The posi ion g an ed
he se e al ad an ages o e he p e ious job. The i s was “ he kind o decision-
making powe and espec she had been denied in he scien i ic wo k.”104 The sex-
ism o he scien i ic communi y mean ha Ca e was unlikely o ad ance in he
ca ee he e. “I el disc imina ion e e y ime I u ned a ound,” Ca e ecalled.
She did no ge paid as much as he male colleagues did, and al hough she ollowed
he same pa hs hey used o ge p omo ed, his “had no impac on [he ] posi ion
in he company wha soe e .”105 In compa ison, Lea acknowledged he wo h o
Ca e ’s labo and expe ise in inancial e ms. When Lea o e ed he a job, Ca e
eques ed a ound $25,000, which signi ican ly su passed he $18,000 she ea ned
a he Ae ospace Co po a ion. Un azed, Lea g an ed he eques immedia ely.
The economic bene i s a Tandem con inued o Ca e a e ini ial sala y
nego ia ions. A e she had been wo king a he company o only a ew mon hs,
Ca e ecei ed he i s end-o - he-yea bonus. Unlike he p e ious employe ,
which ga e employees a u key, Tandem ga e Ca e a $5,000 bonus. The unusual
compensa ion and con inued pay aises Ca e ea ned a Tandem signaled he
company’s espec o he abili ies and demons a ed hei commi men o mini-
mizing sexis pay di e en ials. Ca e ’s inancial secu i y had he added bene i o
allowing he eedom and au onomy a wo k. Once she had acc ued enough sa -
ings and el secu e enough in he posi ion, Ca e ealized, “I didn’ ha e o wo y
abou wha I said,” and ac ed acco dingly.106
Wha Ca e had o say was deeply in o med by he eminis ac i ism, which
was wha had a ac ed Lea o he in he i s place. Wi h no p e ious expe ience
in he ele ision indus y, he o me p esiden o he Los Angeles chap e o NOW
and high-p o ile ERA ad oca e explained he uno hodox skills as a wo ke in his
way: “I unde s ood ha he only eason possible o explain my p esence in ele i-
sion was my expe ise in Women’s Libe a ion. I knew I could be e y p oduc i e
wi h his ocus, supplying his de iciency.” Ca e ’s ac i ism p o ed a p agma ic
asse as much as an ideological one. He wo k wi hin he women’s mo emen len
he ansla able skills o he new job. Ca e el ha “ he way hings wo k in show
business is exac ly he way hey wo k i you a e he p esiden o a local chap e o
he Na ional O ganiza ion o Women and you’ e ying o un he Boa d. The
106 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
inancial s akes a e jus a whole lo highe . Being p esiden o NOW, I lea ned a
whole lo o s u , especially abou g oup dynamics.”107
Famed o ep esen ing opics p e iously conside ed aboo in he indus y,
Tandem a ac ed conside able a en ion om poli ical g oups. Ra he han ski
con o e sial opics o a oid p o es , Tandem used “clashes” wi h g oups o e lec
mo e “ ealis ic” conce ns in hei p og amming.108 Desc ibed as he pe son Lea
hi ed o do “no hing bu nego ia e wi h he p essu e g oups,” Ca e unde s ood
inpu om ac i is s as ad an ageous o he p oduc ion p ocess: “We do be -
e s o y lines when we hea wha people a e ca ing abou .”109 Tandem p o ided
“ad ance sc eenings o his mo e sensi i e episodes” o ac i is s, whose eedback
was “discussed in consciousness- aising sessions among he show’s w i e s.”110
Ca e ’s abili ies o b idge he needs o he public and he demands o p oduc-
ion e lec ed well on Tandem and esul ed in p aise om ac i is s who sough
o e o m ele ision. Fo example, unhappy wi h depic ions o a same-sex couple
on Ho L Bal imo e (ABC, 1975), he Na ional Gay Task Fo ce me wi h Ca e .
The Task Fo ce commended he esul ing adjus men s, which made he couple
“mo e lo ing and less gi en o ole-playing,” some hing hey a ibu ed o Ca e ’s
decision-making au ho i y a Tandem.111
I is impo an o no e ha no e e y g oup was equally pleased, pa icu-
la ly when i came o ma e s o ace. The Cong ess o Racial Equali y (CORE)
p o es ed The Je e sons and Good Times o “s e eo yping black ma ia chs and
emascula ing hei husbands.”112 Lea esponded by p oducing h ee shows w i -
en by CORE-app o ed w i e s. E en wi h his concession, ce ain membe s o
he g oup emained c i ical: “Gene Ga in, he chai man o CORE’s Los Angeles
chap e , s ill calls Lea ‘ he a he o okenism,’ ” and CORE’s wes e n egional
di ec o , Cha les Cook, desc ibed Lea ’s comedic app oach as “some whi e pe -
son’s idea o how black people li e.”113 When Ga in ankly called ou Lea as
being dishones —saying ha he had “lied”—when making an ea lie p omise
in No embe 1977 o hi e mo e Black p oduc ion wo ke s, Ca e managed
he con lic in he p ess.114 She cha ac e ized a second, Janua y 1978 mee ing
be ween CORE and Lea as “a able” and an icipa ed ha she and Lea and “o h-
e s in he company will a emp o con inue a dialog wi h hese in e es ing and
passiona e people.”115
Ca e ’s job included educa ing Lea on issues he did no ye unde s and and
people he did no ye know. Using i s hand encoun e s and in e iews, Ca e
ga he ed in o ma ion om membe s o ma ginalized g oups and c ea ed epo s
o Lea o ead o b ough people o Lea ’s o ice so he could mee and alk wi h
hem himsel . When he planned o s o ylines in All Tha Gli e s, he asked Ca e
o assemble membe s o he LGBTQ communi ies in he a ea. Ca e b ough gay
men, lesbians, and a ans man o Lea ’s o ice, which esul ed in a mee ing whe e
Lea knowingly me a ansgende pe son o he i s ime in his li e. In expos-
ing Lea o expe iences and pe spec i es o people he migh no o he wise easily
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 107
come in o con ac wi h, Ca e helped expand p og am con en o include sexual
mino i ies, p esumably—bu a guably no always success ully— om an in o med
pe spec i e. Cha ac e s and s o ylines, which Lea would ha e had o app o e,
g ew om s and-alone episodes abou gay men (All in he Family’s “Judging Books
by Co e s,” ai ed on Feb ua y 9, 1971) o ecu ing gay cha ac e s (Go dan and
Geo ge, a couple on Ho L Bal imo e) and he i s ecu ing ansgende cha ac e
on ele ision (Linda Mu kland on All Tha Gli e s). Pe sonal in e ac ions we e
c i ical in Lea ’s g owing poli ical awa eness. He e, oo, Ca e played an impo -
an ole. As an ou lesbian, Ca e was able o “no sca e” he in e iew subjec s
and ac ed as an e ec i e condui be ween Lea and LGBTQ communi ies. Lea
was “com o able” wi h Ca e ’s ela ionship wi h he pa ne , which helped pa e
he way o hei discussions abou sexuali y. Ca e emembe s his pa o he
job as “easy and un” because o he espec Lea showed he and he expe ien ial
au ho i y and he ways ha , in u n, ha expe ien ial au ho i y played a cen al
ole in he job.116
When Ho L Bal imo e ea u ed wo gay men as cha ac e s, Ca e sc eened
he con en o wen y- i e “majo ep esen a i es o he gay communi ies” in Los
Angeles and six y- i e in New Yo k Ci y, including p ess. In spi e o he “hea ed,”
“in ense,” and “leng hy” discussion ha ensued, Ca e epo ed o he se ies’ w i -
e s and o Lea ha “i all came o a clea consensus ha he show is a majo s ep
owa d imp o ing he image o gays on ele ision” and ha she had been “asked
o say hank you o you. ... Fo you in o ma ion, you a e app ecia ed.” Ca -
e ’s unde s anding o how gay ela ionships should be depic ed on ele ision was
based on he ea lie in e en ions on Ma y Ha man. She conduc ed esea ch and
p oposed how he show’s w i e s should conside hei ea men o wo men who
had mo ed o own, we e close ed, bu we e con empla ing coming ou and ge ing
ma ied. He memo ou lined h ee signi ican conce ns: a s e eo ypical “dominan
s. passi e” dynamic be ween men in a ela ionship; a emp s o explain why a
cha ac e would be gay, as “ he e is no eal e idence abou wha made ‘gayness’ ”;
and he absence o physical con ac be ween he couple, when “e e yone else
ouched e e yone else.”117
Al hough a conside able pa o he job, Ca e ’s wo k exceeded mee ings wi h
ac i is g oups. She “had in ol emen in essen ially all o he shows” a Tandem.
She illed in o Lea when he “had an issue ha he wan ed o con on , and he
couldn’ ” because o he demands o mul iple shows; she sa in on mee ings and
deal wi h ne wo k censo s. In addi ion o hese bu eauc a ic asks, Ca e also
ound he sel ope a ing in he c ea i e side o he company. A imes, she pi ched
p omising s o y ideas a e hey had been ini ially u ned down by Lea . When
w i e s came in o Ca e ’s o ice a e Lea had ejec ed one o hei s o ies o
exp ess hei disappoin men , Ca e would some imes ecognize he quali y o
he s o y and would acili a e i s app o al. “Once o wice, I would lis en and hink
i was a hell o a good idea. And I’d wai o hem o go,” Ca e emembe s. “And

108 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
hen I’d go in o No man’s o ice and say, I don’ ge his, why didn’ you buy his?
And hen I’d gi e him a pi ch bu use my wo ds, no hei s. And he nex hing you
know, my o ice would be illed wi h lowe s” om he g a e ul w i e .118
Ca e no only ac ed in e nally wi hin Tandem o ge s o ies o ai bu also
wo ked wi h he ne wo ks o o e come hei esis ance o con o e sial s o ies.
She emembe s “Maude’s Dilemma,” a wo-pa episode o Maude in which Maude
ge s an abo ion, as he con en ha c ea ed he mos objec ions om P og am
P ac ices, he ne wo ks’ in-house censo s. To o e come hese objec ions, Ca e
cons uc ed p agma ic a gumen s abou he eali ies o abo ion and he econom-
ics ha made Lea ’s desi es wo h heeding. Ca e desc ibes he mee ings wi h
CBS abou he episode as ollows:
My mission was o ell he u h. Abo ions a e aking place all o e he coun y. I
go s a is ics on ha , as well as I could. And hen I would go o he ne wo k, and say
o P og am P ac ices, “No man has asked me o come.” I had o use No man’s name,
because hey’ e making a eaking o une o his shows. They ha e o pay a en ion
o wha he wan s. And he wan s o do his because i ’s pa o his policy o do hings
ha a e eal in socie y.119
Ca e ’s e o s paid o . CBS ai ed he episode in No embe 1972 and eb oad-
cas i on Augus 17, 1973. Me ely pe suading he ne wo k o ai he p og am was
eason enough o celeb a e, bu he eal eminis impac o “Maude’s Dilemma”
made Ca e ’s ic o y pa icula ly signi ican . W i en du ing Sup eme Cou
delibe a ions on he Roe . Wade uling, he episodes we e in en ionally c a ed
o pe suade audiences o suppo legalized abo ion. The coau ho s o he epi-
sodes, Susan Ha is and I ma Kalish, u ned o newspape a icles abou women’s
abo ions o g ound he s o y in he eal-wo ld conce ns o ep oduc i e igh s.120
The goal o w i ing such ma e ial was, in Ha is’s pe spec i e, o “ha e a poin
o iew” and o use ele ision “ o aise audience consciousness.”121 Acco ding
o Ka h yn Mon gome y, “Maude’s Dilemma” played a i al ole in making he
1972–73 ele ision season a “c i ical es yea o de e mining jus how a en e -
ainmen ele ision could en u e in o con o e sial e i o y.”122
Ca e main ained he poli ical in es men s h oughou he ca ee a Tandem
and was named En e ainmen Woman o he Yea by he Ame ican Ci il Libe -
ies Union in 1975.123 She was o en ank in he assessmen o he indus y’s and
Tandem’s sho comings in employmen p ac ices and awa eness o ma ginalized
g oups. When he An i-De ama ion League (ADL) c i icized an episode o Ma y
Ha man o being “libelous o Jews and ques ionable in as e,” Ca e a anged
o sc eenings o he objec ionable episode and a ace- o- ace mee ing wi h he
o ganiza ion.124 Ca e ep esen ed he ac ions in he p ess as an ea nes desi e o
engage and unde s and he poli ical s akes ha d o e he p o es and o inco po a e
hese conce ns in o he company’s e hos and educa ion. Wi h his mo i a ion, she
s o e o c ea e immedia e and in ima e connec ions wi h poli ical ac i is s.125 In
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 109
esponse o he ADL, Ca e o ewen “ hi d pa y” in e en ions and a angemen s
because, as she explained i , “We wan ed o hea i in pe son. We do be e shows
when we’ e sma e .”126
A a 1976 Na ional Associa ion o B oadcas e s (NAB) con e ence panel
conce ning ace and ele ision, Ca e ’s alk was he one ha “a ac ed mos o
he in e es .”127 When challenged as o Tandem’s lack o equi able employmen
p ac ices o Black wo ke s, Ca e did li le o e u e he claim o o de end he
a ionale behind such p ac ices. She admi ed ha he ele ision indus y was one
ha had “p ac iced de ac o seg ega ion o a numbe o yea s.”128 When asked
i she hough he indus y was imp o ing, Ca e esponded, “When I’m no in
o al despai he answe is di e en han when I’m i ed. I ’s a sub le blend o yes
and no.”129 Ca e ’s o h igh app aisal o ele ision’s impe ec poli ical e olu ion
did no ha m he ca ee a Tandem. Less han a yea a e he commen s a he
NAB con e ence, Ca e was p omo ed om ice p esiden o public a ai s o ice
p esiden o c ea i e a ai s a Tandem.130 He p omo ion, which came on he heels
o he c i ical and public assessmen a he con e ence, suppo s he no ion ha
Lea genuinely alued Ca e ’s poli ical iews and c i ical awa eness and saw hem
as quali ies ha en iched his company.
ALL THAT GLITTERS AS MARY HARTMAN, REDUX
Ma y Ha man pa ed he way o g ea e expe imen a ion a Tandem and o e ed
women who wo ked he e g ea e oppo uni ies and isibili y. All Tha Gli e s,
he nex show Tandem p oduced a e Ma y Ha man, ep esen ed a wo ld whe e
gende oles we e in e ed: women we e he execu i es a mul ina ional co po a-
ions and men we e hei sec e a ies; women we e wage ea ne s and men we e
househusbands; and women we e con iden , d i en, and unemo ional, while men
we e sexualized, aken o g an ed, and un ul illed. In he ini ial planning mee ing
o he p og am, Lea desc ibed i as a “kind o Execu i e Sui e, excep e e y hing
is u ned 180-deg ees a ound in e ms o male- emale, men and women, male-
emale ela ionships.”131 Lea based he o iginal ske ch o he women cha ac e s
on men who wo ked in he ele ision indus y: “The e’s a cool and calcula ing,
u e ly b illian Lew Wasse man- ype, and he jokey, o a ian Bob Wood- ype,
and sua e, smoo h- alking ( hese a e all women) lo ha io kind o G an Tinke -
ype.”132 The sa i ical soap ope a s yle and p og amming s a egies o he show
p omised, much like Ma y Ha man, o dis up adi ions o “app op ia e” con en
and p og amming schedules. A Va ie y headline, “F on loaded wi h Sexual Ti e s,
‘Gli e s’ Could Bo he Ca son,”? emphasizes bo h he indus ial and ideological
implica ions o such dis up ions.133 Addi ionally, he show helped women solidi y
o ele a e hei s a us a Tandem. F om p oducing Ma y Ha man, Vi a Knigh
mo ed o he p oduce ole on All Tha Gli e s, and S ephanie Sills was named
execu i e p oduce .134 Vi ginia Ca e , whose “special in e es and esponsibili ies”
110 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
included Gli e s, ounded ou Lea ’s “ op h ee lieu enan s” o he p og am.135
Ann Ma cus w o e i s ini ial sc ip s.
The success o Ma y Ha man and he ways Lea sold i in o med Tandem’s
app oach o ma ke ing Gli e s. A ull-page ad in Va ie y signaled Tandem’s inde-
pendence as a p oduc ion company wi h “exclusi e dis ibu ion” o he p og am.136
Acco ding o his p omo ion, “No man Lea and 40 s a ions made ele ision his-
o y” wi h he p emie e o All Tha Gli e s. Sold o s a ions a “big p ices,” All Tha
Gli e s bene i ed om he “success o Lea ’s ‘Ma y Ha man, Ma y Ha man’ ” and
ampli ied i s o mula o bypassing ne wo ks.137 On he heels o Ma y Ha man,
Lea ’s success was so g ea ha he did no e en shoo a pilo , which o ced ele i-
sion s a ions o buy Gli e s “sigh unseen,” as many, pa icula ly in op ma ke s,
did.138 The epo ed asking p ice o he show was $35,000 a week o i e shows a
week, a deal ha was compa able o he asking p ice o he hen-es ablished hi
Ma y Ha man, which cos $38,000 a week a ha ime.139 The no el, con o e sial
con en o bo h Gli e s and Ma y Ha man c ea ed unp eceden ed compe i ion
o la e-nigh ele ision. Because o amily- iendly iewing hou s, many s a ions
ca ied Ma y Ha man a 11:00 p.m. o a oid iewe complain s.140 This placed
Ma y Ha man agains he la e-nigh news. When hese same s a ions picked up
Gli e s, hey equen ly scheduled i di ec ly ollowing Ma y Ha man, which hen
pu i in compe i ion wi h The Tonigh Show, which h ea ened o c ea e “a lo o
ouble o Ca son.”141
Gli e s p omised o build on he success o Ma y Ha man and cemen he
challenges i posed o he s aid adi ions o he ne wo ks. Con en ional wisdom
sugges ed ha he show would h i e. The p og am egis e ed wi h ele ision insid-
e s and enjoyed a “ as s a ” in a ings in compe i i e ma ke s.142 A e an annual
mee ing o he Na ional Associa ion o Tele ision P og am Execu i es (NATPE), a
“ i e-day sales bazaa conduc ed by 192 dis ibu o s,” All Tha Gli e s was among
he 113 new syndica ed shows ha “su i ed” his “ i s acid es .”143 Mo e han
me ely su i ing, i anked as one o he wen y-one shows in his pool ha we e
“pa icula ly a along in e ms o s a ion and/o sponso in e es .”144 Ini ial e iews
we e posi i e, wi h p edic ions ha he show would “come on s ong” and “could
become mo e con o e sial han ‘MH2.’ ”145 Ano he ea ly e iew desc ibed Gli e s
as “ a ings gold,” wi h a a ge audience o “en husias ic ans” composed o “young
ma ied women who liked he dominan women/in e io men heme.”146 E en in
i s la gely nega i e assessmen , Time g an ed ha he show was Lea ’s a emp o
“ ake on his bigges subjec : sexual habi s and s e eo ypes.”147
Al hough all signs poin ed o he show’s po en ial, Gli e s was canceled a e only
hi een weeks on he ai . While Lea ’s shows had deal wi h issues o sexuali y and
gende be o e, Gli e s was he i s o place hem a he show’s cen e and o use gen-
de ole e e sal o do so, which likely had much o do wi h i s demise. The show’s
basic p emise in ol es emale execu i es who un a success ul global co po a ion
and men who wo k as sec e a ies and se e as women’s sexual play hings. Men a e
Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 111
sexualized, men a e cuckolded, men si a home wo ying ha hei wi es no longe
ake an in e es in hem, and men gain weigh and wo y abou i . Vi ginia Ca e
emembe s ha he planning o he show, which was a “whole lo o un,” in ol ed
igu ing ou how o c ea e posi ions o powe o women: “I couldn’ be somebody
who played oo ball and go all ha money, bu i had o be some hing. We had o
wo k ou wha hese women would be in o de o ha e he powe posi ions. And
hey would pinch hei male sec e a ies’ bu s and hings like ha .” Lea ecei ed
ha e mail w i en abou Gli e s, some hing Ca e a ibu es o he show’s “ ole
e e sal.” “I was jus so ascina ing o see how he public eac ed o ha ,” said Ca e .
“We couldn’ keep i on he ai because i was so unpopula .”148
“Macho male ypes will be up agains he wall,” p edic ed Va ie y in i s e iew
o Gli e s. Rega ded as “ he oo ball wi e’s e enge,” he show’s e o s o appeal
o a “young emale demog aphic” and “la ge homosexual ollowing ia he male
sec e a ies” did li le o appeal o he e ono ma i e male iewe s.149 The New Yo k
p e iew bo e ou his p edic ion. O he male c i ics p esen , all bu one le a e
he i s wo episodes and none was p esen a e he hi d episode, lea ing only
women in he audience. A i s Washing on, D.C., gala p emie e held a he Ken-
nedy Cen e , he show was p esen ed o he audience o “gli e y people,” whe e
“i became appa en ha 90 pe cen o he laugh e came om women.”150 In spi e
o his a gumen ha he gende poli ics o he show had no hing o do wi h i s
cancella ion, Time ele ision c i ic Ge ald Cla ke spen a signi ican amoun o his
column de ailing “ he wea ying jokes” ha elied upon gende ole e e sals and
he sexualiza ion o men in he wo kplace. “The Globa on sec e a ies a e sleek
young men,” w o e Cla ke, “and hei emale bosses can’ ake hei eyes away om
he male de iè e, packed in o igh pan s, as i passes ou he doo .”151
The show’s o e sexual humo and he no el y o ep esen ing objec i ied men
on ele ision domina ed e iews o Gli e s and o e shadowed he meaning ul
gende insigh s he show o e ed audiences. A he Washing on, D.C., p emie e o
he show, a male audience membe ema ked, “I was auma ized” and desc ibed
how “uncom o able” he was, o which Lea eplied, “Tha ’s e i ic.”152 The same
“ auma ized” male iewe also demons a ed signs o con e sion om un hink-
ing pa ia chal p i ilege, a hoped- o by-p oduc o he show. He asked his emale
companion, “Is ha he way we eally a e?,” and she esponded, “Absolu ely.”153
W i e No a Eph on a ended he sc eening and was “knocked ou ” a he way ha
women claimed powe o hemsel es and dis ega ded o he s i hey impeded hei
s i ing o success, pa icula ly in hei abili ies o “click o ” men in he middle
o hei con e sa ion.154 While he show was by no means uni e sally ecei ed by
eminis s as an unequi ocal good, i did wa an some se ious conside a ion as an
e ec i e ool o eminis ends. As Lee No ick, ice-chai o he Na ional Women’s
Poli ical Caucus, no ed, he show, hough oubling in i s po ayal o women ep-
lica ing masculinis beha io s once hey ob ained powe , also held po en ial as a
“consciousness- aising ehicle o men.”155
118 Wo king in he Lea Fac o y
on pilo s o All in he Family and San o d and Son. In his 2014 au obiog aphy,
Lea desc ibes Rees as he “ i s o a se ies o women who p o ided he glue ha
held hings oge he in he mos hec ic o imes and si ua ions.” In he acknowl-
edgemen s o he book, Lea asse s, “I’ e ne e wo ked on a p oduc ion whe e
women we en’ ‘ he glue ha held hings oge he ’ ” and names mul iple women
who wo ked in c ea i e and execu i e oles.181
While Tandem seemed like a ha en o women o exp ess hei alen s and
hei eminis poli ics and Lea a champion o women ele ision wo ke s, he
company’s in es men s in p og essi e gende poli ics we e complica ed. No a-
bly, Tandem did no employ women consis en ly ac oss i s p oduc ions. In he
his o y o he Sc eenw i e s Guild, Mi anda Banks complica es he claims o
he in e iew subjec s abou hei p og essi e gende poli ics, Lea included,
wi h s a is ical da a and analysis. Acco ding o he WGA’s “Women’s Commi -
ee S a is ics Repo ” o No embe 7, 1974, o “ eleplays” w i en by women ha
yea , Tandem employed women o 4 ou o 69 episodes o All in he Family,
Fox’s M*A*S*H employed women o w i e 1 ou o 38 episodes, and CBS/F ee-
man employed women o .5 (hal o a w i ing eam) o 133 episodes o Hawaii
5–0.182 MTM made he s onges showing, employing women o w i e 50 pe cen
o i s Ma y Tyle Moo e Show episodes (25 ou o 50).183 These s a is ics e lec he
eali ies o unde employmen o women w i e s and indica e ha women, when
employed, we e mo e likely o w i e o p og ams ha ea u ed women and/o
eminis sen imen cen ally. Fo ins ance, women a Tandem w o e 11 ou o
37 episodes o Maude bu 0 ou o 49 o San o d and Son.184 While w i ing
a o ded women some in oads in o ele ision, depending on subjec ma e ial,
o he jobs emained ou o each. E en a companies like Tandem whe e p o-
g amming b ough women in o he w i e s’ oom and Lea c edi ed women as
he “glue” ha held a p oduc ion oge he , a woman employed on a Tandem show,
acco ding o Banks, ypically “was no leading i on se o in pos -p oduc ion.”185
As o ele ision’s execu i e anks, by he ea ly 1980s he si ua ion o women
showed some p omising changes. In 1981, Va ie y published “Women A e on he
Rise in Tele ision’s Execu i e Sui es,” which included i s own su ey indings ha
women occupied “ espec able s a us in he execu i e and p oduc ion anks in .”
Tandem was one o he companies Va ie y named o suppo i s claim, since, a
he ime o he su ey, he women wo king a Tandem included Vi ginia Ca e
( ice p esiden o c ea i e a ai s), Kelly Smi h ( ice p esiden o business a ai s),
Pam Fond (assis an easu e and di ec o o ax), Fe n Field (di ec o o de el-
opmen and p oduce ), F ances McConnell (di ec o o public a ai s), Molly
DeHe e (di ec o o business a ai s), and Ba ba a B aglia i ( ice p esiden o
media a ai s).186 The placemen o women in he business side o Tandem sug-
ges s ha he b oade company wo kplace, a he han only i s p oduc ion anks,
a o ded a means by which he company add essed employmen dispa i ies and
u ilized women’s skills o o wa d hei own business in e es s. As he case o

Wo king in he Lea Fac o y 119
women wo king a ne wo k headqua e s discussed in chap e 1 demons a es, as
imp essi e as execu i e job i les a e, he condi ions o hose jobs and he day- o-
day unc ioning o he wo kplace wa an examina ion o unde s and mo e ully
wha women’s gains in ele ision mean .
To claim ha Tandem a ec ed wide-sweeping changes o women wo king in
ele ision o ha , by he ea ly 1980s, eminism had con e ed he en i e ele ision
indus y o enligh ened, equi able employmen and p oduc ion p ac ices would
be an o e s a emen . Fo many women, he eali ies o wo king in he ele ision
indus y in he 1980s and beyond mean con inued inequali y in pay, occupa ional
s a us, and employmen . Wo king a Tandem, howe e , did p o ide he women
who wo ked he e oppo uni ies o eminis exp ession and o placemen in i s
anks, e en i hey did no ha e con en ional c eden ialing. Thei p e ious employ-
men as sec e a ies, w i e s o soap ope as, and wo ke s in un ela ed indus ies
p o ed less o a ba ie and mo e o an asse o Tandem, as did hei eminis pe -
spec i es. Mo e expansi ely, he s a e o women’s employmen in ele ision du ing
he 1970s, as illus a ed by he esponses o he FCC and AWRT and add essed
a Tandem, mo ed mul iple o ganiza ions and igu es in he indus y close o
eminis awa eness and ac ion. Va ie y’s hope ul headline o 1981 sugges s he no -
inconsequen ial ou comes o hese ac ions.
120
4
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
Expe imen s in Public and Regional Tele ision
o Women
When WBZ-TV, a local ele ision s a ion in Bos on, p oduced and ai ed Yes, We
Can on Janua y 18, 1974, i p o ed an unp eceden ed ele isual e en . The p og am
was dedica ed o conce ns o a ea women; was concep ualized and p oduced by
women; and ea u ed an all-woman cas o in e iewe s, in e iewees, and alen .
P eceded he p e ious nigh by a one-hou p ime- ime special, he Yes, We Can
En e ainmen Special, which showcased celeb i y pe o mances, Yes, We Can an
o a o al o six een hou s on a single day. Excep o WBZ’s Eyewi ness News, he
s a ion ai ed no o he p og amming ha day. The p og am hyb idized li e pe o -
mance wi h homemaking ad ice and domes ic issues and in used i wi h eminis
deba e and go e nmen hea ings on ins i u ionalized sexism.1
Yes, We Can was an expe imen mean o add ess he undamen al sho comings
o ele ision o women. Fi s and mos ob iously, he shee numbe o b oadcas
hou s gi en o e o Yes, We Can challenged adi ional p og amming schedules, in
which con en ha explici ly add essed women iewe s was es ic ed o unde al-
ued day ime ime slo s. Second, p oduce s eimagined issues o in e es o women
beyond domes ic labo s and associa ed consume is p ac ices. Thi d, women played
key oles in p oduc ion as show hos s, in e iewe s, and pa icipan s. Fou h, he
p oduc ion d ew oge he mul iple and unlikely collabo a o s in s a e go e nmen ,
comme cial ele ision, ci ic ins i u ions, businesses, and communi y g oups o sup-
po , plan, and execu e he p og am. Finally, he show expanded gene ic con en-
ions o day ime ele ision o women, which in i s incep ion in he 1950s included
“homemaking shows, shopping shows . . . and popula p og ams he b oadcas
indus y b oadly ca ego ized as ‘audience pa icipa ion shows.’ ”2
While Yes, We Can was a one-o -a-kind ele ision e en , i sha ed common
g ound wi h o he eminis -o ien ed p og ams designed o women in he 1970s.
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 121
These p og ams challenged p e ailing unde s andings o ele ision o women
by econcep ualizing audience, p oduc ion con en ions, scheduling, o ma , and
con en . They ea u ed women in on he came a as hos s, in e iewees, alen ,
and expe gues s while behind he came a women wo ked in signi ican num-
be s as p oduce s, w i e s, esea che s, edi o s, and came a ope a o s. In He Own
Righ (WGBH, 1970), E e ywoman (WTOP, 1972–78), and Woman Ali e! (KERA,
1974; WNET, 1975–77) ai ed in p ime- ime hou s and en isioned women’s iewe -
ship ou side day ime schedules.3 Women we e ega ded as ac i e pa icipan s by
In He Own Righ (WGBH, 1970) and Woman ‘75 (WBZ, 1975), which solici ed and
in eg a ed inpu om a -home iewe s. Excep o a “sp inkling o men” in he p o-
duc ion anks, Fo Women Today (WBZ, 1970–72), E e ywoman, Woman Ali e!,
and Tomo ow’s Woman (unai ed pilo , 1972) employed women in he majo i y o
he p og ams’ p oduc ion eam as p oduce s, con ibu ing edi o s, and di ec o s.4
As his sampling o p og ams sugges s, egional and public ele ision p oduc-
ions led he way in e ising women’s ele ision du ing he 1970s. In 1972, B oad-
cas ing no ed ha he “se ious sis e s” o women’s ele ision ha we e eme ging
ea ly in he decade we e “done locally o syndica ed.”5 Wi hou ne wo k ele ision’s
inhibi ing comme cial impe a i es and cul u al adi ions, local, syndica ed, and
public ele ision enjoyed ela i e eedom o inno a e. Woman Ali e! p oduce
Joan Shigekawa cla i ied he impo ance o al e na i es o comme cial ele ision
and he appeals o public ele ision o eminis wo ke s. She no ed ha al hough
many o he women who wo ked on Woman Ali e! had ca ee s in comme cial ele-
ision, hey made a “ inancial sac i ice” o wo k o public ele ision.6 They we e
mo i a ed o con ey s o ies o “joy ul changes” women ac oss he coun y
we e c ea ing ha we e no o in e es o comme cial ele ision, e en as ad e is-
e s spen millions o dolla s “ ying o each hese women.”7 Comme cial ele i-
sion’s neglec and misunde s anding o women—bo h as wo ke s who wan ed o
c ea e di e en ypes o ele ision o women and as iewe s who would une in o
such ele ision—we e, o Shigekawa, “ hei loss, and public ele ision’s gain.”8
As Shigekawa and o he s like he mig a ed om comme cial ele ision, hey
b ough wi h hem inno a i e ideas and a hope ha ele ision could be e mee he
needs o women iewe s. Thei ision o egional and public p og ams, e inced
by his chap e ’s explo a ion o In He Own Righ , Woman Ali e!, and Yes, We Can,
o e ed c ea i e and a ied solu ions o he p oblems o women’s ele ision. All
h ee p og ams, acco ding o hei espec i e p oduc ion s a egies, add essed
long-s anding, sexis ideas abou ele ision o women by ede ining gen e o -
mulas, iewe s’ needs and in e es s, and he ole o women behind and in on
o he came a. The in e en ions o hese “se ious sis e s” p omp ed an unp ec-
eden ed pe iod o g ow h and c ea i i y in wha Rachel Moseley, Helen Whea ley,
and Helen Wood desc ibe as “ ele ision o women.”9 In hei schola ship on he
ma e , Moseley, Whea ley, and Wood call o an expansion o he amewo k o
“women’s ele ision” and analysis beyond gen es assumed o be aimed a women.
122 Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
The esul ing, mo e expansi e scope o ele ision o women, e sus women’s ele-
ision, c ea es a new canon o eminis analysis.
Rep esen a i e o ele ision’s ed ess o he ailings o women’s ele ision, he
p oduc ions included in his chap e —In He Own Righ , Woman Ali e!, and Yes,
We Can—expand he bounda ies o women’s ele ision and engage he conce ns
o “ ele ision o women” iden i ied by Moseley, Whea ley, and Wood. Al hough
hey add ess women iewe s, hese p og ams all ou side ypical gen es, such as
soap ope as, game shows, and homemaking shows, ha ha e se ed as he oci
o ounda ional eminis schola ship on women’s ele ision.10 They also eo ien
analysis om “ isible emphasis upon ic ional p og amming o e ac ual p o-
g amming” in eminis ele ision s udies o in o ma ional, educa ional, and news
p og amming.11 Addi ionally, hese p oduc ions o eg ound and alue “ eminine
compe encies” in bo h p oduc ion and ecep ion ha depa om es ic i e con-
en ions and comme cialized adi ions. Finally, and pe haps mos adically, hese
p og ams employ eminis p oduc ion s a egies o c ea e p og essi e con en and
o add ess bo h a owed eminis s and iewe s who we e cu ious abou eminism.
This las poin o e s a quali ica ion o he “ ele ision o women” pa adigm.
Ra he han hinking only o “ ele ision abou o by women,” Moseley, Whea -
ley, and Wood a gue ha women ha e had in es men s and ound pleasu e in
ex s ha we e no made by and we e no abou women. This a gumen b oadens
and complica es wha ex s should coun as app op ia e objec s o s udy o emi-
nis analyses o women and ele ision. Ye as use ul a co ec i e as he “by o o
women” pa adigm is, i also po en ially sidelines p og amming o alue o women
ha ea u es ele ision p oduc ions by and o women.
To conside how p og ams like In He Own Righ , Woman Ali e!, and Yes, We
Can deepen and di e si y he s udy o women’s ele ision as ele ision o women,
his chap e pu pose ully engages “slippage” be ween p oduc ion, con en , and
audience, wi h women engaged in all h ee domains.12 I does so no ou o heo-
e ical ca elessness o s ic canonical ules, agains which Moseley, Whea ley, and
Wood igh ully cau ion, bu a he because hese p og ams imagine he women’s
oles as on-sc een au ho i ies, a -home iewe s, and behind- he-scenes wo ke s as
bo h cen al o he p oduc ion and in e dependen wi hin p oduc ion s a egies.
To explo e he po en ials o ele ision o women in an age o US women’s libe a-
ion, his chap e u ns o sho -li ed, modes ly unded, and egional ele ision
p og ams ha in ol ed women as subjec s, audiences, and p oduce s di e en ly
and wi h p og essi e poli ical in en ions.
REDEFINING TELEVISION FOR WOMEN IN THE 1970S
Tele ision ha a ge s women has long been he objec o cul u al dis ega d
and disdain, ye women iewe s igu ed cen ally in p o i abili y o he ele i-
sion indus y om i s beginnings. As ea ly as 1948, Va ie y epo ed ha day ime
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 123
ele ision o e ed ne wo ks “ hei i s oppo uni y o b eak e en.”13 In he wo k
on women iewe s and day ime p og amming o he 1950s, Ma sha F. Cassidy
inds ha , in spi e o he “cu ious asso men o p og ams calcula ed o a ac
he emale spec a o ,” “women spec a o s se ed as he indus y’s poles a ” du ing
ele ision’s ea ly yea s.14 Al hough ini ially unce ain abou how o bes appeal o
women, he indus y quickly cemen ed a basic o mula ha p i ileged comme -
cial iabili y and cos -e ec i eness o e quali y and inno a ion. In 1954, NBC’s
ice p esiden o TV sales epo ed ha ad e ise s we e inc easingly awa e o he
“economy and e iciency o day ime ele ision” and he “unequalled oppo uni y
o demons a e p oduc s o he housewi e wi hou ha ing o pay he p emium
a es o e ening ime.”15 By he beginning o he yea , op- a ed day ime p og am-
ming was con ined o soap ope as (Sea ch o Tomo ow [CBS, 1951–82; NBC,
1982–86] and Guiding Ligh [CBS, 1952–2009]) and game shows wi h male hos s
(S ike I Rich [CBS, 1951–58], The Big Pay-O [NBC, 1951–53; CBS, 1953–59], and
On You Accoun [NBC, 1953–54; CBS, 1955–56]), he eby u he es ablishing he
links be ween low-cos p og amming o women and e ec i e comme cialized
ou each, a ocus on domes ici y, and male-helmed p oduc ions.16
Since ele ision’s ea ly days, o mulas o women’s ele ision we e so en enched
ha subs an i e e o mula ions we e nea ly impossible, e en wi h e idence ha
women iewe s migh no desi e wha ele ision imagined hem o wan . This mean
ha , on he whole, women’s p og amming was mi ed in adi ions o men ac ing as
au ho i ies in eminized ele ision gen es in ended o women iewe s. Much as i
did in he 1950s, day ime p og amming o he 1970s assumed ha con iden ye non-
h ea ening male alen appealed o women. E en wi h he isibili y o he women’s
mo emen , comme cial ne wo k p og ams pe sis ed in ea u ing “cha m boys,” male
hos s who “communica ed a commanding bu amiable depo men on ai .”17 By 1972,
he day ime alk show Dinah’s Place (NBC, 1970–74) was he only ne wo k ele ision
p og am on ai o ea u e a woman, Dinah Sho e, as hos .18
Ne wo k ele ision’s d i e o p o i de ined a success ul p og am by comme -
cial appeals and na ionwide ou each, bo h o which he indus y de ined in sexis
e ms. Raysa Bonow, execu i e p oduce o WBZ’s day ime ele ision show Fo
Women Today, commen ed on his si ua ion in 1972. Acco ding o Bonow, he lack
o women wo king in ele ision was a esul o condi ions in comme cial ele i-
sion ha “indoc ina ed” iewe s “in o only seeing men in au ho i a i e oles” and
we e “de e mined by men who eally belie e ha women a e no a saleable i em.”19
This wan o “salabili y” mean ha , in spi e o hei desi abili y as a consume
ma ke and in spi e o he p o i abili y o women’s ele ision, women we e no
iable as a pa o he p oduc . Ins ead, he indus y’s s ubbo n commi men o he
idea ha women lacked “salabili y” limi ed women’s oles in p oduc ion and held
back gende -equi able hi ing.
Conce ns o salabili y ex ended o p og am con en . P o i abili y depended upon
a ings ha p oduced “leas objec ionable p og amming,” a s aple o Ame ican

124 Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
comme cial ele ision.20 By he s a o he 1970s, he indus y was awa e o he
need o speak o women in di e en ashion, bu i was eluc an o do so wi h
explici ly poli ical con en , les i aliena e iewe s. As Ba ba a Wal e s ound in
he expe ience hos ing syndica ed alk show No o Women Only (1971–76),
ank eminis exp ession could no happen on comme cial ele ision because o
assump ions ha i “ ‘would no d aw a na ional esponse’ ” and would he e o e
comp omise he o emos p io i y o mass audience cap u e.21
Al hough leas objec ionable p og amming impeded signi ican and as -ac ing
changes o he adi ions o ele ision o women, some p og essi e mo emen
s a ed o happen by he ea ly 1970s. Tele ision’s add ess o women was shi ing,
albei in cons ic ed daypa s and channels. A 1972 B oadcas ing epo no ed ha
despi e he con inued p ominence o “diape s-and- ecipes ypes o p og amming,”
day ime game shows, and soap ope as, ele ision o women was expanding o
include “se ious sis e s” in egional, syndica ed, and public ele ision. These inno-
a i e p og ams sidelined domes ic issues o childca e and cooking in a o o
“new p og am o ms” wi h “a g ea e ai o sophis ica ion and in ellec uali y han
hei p edecesso s.” B oadcas ing co ela ed hese imp o emen s in p og amming
o women o he ele ision indus y’s g owing awa eness o he “ ‘woman o he
70’s’ ” whose ou look was in luenced by eminis poli ics.22 While eminis in lu-
ence on ele ision had measu able e ec s on ele ision o women, hese e ec s
played ou p ima ily—and wi h ew excep ions—in local and public ele ision
a he han in comme cial ele ision.
While he limi a ions o ne wo k ele ision a e ob ious, i is impo an o no e
ha cha ac e izing public, local, and syndica ed ele ision p oduc ions as an
unp oblema ic eminis ha en is inaccu a e. The Co po a ion o Public B oad-
cas ing (CPB) launched an in e nal in es iga ion in 1975 and ound “pe asi e
unde ep esen a ion o women, bo h in employmen and in p og am con en .”23
Acco ding o he CPB epo , ewe han 30 pe cen o public ele ision jobs we e
illed by women; in child en’s p og ams, 69 pe cen o cha ac e s we e male; in
public a ai s, news, and panel p og ams, 85 pe cen o pa icipan s wi h speaking
oles we e men.24 Local p oduc ions ailed o deli e on hei p omise o ep esen -
ing communi y in e es s and ied o minimize he impac o ad ocacy g oups on
equal ai ime gi en o conce ns o women and mino i ies. Faced wi h h ea s o
FCC license enewals, s a ions o en sub e ed he sys em by mee ing demands
o imp o ed and wide - anging p og amming h ough low-cos p og amming.
Ins ead o ca ying ou a ho ough o e haul o p og amming p ac ices, s a ions
o en p o ided unde ep esen ed g oups only wi h “access o cheaply p oduced
public a ai s p og ams scheduled in he la e-nigh and ea ly-mo ning slo s.”25
E en p oduc ions helmed by women wi h eminis aims we e no immune om
he comme cialized and commodi ying in luence o ele ision, acco ding o some
eminis ac i is s. Yes, We Can, o example, was dis up ed by ep esen a i es om
hi y-eigh o ganiza ions who p o es ed WBZ’s cul i a ion o women’s libe a ion
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 125
“ o make a media- hing o comme cial uses” and i s inclusion o co po a ions a
he women’s ai .26
E en wi h he limi a ions o public and local ele ision, he e we e genuine
oppo uni ies o enligh ened change in bo h a enas. As he 1970s p og essed, pub-
lic ele ision demons a ed measu able imp o emen in employmen . An in e nal
in es iga ion ins i u ed in 1976 and cong essional ac ion in 1977 h ea ened cu s in
ede al unding o he Cen e o Public B oadcas ing i employmen o women and
mino i ies did no imp o e by 1980; his measu e esul ed in imp o ed hi ing p ac-
ices. In Janua y 1977, public ele ision epo ed a 10.1 pe cen gain in employmen
o women in public ele ision om he p e ious yea .27 As o local comme cial
ele ision, i made imp o emen s h oughou he 1970s wi h ega d o women ele i-
sion iewe s and wo ke s, “pa icula ly on local schedules.”28 A 1977 New Yo k Times
a icle, “P og amming o Women—Time o Ree alua ion,” no ed ha local p o-
g amming, in spi e o i s “ ela i ely low-keyed and un h ea ening” eno , was “o en
su p isingly success ul” in i s poli ically p og essi e a icula ion o women’s issues.29
Despi e i s ma ginaliza ion wi hin he la ge ele ision landscape and i s lack o
inancial suppo , he poli ically conscious, communi y-o ien ed local ele ision
ha eme ged in he la e 1960s and in o he 1970s ma e ed. I was bo h inno a i e
in i s p oduc ion and meaning ul in i s ecep ion. In Black Powe TV, De o ah
Hei ne a gues o he alue o local public a ai s p og ams such as New Yo k’s
Inside Bed o d-S uy esan (WNEW, 1968–71) and Bos on’s Say B o he (WGBH,
1968–97), which we e expe imen al local ele ision made by Black media wo ke s
o Black iewe s. Hei ne ’s mul i ace ed p oduc ion his o y in ol ing o al his-
o ies o p oduc ion s a , iewe eedback, e iews in indus y publica ions, and
go e nmen indings and policies demons a es ha hese p og ams “ ep esen ed
new cul u al p ac ices and legi imized ac i ism.”30 Viewe s ega ded he shows as a
“ ans o ma i e expe ience” and keenly el he impo ance o such p og amming
in a whi e-domina ed medium.31 Gayle Wald’s analysis o he public ele ision p o-
g am Soul! (WNDT, 1968–73) iden i ies he impac a modes ly unded p og am
could ha e on audiences. Wald a gues ha “despi e compe i ion om he h ee
majo ne wo ks and echnological challenges associa ed wi h public ele ision,
which ended o b oadcas on UHF channels inaccessible o all bu s a e-o - he-a
ele ision se s, [Ellis] Haizlip’s show a ac ed a subs an ial and loyal audience.”32
Wald’s ocused a en ion o Soul! e eals he signi icance o p oduc ion s a egies
and he ways p oduce s, c ea i e s a , and echnicians ans o med ele ision o
make s and consume s. As he p og am’s p oduce , Haizlip en isioned unique
con en and p oduc ion p inciples o b ing exp essions o Black Powe o ele-
ision ha “explici ly blu ed he bounda y be ween p oduce s and consume s,”
buil collec i i y h ough pe o mance, and “called on embodied memo ies o pas
pe o mances while an icipa ing new eelings and s a es o being.”33
Public and egional b oadcas ing o e ed unique possibili ies o in oduce a
eminis e hos o ele ision o women. As comp omised and sho -li ed as some
126 Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
o hese p og ams we e, each one discussed in his chap e exempli ies indispu -
ably sel -awa e expe imen s in ele ision o women. Tele ision’s “se ious sis e s”
sha ed common conce ns o e ising, acco ding o eminis ideals, con en , audi-
ence ou each, on-se labo p ac ices, and he composi ion o p oduc ion s a and
c ews. These shows we e designed o add ess women iewe s while co ec ing
ele ision’s consume is and—in eminis p oduce s’ minds—demeaning concep-
ualiza ions o hese iewe s. They ede ined who hei iewe s we e, wha hey
needed om ele ision, and how hey would in e ac and in luence on-sc een
con en . They employed majo i y o exclusi ely emale p oduc ion eams and, in
doing so, challenged he au ho i y and ma ke abili y o male-helmed ele ision.
Finally, hese p og ams made oom o mo e women a all le els o p oduc ion
and os e ed collabo a i e decision-making ha in ol ed all p oduc ion wo ke s.
IN HER OWN RIGHT: HOW TO MAKE A WOMAN’S SHOW
One o he i s eminis in e en ions in ele ision o women, In He Own
Righ , was p oduced by Ka ha ine Kinde man o Bos on public ele ision s a-
ion WGBH-TV. I an as a se ies in he summe o 1970 and se ed as a empla e
o he “se ious sis e s” ha ollowed, pa icula ly in i s public o ien a ion, poli -
ical-mindedness, and inclusion o women iewe s. The s a ion’s p og am o de
o In He Own Righ made clea ha ele ision o women should be no only
“ o women” bu “abou hem as well.”34 F om i s i s episode, “How o Make a
Woman’s Show,” he p oduce s p io i ized new ways o eaching women and open-
ing up he p ocesses o ele ision p oduc ion o iewe in e en ion and unde -
s anding. The en i e y o his inaugu al episode ended o educa ing iewe s abou
how a new ype o ele ision p og am o women could be made. The e o e, he
p og am was an exe cise in ele ision li e acy o audiences and in democ a ic
oppo uni ies o audiences o shape he p og am h ough hei inpu . The episode
included a panel mean o ep esen a c oss sec ion o iewe s—a housewi e; a high
schoole ; an unma ied man; and a membe o a adical eminis g oup, B ead and
Roses—who discussed wha hey would like o see happen on he p og am.
Kinde man concep ualized In He Own Righ as a coope a i e e o wi h he
iewing public. The i s episode solici ed inpu om audience membe s abou
he p og am’s i le, i s con en , and which gues s o book. Hos Ka en Klein assu ed
iewe s ha he p oduc ion would con inually be “expe imen ing” wi h elemen s
o he p og am “wi h [ hei ] help.” As a esul , episodes add essed issues ang-
ing om class dynamics o public and p i a e sphe e poli ics o women’s his o y.
Gues s included a lobbyis , membe s o Cong ess and s a e go e nmen s, psy-
chologis s, educa o s, a childca e wo ke and nu se y school di ec o , and small
business owne s. An a ay o women ac i is s equen ly appea ed on he show: a
“ adical poli ical ac i is ” on he i s episode; su age e Flo ence Luscomb on an
episode ha celeb a ed he i ie h anni e sa y o he women’s su age mo emen ;
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 127
membe s o Bos on-a ea women’s libe a ion g oups, including he Bos on Wom-
en’s Heal h Collec i e and c ea o s o Ou Bodies, Ou sel es, o an episode on
“Women’s Libe a ion”; and a cab d i e who was he sole emale boa d membe
o he Bos on Taxi D i e s Associa ion, along wi h a ac o y wo ke who was he
ounde o he labo g oup Bos on Women Uni ed o an episode en i led “Blue
Colla Women.”35
Al hough In He Own Righ was a o ma i e in luence in ele ision o women,
i s ime on he ai was sho . A e jus se en episodes, WGBH canceled he show.
Michael Rice, WGBH p og am di ec o , de ended he decision by claiming ha
he show was in en ionally ansi o y. He ega ded he p og am as a “summe es
se ies, which was ne e in ended o con inue in o he all.”36 Rice also indica ed
ha he show was d opped o make way o o he news and discussion p og ams
designed o mee he s a ion’s public b oadcas ing obliga ions. The women who
wo ked on he p og am assumed ha he show would ha e a ypical season un,
so he cancella ion ook hem by su p ise. Feminis newsle e The Spokeswoman
cha ac e ized he cancella ion as unjus ; i ci ed he p og am’s “good” a ings ha
“con inue[d] o climb” and a gued ha WGBH “o e looked” he quali y o he
p og am and he wo k o i s women.37 Acco ding o Ma y Blau, a p oduc ion assis-
an , Rice and he eam me a e each show, and he shows hey “ ‘pa icula ly
liked’ ” we e ones ha Rice “ ‘liked oo.’ ”38 Gi en he show’s p omise and accoun s
o Rice’s posi i e eac ions, he seemingly ab up , unexpec ed cancella ion aised
suspicions and d ew c i icism.
Con a y o Rice’s public s a emen as o why In He Own Righ was canceled,
p oduce s, p oduc ion assis an s, and mode a o s epo ed ha Rice’s pe sonal
poli ics we e o blame. In He Own Righ was de ined by he con ol hese women
had o e he show’s p oduc ion and he au ho i y hey wielded on se . These
quali ies, in he opinion o he show’s p oduc ion eam, dis u bed Rice so much
ha he canceled he p og am. In an in e iew wi h he Bos on Globe, p oduc ion
s a ela ed de ails om he mee ing du ing which he show’s cancella ion was
announced. In his mee ing, managemen old hem ha he show “had been a
ailu e” and “didn’ ha e a wa m a mosphe e,” and Rice c i icized hem o hei
“chip-on- he-shoulde a i ude.”39 Such commen s sugges ha he show i sel was
no a issue bu ha he wo kplace and p oduc ion wo ke s o he p og am we e.
The women who wo ked on he show coun e ed he implica ion ha hey did
no mee he needs o he public in ways ha he news and discussion p og ams
p oposed o eplace In He Own Righ would. They insis ed ha hey had designed
he p og am o “all women” and “denied any bias” ha would aliena e iewe s.40
The Spokeswoman con i med he show’s audience appeal, desc ibing he show as
one ha “poin s up he wide- anging in e es s o women a home.”41 Wi hin a week
o announcing he cancella ion o In He Own Righ , Rice p omised ha he s a ion
would de elop “a new show de o ed o ‘con empo a y women’s conce ns,’ ” some-
hing ha In He Own Righ p oduc ion s a el hey al eady had accomplished.42
134 Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
comme cial p essu e ha would wa e down con en .”71 The us wo hiness o
he s a ion o e ly e e enced he comme cial d i es o he ele ision indus y
and indi ec ly signaled he comme cializa ion ha c i ics el Ms. had in oduced
in o he women’s mo emen . As he wo media ins i u ions wo ked in andem o
ensu e di e en modes o media acumen, KERA ope a ed as a coun e balance
o he s igma a ached o Ms. and i s leade ship, e en as he p oduc ion bene i ed
om he magazine’s expe ise as a eminis en e p ise.
Al hough Ms. and co ounde Glo ia S einem’s in ol emen in he p oduc ion
o Woman Ali e! p o ided all-impo an eminis c eden ials, hei ela ionship o
capi alism was a po en ial liabili y ha equi ed ca e ul managemen . S einem’s
celeb i y s a us in he women’s mo emen was pe cei ed by some as aliena ing o
so-called Middle Ame ican women and adical eminis s alike. A bes , S einem
and Ms. p o ed simply ine ec i e in connec ing o some women. A wo s , hey
unc ioned as co up ing o ces wi hin he women’s mo emen . To unde s and
Woman Ali e’s unusual decision o minimize he media-sa y esou ces i had in
S einem and Ms., a b ie con ex ualiza ion is in o de .
To adical eminis s, Glo ia S einem’s media- iendly e sion o eminis poli-
ics was oubling, i no down igh dange ous o he women’s mo emen . In 1975,
Reds ockings accused S einem o connec ions wi h he CIA and in ima ed ha he
p ominence in popula media co e age o eminism was ied o his ela ionship.
Cha ging ha S einem had been “me eo ically ins alled in o he cu en posi ion
as leade o he women’s libe a ion mo emen h ough he e o s o he mass
media” and ha he pas ac i i ies had been co e ed up, Reds ockings decla ed
S einem a se ious h ea o he in eg i y o he mo emen .72 In less ex eme c i i-
cism, o he eminis c i ics unde s ood he media’s cha ac e iza ion o S einem as
he singula leade o he mo emen o be a necessa y e il. o ou backs iden i ied
mains eam media as he o ce ha had ins alled S einem as he celeb i y ace
o eminism, ye acknowledged he s a egic use ulness o his posi ion. A ecog-
nizable eminis o e ed women a igu e o emula e and he media a compelling
s o y o ep esen . In i s p agma ic assessmen o S einem’s alue o he mo emen ,
o ou backs p oclaimed, “Wi h supe s a dom he e is he ealiza ion o wha a
woman can do (NOW THERE’S A WOMAN THE PRESS CAN’T IGNORE).”73
Rega dless o he conce ns eminis s had abou S einem’s celeb i y, S einem’s
in luence o e a na ional audience was no gua an eed. Pa adoxically, despi e i s
much- aun ed media appeal, S einem’s impac was o en los in ansla ion o
women who did no iden i y wi h S einem p ecisely because o he media ed p es-
ence. The nume ous s a e-o - eminism epo s published in women’s magazines
in he ea ly 1970s e eal women’s complex ecep ion o S einem and help explain
he lack o a uni ied poli ical alliance wi h eminism. Women who li ed in egions
beyond majo u ban coas al egions had meaning ul and alid easons, beyond
simple in e nalized sexism, o ejec ing he ene s o eminis leade ship con eyed
om a a h ough popula media.

Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 135
In a 1975 a icle, “Women’s Lib Plays in Peo ia,” Sa u day Re iew epo e Susan
Jacoby ound ha ele ised images o eminis s did no always ope a e as a li esa e
ha connec ed women o he mo emen . In hei geog aphic isola ion om cen-
e s o he women’s libe a ion mo emen , Peo ian women o ged hei own s a e o
eminism p edica ed on hei own pa icula eali ies and he ma e ial condi ions
o day- o-day li ing. Jus as hey clipped coupons, hey sough imp o ed economic
condi ions in hei hou ly wage jobs. Jus as hey exchanged casse ole ecipes, hey
banded oge he o change condi ions in hei wo kplaces. When, o example, a
local company who employed an all- emale wo k o ce o answe cus ome se ice
calls ailed o heed heal h and sa e y complain s, he wo ke s ook ac ion. Wea -
ing ea phones on he job led o pe pe ual ea in ec ions, bu bo h he union and
he company’s managemen did no hing o change hese condi ions o cus ome
se ice wo ke s. In esponse, he women o ganized an in-house Women’s G oup
o ep esen hei in e es s collec i ely and o agi a e mo e e ec i ely o imp o ed
labo condi ions.
Feminis ole models o hese Peo ian women came om wi hin hei com-
muni y. Jacoby in e iewed a young woman who had o e come he esis ance
o eminism h ough he in luence o he emale cowo ke s. The young woman
ecoun ed how she had suppo ed a eminis union ep esen a i e in a ecen elec-
ion once she ealized he candida e was “jus like us.”74 Pa o being “like us” was
a ma e o a con en ional whi e eminini y and he e ono ma i i y, as he union
ep esen a i e possessed “beau i ul sil e y-blonde hai ” and could “ge a man.”75
These quali ies we e ones ha Glo ia S einem he sel amously possessed, ye
S einem was a igu e o ailed iden i ica ion o he Peo ian women who suppo ed
hei eminis union ep esen a i e. E en wi h he he e osexual appeals and con-
en ional beau y (down o he e y own signa u e blonde hai ), S einem was no
an agen o eminis con e sion o hem. I S einem was “ ‘only a s eaky mane
o hai on a ne wo k ele ision p og am,’ ” and “doesn’ seem like a eal pe son,”
hen he appeal, o some, did no ansmi ac oss he emo e o celeb i y and he
media ion o ele ision.76
Gi en he po en ial liabili ies S einem b ough wi h he o Woman Ali e!, he
appea ances on he p og am we e ca e ully managed. In a p omo ional in e -
iew ha was published in WNET-13’s magazine o s a ion membe s, Joan
Shigekawa no ed ha Jo dan, he labo o ganize om No h Ca olina who was
p o iled in he pilo episode, “didn’ e en know wha Glo ia S einem looked like
be o e we b ough he o New Yo k.”77 Much like he eminism o he women
p o iled in jou nalis ic accoun s o Middle Ame ica, Jo dan’s eminism s ood
apa om S einem’s in luence. Jo dan’s uncon en ional pa h o eminis con-
sciousness aligned wi h he ways Woman Ali e! wished o con ey eminism:
as in ui i e and commonsensical, complexly exp essed and expe ienced, and
adap able o sui he condi ions o any woman’s li e. Despi e—o pe haps
because o —Jo dan’s igno ance o women’s mo emen leade s, she pe soni ied
136 Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
Woman Ali e!’s mission, which, acco ding o Shigekawa, was o illus a e “how
much mo e powe ul and appealing ‘woman ali e’ and in ac ion can be a he
han in me e sel -con empla ion.”78
S einem did appea in Woman Ali e!’s i s episode, bu in ways ha minimized
he own celeb i y pe sona in a o o emphasizing he collec i e aspec s o he
women’s mo emen . In h ee, ela i ely b ie segmen s sca e ed h oughou
he episode, S einem ela es he own expe iences wi h in e nalized sexism, exp esses
he acial and class solida i y wi h o he s, posi ions he sel as bu one membe o
a la ge g oup, and acknowledges he e ec i e poli ical ac i ism o o he women.
In he i s segmen , S einem desc ibes he s uggles wi h male au ho i y and he
need o women o de ine hemsel es apa om male app o al in pe sonal and
p o essional ela ionships. The show hen cu s o a g oup discussion abou a h ee-
day con e ence o Black eminis s in New Yo k Ci y. S einem pa icipa es in he
g oup, which includes Ma ga e Sloan-Hun e and Jane Gal in-Lewis, bo h o
he Na ional Black Feminis O ganiza ion. Sloan-Hun e and Gal in-Lewis a e
mo e cen al o he discussion han S einem and p o ide c i ical assessmen s o
eminism and acism. Sloan-Hun e and Gal in-Lewis ecoun he pain ul expe-
ience o wi nessing acis media ep esen a ions o Black women o he “lack o
i ” al oge he . This long-s anding ma ginaliza ion shaped ep esen a ions ha we e
beginning o eme ge wi h he women’s mo emen ; acco ding o Sloan-Hun e , “a lo
o Black eminis s we e e y dissa is ied wi h he p ess image o he women’s mo e-
men and hei ela ionship o he women’s mo emen .” Du ing his discussion,
S einem is sidelined in a o o Black eminis s who ell hei own s o ies. S einem’s
inal appea ance comes wi h he jou nalis ic du y o p o iding a b ie , con ex ual
se up o a s o y o Jo dan’s unioniza ion e o s in Rock Rapids, Vi ginia.
S einem and Ms.’s di ec o o special p ojec s, Ronnie Eld idge, “we e mos
closely in ol ed in he p oduc ion,” ye S einem’s p esence on he p og am was
es ic ed.79 This may ha e sides epped he con o e sy S einem b ough wi h
he , ye he minimized p esence had nega i e consequences. While Va ie y el
Woman Ali e! was “blessed” wi h a lack o a hos o spokespe son, he New Yo k
Times no ed ha he “ ea o eli ism” and he managemen o a “supe s a ” eminis
“ ansla es as ca eless p oduc ion.”80
Much like S einem’s, Ms.’s in ol emen in Woman Ali e! was a mixed blessing.
While he magazine o e ed p o essional media esou ces and name ecogni ion, i
was also bese by c i icism and mis us om some eminis qua e s. The Lesbian
Tide cha ged Ms. wi h he e osexism and “g oss neglec ” o lesbians as well as wi h
“pe pe ua ing an i- eminis a i udes and poli ics” o “eli ism, p o essionalism,
classism, supe s a dom, and dolla ism.”81 Reds ockings was conce ned ha he
“c ea ion o Ms. magazine ha[d] pu S einem in a s a egic posi ion in he women’s
mo emen —a posi ion om which eminis poli ics can be in luenced, bu also a
posi ion om which in o ma ion can be and is being ga he ed on he pe sonal and
poli ical ac i i ies o women all o e he wo ld.”82
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 137
Ms.’s ies o comme cial in e es s also aised suspicion. Ka he ine G aham,
p esiden o he Washing on Pos company—whose holdings included he Wash-
ing on Pos , Newsweek, and Wa ne Communica ions—was a s ockholde in he
magazine. Wa ne ’s owne ship o Wonde Woman, who amously appea ed on
he co e o magazine’s i s issue, G aham’s appea ance on a 1974 co e o Ms. as
“ he mos powe ul woman in Ame ica,” and Newsweek’s suppo i e co e age o
S einem led Reds ockings o iden i y Ms. as “an a ea in which comme cial in e es s
and poli ics coincide.”83 Ms.’s in ol emen wi h public ele ision u he c ea ed
“con usion” abou he magazine’s business and abou whe he Ms. was a “poli ical
Figu es 17, 18 & 19. A g oup discussion
o he i s con e ence o he Na ional Black
Feminis O ganiza ion (NBFO) in ol ed
Jane Gal in-Lewis ( op) and Ma ga e
Sloan-Hun e (middle) and decen e ed
Glo ia S einem (bo om). PBS, June 19,
1974. (Schlesinge Lib a y, V -30)
138 Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
o comme cial en u e.”84 This con usion, acco ding o Reds ockings, “led women
o submi poli ical in o ma ion abou hemsel es which hey would no ha e sen
a magazine publishing simply o p o i ” and “led women w i e s o expec be -
e ea men om Ms. han om o he magazines, when in ac he ea men
has o en been wo se.”85 Amid such specula ion, Woman Ali e! downplayed he
con ibu ions o Ms. Al hough Ms. supplied he pilo episode wi h “in o ma ion,
p o ided con ac s and deba ed ideas,” he p og am’s a ilia ion wi h Ms. me i ed
jus a single men ion in a c edi .86
E en hough he magazine’s comme cial ies h ea ened o disc edi Woman
Ali e!, Ms.’s “hea y in ol emen ,” as he New Yo k Times no ed, was “cen al o he
p og am’s success.” Woman Ali e! p oduce Joan Shigekawa c edi ed he maga-
zine as “ he bes esou ce cen e ” o women’s issues and as he si e o all he p o-
g am’s p ep oduc ion wo k. In addi ion o i s ma e ial esou ces, Ms. p o ided a
empla e o a eminis wo kplace. The p ac ice o “an i-hie a chical” ela ionships
among wo ke s was some hing Ms. adap ed om he women’s mo emen , which
Shigekawa hen adop ed o Woman Ali e! E e y woman in ol ed in a mee ing
o he show could con ibu e, which c ea ed a “ne wo k o women cons an ly
exchanging in o ma ion.”87
The composi ion o Woman Ali e!’s p oduc ion eam made a public-
acing eminis s a emen . Women we e employed as he show’s execu i e p o-
duce , associa e p oduce , w i e s and epo e s, edi o , assis an edi o , ield
p oduce , ilm c ew, i le design, sounds, esea ch, and p oduc ion assis an .
While hei employmen helped co ec he indus y-wide unde employmen
o women wo king in ele ision, i did mo e han se e as s a is ical co ec ion
o gende imbalances in employmen . Women wo king in such la ge numbe s
in oduced meaning ul changes o he o ganiza ion and dynamics o he ele i-
sion wo kplace. “The e’s no hing like i —when he p oduce is a woman and he
decisions a e made by women,” en hused Shigekawa, who no ed ha e e yone
was pe mi ed o p o ide inpu , ega dless o job i le. This a angemen c ea ed
an “open o um” o pi ching ideas as well as “cama ade ie and appo wi hin
he c ew.”88 Rega dless o job i le, women who wo ked on Woman Ali e! we e
au ho ized by hei gende ed knowledge o con ibu e o a ele ision p og am
abou and o women.
Wo king in such an en i onmen and on such a p ojec alle ia ed he aliena -
ing e ec s o wage labo . As w i e and associa e p oduce Susan Les e said, “To
all o us, i was no jus a job, bu a p ojec in eg a ed in o ou li es.” The blu ed
bounda ies be ween wo ke s’ li es and hei jobs a es ed o bo h he poli ical and
pe sonal impo ance o he p oduc ion. Film edi o Sa ah S ein ound ha wo k-
ing on he p og am ul illed “a eal desi e o inally wo k on some hing meaning ul
o us as women.”89 The hi ing o women o he p og am hus no only challenged
he imbalance o women wo king in p oduc ion bu also ans o med he wo k o
making ele ision o women in on o and behind he came as.
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 139
Fo all he posi i e e ec s women b ough o and expe ienced a Woman Ali e!,
he p oduc ion eam also aced uniquely gende ed p essu es while making he p o-
g am. As a p oduce , Shigekawa el obliga ed o e u e sexis assump ions abou
women’s inabili ies o wo k in ele ision. To do so, she pushed he sel o exceed
expec a ions o a success ul p oduc ion. Shigekawa was compelled o inish wo k
ahead o schedule and o come in unde he $500,000 budge o p o e ha , despi e
cul u al biases o he con a y, women could ge wo k done e icien ly and manage
he business side o p oduc ion app op ia ely. “We el i was especially impo an
o us o do so,” Shigekawa no ed, “because men in ele ision ha e held he my h
oo long ha ‘women don’ know how o handle money.’ ”90
Al hough Shigekawa and he eam success ully managed he logis ical issues
in ol ed in making Woman Ali e!, he eali ies o limi ed esou ces cons ained
hem. T ans o ming women’s ele ision equi ed “ he o al concen a ion o c e-
a i e ene gy,” which was impossible o sus ain. Bu a he han mys i ying he
c ea i e p ocess and posi ioning he sel as an a is whose a is ic inspi a ion alone
would see he h ough, Shigekawa emphasized he ma e ial suppo ha ocused
c ea i i y equi ed. C ea ing e olu iona y ele ision equi ed “ ime o hink, and
ime o es ,” a condi ion ha necessi a ed inancial backing. “Money makes ha
possible,” Shigekawa a gued. “Money buys you an ex a day o wo o eju ena e,
he ime o con on he nex c ea i e p oblem wi h esh eyes.”91 Wi hou he
necessa y esou ces, Woman Ali e! su e ed, as did i s wo ke s. In Shigekawa’s
Figu e 20. P omo ional pho o o Woman Ali e! ea u es p oduce Joan Shigekawa and
union o ganize C ys al Lee Jo dan (la e known as C ys al Lee Su on) in “a ligh momen .”
(PBS/Schlesinge Lib a y MC 421)

140 Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
assessmen , he comp omised ision o he ambi ious p oduc ion was b ough
abou by he eali ies o budge s and scheduling a he han he abili ies o he
p oduc ion eam.
Shigekawa used he hwa ed po en ial o Woman Ali e! and he pla o m
as he show’s p oduce o illus a e he p oblems o ele ision wo k o women.
To he , p oblems wi h he show o igina ed wi h he indus y’s sho changing o
women. Woman Ali e! was hampe ed by a modes budge , as expec ed o a public
ele ision p oduc ion. As a eminis -o ien ed, woman-cen e ed and woman- un
p og am—a ypical wi hin he ele ision indus y, comme cial o public—Woman
Ali e! aced addi ional issues o a male-domina ed indus y in which women we e
no a o ded espec , powe , o au onomy. F om he expe ience wo king on Woman
Ali e!, Shigekawa concluded ha women who wan ed o wo k in ele ision a
any le el and on any p og am aced addi ional labo ha hampe ed hei p oduc-
i i y and inno a ion. No hing sho o ending s uc u al inequali y would e o m
his p oblem. “Un il women in ele ision a e o ally in eg a ed in o he decision
making p ocess,” Shigekawa a gued, “ esponsible women, a wha e e le el hey
exis , mus bea he addi ional bu den o disp o ing a deeply ing ained se o
a i udes and p ejudices held by a p ima ily male adminis a ion.”92 None heless,
she held ou hope o women who pe sis ed in hese inequi able ci cums ances
and s ess ul labo condi ions. Women succeeded in making Woman Ali e!
because, acco ding o Shigekawa, hey could ely upon hei “p o essional bes ” o
see hem h ough.93
No wi hs anding he di icul ies Shigekawa and he c ew aced in making
Woman Ali e!, he p og am p o ed a signi ican con ibu ion o public ele ision
and o ele ision o women. No able as a “ ull-blown id ape and ilm p oduc-
ion,” Woman Ali e! o e ed a a e excep ion o wha Va ie y conside ed he “bleak”
PBS lineup o all 1974.94 I s quali y, measu ed by i s “ ue na ional p oduc ion
alues,” se Woman Ali e! apa om i s public ele ision con empo a ies.95 O he
assessmen s p o ed equally posi i e and hailed he p og am as, among o he
hings, “ echnically lawless.”96 The cul u al alue o he p og am was alida ed by
he inclusion o h ee o i s episodes in he Museum o Mode n A and he New
Yo k Public Lib a y’s 1976 se ies on “new social documen a y ilm.”97
A e i s ini ial pilo episode made a Dallas–Fo Wo h s a ion KERA-TV,
Woman Ali e!’s p oduc ion eloca ed o New Yo k Ci y’s WNET. This mo e
ma ked he end o he p og am’s egional expe imen a ion in p oduc ion loca-
ion and s a ing, bu i s dedica ion o di e se s o ies o women ac oss he coun-
y emained a p io i y. An episode om season 2 i led “A Time o Change,” o
example, explo ed how he women’s mo emen “pe mea ed he e e yday li es
o women h oughou he Uni ed S a es,” e en o women “who did no hink o
hemsel es as eminis s in he ac i is sense.” P og am opics o he second season
included ep oduc i e eedom and he unequal e ms o s e iliza ion o women,
he ERA, he impac o he women’s libe a ion mo emen , and “Women and
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 141
Wo k,” all o which p omised o build on he p og am’s ini ial in es men in elling
women’s s o ies ac oss egions ha e lec ed di e se poli ical ou looks, ela ion-
ships o eminism, and iden i ies. By he end o he season, p oduce s gua an eed
ha he p og am would “ha e isi ed many di e en pa s o he coun y” and ha
he en-episode se ies would “p esen a iew o women in all o hei di e si y.”98
On he basis o audience esea ch conduc ed by he CPB’s Quali a i e Resea ch
Su ey, Woman Ali e! expanded i s hal -hou o ma o an hou long p og am in
1977, i s second and inal season. The p og am also mo ed om a magazine o ma
wi h sho segmen s o a single heme o an en i e p og am. This shi allowed
he p og am o de elop a “documen a y ilm a ound an in es iga ion o a single
opic,” which a o ded iewe s a “deepe unde s anding o he issues.”99 A hei
Ma ch 1976 mee ing, he CPB ea ma ked up o $554,000 o con inued suppo
o he se ies, bu wi h he CPB’s ejec ion o p oposed sponso ship om O ho
Pha maceu ical, he make o women’s con acep ion, he p og am con inued o
lack ex e nal unding necessa y o sus ain i .100
When Woman Ali e! was canceled in 1977, iewe s w o e in o p o es he can-
cella ion. Thei le e s ci ed he p og am’s consciousness- aising e ec and he
ongoing need o eminis media p og amming, pa icula ly wi h he ongoing
igh o pass he Equal Righ s Amendmen . Jus as hey had h oughou he se ies
un, le e s om iewe s a es ed o he poli ical impac and educa ional ou each
o he p og am, pa icula ly o women who migh no o he wise ha e connec ion
o eminis o ganiza ions and o o he eminis s. Some iewe s unde s ood he
cancella ion as symp oma ic o s uc u al p oblems wi hin he ele ision indus-
y. As one iewe w o e in Janua y 1976, “Please don’ cancel i because o lack
o in e es . Men, who un hings, a en’ in e es ed in women, as whi es who un
hings a en’ in e es ed in blacks, gene ally. Bu educa ion is necessa y.”101
YES, WE CAN: THE DAY WOMEN
TOOK OVER TELEVISION
Yes, We Can, he local Bos on ele ision p oduc ion desc ibed a he op o
his chap e , p o ed a unique expe imen in ele ision o women. I s daylong
o ma , unding om s a e go e nmen and local comme cial ele ision, and
olun ee e o s on he pa o local women’s g oups and businesses esul ed
in a day o ele ision o women wi h connec ions o public ou each and ci ic
issues and a obus eimagining o he gene ic pa ame e s o women’s ele ision.
The p oduc ion alida ed he impo ance o challenging ypical comme cial
p og amming. I also aised conce ns abou who should be esponsible o
exp essing eminis ideas on comme cial ele ision; he sou ces o labo , inan-
cial suppo , and c ea i e inpu o a communi y-o ien ed bu comme cially
ope a ed e en ; and he poli ical ami ica ions o ansla ing eminism o a
comme cial ele ision enue.
142 Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s”
Yes, We Can an on WBZ om 7:00 a.m. o 11:00 p.m. on Thu sday, Janua y 18,
1974, wi h a one-hou p ime- ime special ha had ai ed he p e ious nigh . Bo h
days’ p og amming blended en e ainmen and celeb i y wi h iewe educa ion
and ci ic conce ns. The p ime- ime special ea u ed musical pe o mances by Liza
Minnelli, Helen Reddy, and Ann Mu ay, be ween which membe s o he Go e -
no ’s Commission on he S a us o Women p e iewed he nex day’s e en s. The
gues s on he daylong show included high-p o ile eminis leade s (Be y F iedan,
Glo ia S einem, and Flo ynce “Flo” Kennedy), au ho s (Phyllis Chesle , who w o e
Women and Madness), and poli icians (Rep esen a i e Ma ga e Heckle ), who
appea ed alongside en e aine s and ele ision pe sonali ies (celeb i y che Julia
Child and ac o and singe Ki y Ca lisle) and leade s o nonp o i o ganiza ions
(Maggie Kuhn, ounde o he G ay Pan he s).
The p og am was ied o a women’s ai , which p o ided con en o he li e
b oadcas and ope a ed as a public se ice o women in he Bos on a ea. The ai
was ee and p o ided a endees wi h esou ces and in o ma ion abou “all aspec s
o womanhood om educa ion, heal h, and child ca e o exe cise” om local go -
e nmen g oups, women’s o ganiza ions, and businesses. WBZ in e iewed ai
sponso s and a endees alike, wi h panel discussions and demons a ions ound-
ing ou he p og am. The li e b oadcas o Janua y 18 concluded wi h po ions o
mul iday s a e hea ings on sex disc imina ion commissioned by he go e no
o Massachuse s. This inal segmen ea u ed “ ele ised documen a ion o sex
disc imina ion” ha highligh ed s uc u al inequali ies acing women in he
wo kplace, go e nmen , and socie y. The segmen in e cu aped exce p s om
he Janua y 10 hea ings ins iga ed by he Go e no ’s Commission on he S a us o
Women wi h li e on-se discussions by women expe s on he ma e s o conce n
aised in he hea ings.
Yes, We Can o igina ed wi h he o ma ion o he Go e no ’s Commission on
he S a us o Women in June 1971. The Commission was a ac - inding and ad i-
so y commi ee ini ially comp ising hi y- i e women whose goal was wo old:
(1) o “su ey and e alua e all s a u es” o he s a e and “all go e nmen al p o-
g ams and p ac ices” ha in ol ed he “employmen , heal h, educa ion and wel-
a e” o women; and (2) o “in es iga e he need o new and expanded se ices
ha may be equi ed o women as wi es, mo he s and wo ke s.”102 The Commis-
sion was empowe ed o make ecommenda ions o he go e no based on hei
in es iga ions, which hey did in hei annual epo . These wide- anging ecom-
menda ions included abo ion igh s, sex educa ion, a ailabili y o childca e, job
oppo uni ies, he ERA, s a e es ic ions on women pe o ming ju y du y, and
p ison e o m.
O e he cou se o se en days h oughou la e 1973 and ea ly 1974, he Com-
mission conduc ed a se ies o hea ings on sex disc imina ion in h ee o Mas-
sachuse s’s majo ci ies.103 These hea ings we e in ended o p o ide women an
oppo uni y o conside and ac on he ques ion “Wha can and should be done
Tele ision’s “Se ious Sis e s” 143
ega ding needed legisla ion in he abo e a eas?” Designed o se he agenda o
he Commission in he ollowing yea , he hea ings and hei media co e age,
which included Yes, We Can, we e mean o in o m iewe s and p omp hem
o poli ical ac ion. B oadcas ing he hea ings si ua ed Yes, We Can in libe al ac i -
is p inciples and a public se ice amewo k, bu he use o comme cial ele i-
sion o do so complica ed ma e s. Ai ing he hea ings on WBZ p omised g ea e
exposu e o p oblems acing Massachuse s women, and he Commission’s e o-
spec i e assessmen o he e en ound ha his s a egy was “qui e success ul in
a ousing he in e es o he people o he Commonweal h on women’s issues.”104
The e en , howe e , was seen by some eminis s as unhelp ul o women. I s
ela ionship o comme cialized media wa e ed down eminis poli ics ha could
a ec eal change in women’s li es and app op ia ed women’s alen and labo o
capi alis ends.
Wi h i s goal “o examining women in oday’s socie y and ele ision p og am-
ming,” Yes, We Can was as much o a e o m o women’s ele ision as i was o
any hing else.105 P oduce s ope a ed unde he assump ion ha women iew-
e s we e a public unde se ed by comme cial ele ision. The daylong p og am
expanded women’s ele ision o include issues beyond hose designed o he
imagined consume is -housewi e-mo he iewe . Yes, We Can challenged adi-
ions o women’s ele ision wi h p og am con en deba ing a ange o eminis
issues, including inancial planning, ep oduc i e heal h ca e and abo ion, and
ins uc ions on unning o poli ical o ice. When domes ic asks, so ypically pa
o he consume is cul i a ion o iewe s o women’s ele ision, we e pa o he
agenda, hey we e ede ined in acco dance wi h eminis p inciples: “Ms. Fix-I ”
encou aged women’s sel -su iciency in appliance epai , plumbing, and elec ician
wo k; childca e conce ns expanded o include adop ion and os e ca e as well as
guidance o aising a child in nonsexis ashion; and “Body Tone” included judo
and ka a e demons a ions.
Yes, We Can acknowledged nume ous ace s o women’s conce ns and in e sec-
ional iden i ies o gende , class, age, and ace. The day s a ed wi h “P og amming
o he Wo king Woman” om 7:00 o 9:00 a.m. Topics included disc imina ion
and employmen , day ca e, “women wo king wi h women,” inance and money
managemen , and “ he pligh o being poo and a woman.” The nex segmen ,
“P og amming o he Woman-a -Home,” ea u ed Elizabe h Hubba d, he cu -
en Miss Black Ame ica; Do o hy Heigh , p esiden o he Na ional Council o
Neg o Women and a “ o e unne o he black women’s libe a ion mo emen ”; and
a ious eminis au ho s. Topics in his segmen included “examina ion o oles
played in ma iage,” p egnancy, and “ he changing ole o women oday.”106 The
4:00–6:00 p.m. ime slo , “P og amming o he Younge Woman,” ocused on
abo ion, bi h con ol, consciousness- aising, and ca ee s o young women.
To suppo such a la ge-scale p oduc ion, WBZ solici ed sponso ship om
a ea businesses (Cabine Lumbe & Supply, Inc. and Wes inghouse Elec onic Co.)