da Sil a, Agos inho; Ca doso, An onio J. Ma ques
A icle
Co-Ope i ion and he indus ial in e ne o hings: A
s a egic amewo k o ope a ional e iciency in he
po uguese o namen al s one sec o
Adminis a i e Sciences
P o ided in Coope a ion wi h:
MDPI – Mul idisciplina y Digi al Publishing Ins i u e, Basel
Sugges ed Ci a ion: da Sil a, Agos inho; Ca doso, An onio J. Ma ques (2024) : Co-Ope i ion and he
indus ial in e ne o hings: A s a egic amewo k o ope a ional e iciency in he po uguese
o namen al s one sec o , Adminis a i e Sciences, ISSN 2076-3387, MDPI, Basel, Vol. 14, Iss. 6, pp.
1-16,
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Ci a ion: da Sil a, Agos inho, and
An onio J. Ma ques Ca doso. 2024.
Co-Ope i ion and he Indus ial
In e ne o Things: A S a egic
F amewo k o Ope a ional E iciency
in he Po uguese O namen al S one
Sec o . Adminis a i e Sciences 14: 125.
h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/
admsci14060125
Recei ed: 12 May 2024
Re ised: 6 June 2024
Accep ed: 11 June 2024
Published: 14 June 2024
Copy igh : © 2024 by he au ho s.
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A ibu ion (CC BY) license (h ps://
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4.0/).
adminis a i e
sciences
A icle
Co-Ope i ion and he Indus ial In e ne o Things: A S a egic
F amewo k o Ope a ional E iciency in he Po uguese
O namen al S one Sec o
Agos inho da Sil a 1,2,* and An onio J. Ma ques Ca doso 1
1
CISE—Elec omecha onic Sys ems Resea ch Cen e, Uni e si y o Bei a In e io , 6201-001 Co ilhã, Po ugal;
[email p o ec ed]g
2CIGEST—Cen e o Resea ch in Managemen , Lisbon Business School, 1000-002 Lisboa, Po ugal
*Co espondence: a.sil a@zipo .com
Abs ac : In ou apidly globalizing and digi izing wo ld, small and medium-sized manu ac u ing
en e p ises (SMEs) ace signi ican challenges ha compel hem o adop a co-ope i ion s a egy—a
blend o compe i ion and collabo a ion. Despi e hei po en ial bene i s, he high ailu e a es and
unme expec a ions o co-ope i ion ne wo ks highligh a signi ican gap in he empi ical amewo ks
o es ablishing and main aining hese ne wo ks. This esea ch seeks o add ess hese gaps by
de eloping a amewo k ha enhances alue coc ea ion in he Po uguese o namen al s one sec o ,
in eg a ing he la es de elopmen s in he Indus ial In e ne o Things (IIoT), Se ice-Dominan
Logic (S-D Logic), and se ice science. Ques ion: How can a amewo k in eg a ing IIoT, S-D Logic,
and se ice science enhance alue coc ea ion and manage co-ope i ion among SMEs in he Po uguese
o namen al s one sec o ? Me hods: Theo e ical insigh s and p ac ical applica ions we e syn hesized o
de elop and alida e a comp ehensi e co-ope i ion amewo k. This amewo k was es ed h ough
an expe imen al pilo p ojec in he Po uguese o namen al s one sec o , le e aging IIoT. Resul s:
The implemen a ion o he amewo k demons a ed signi ican ope a ional e iciency, including
enhanced pe o mance, educed p oduc ion a iance, and be e esou ce u iliza ion, indica ing ha
in eg a ing IIoT wi hin co-ope i ion ne wo ks can e ec i ely suppo SMEs. Conclusions: This s udy
con i ms he ans o ma i e impac o embedding IIoT in co-ope i ion ne wo ks, o e ing a eplicable
and scalable amewo k o o he sec o s. This amewo k add esses he empi ical gap and aligns
wi h b oade socio-economic goals, se ing he s age o u he esea ch in o i s applicabili y and
po en ial ac oss di e se indus ial en i onmen s.
Keywo ds: co-ope i ion; S-D Logic; se ice science; IIoT; o namen al s one sec o
1. In oduc ion
In he con empo a y landscape o apid globaliza ion and digi iza ion, small and
medium-sized manu ac u ing en e p ises (SMEs) ace unpa alleled challenges (Di Bella e al.
2023). These challenges necessi a e adop ing a co-ope i ion s a egy among i ms (Ramí ez-
López e al. 2021). Co-ope i ion is p aised o i s abili y o spu inno a ion and alue
c ea ion, which a e i al o SMEs g appling wi h issues ela ed o scale, e iciency (Chen
2020), and limi ed esou ces o inno a ion (Bicen e al. 2021). Despi e hese heo e ical
bene i s, high ailu e a es and unme expec a ions ha e eme ged in co-ope i ion ne wo ks,
highligh ing a signi ican gap in empi ical amewo ks o es ablishing and main aining
hese ne wo ks (C ick 2019). This gap is especially c i ical conside ing he essen ial ole o
manu ac u ing SMEs in he economies o de eloped na ions (Mulle e al. 2021).
The p e ailing academic discou se on co-ope i ion p ima ily explo es compe i i e
dynamics (Kwon e al. 2020) and he esou ce-based iew (Ge nsheime e al. 2021), ocusing
on s uc u al s a egies and secu ing unique esou ces o compe i i e ad an age (Rouy e
e al. 2024). Howe e , hese pe spec i es o en neglec he alue c ea ion and sha ing
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 125. h ps://doi.o g/10.3390/admsci14060125 h ps://www.mdpi.com/jou nal/admsci
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 125 2 o 16
mechanisms wi hin co-ope i ion (Xie e al. 2023). Mo eo e , hey need o adequa ely
add ess he complexi ies and e ol ing na u e o co-ope i ion in he digi al e a, pa icula ly
he signi ican impac o echnological ad ancemen s on ne wo k in e ac ions (Co bo
e al. 2023). The high ailu e a es o co-ope i ion ne wo ks among SMEs (Ree es e al.
2019) and he insu iciency o cu en empi ical models o na iga e he challenges posed
by echnological p og ess and he need o digi al collabo a ion unde sco e his c i ical
esea ch gap.
Technological ad ancemen s ha e eshaped he co-ope i ion landscape, al e ing ne -
wo k in e ac ions and emphasizing echnology’s ole as a esou ce wi hin hese ne wo ks
(Bouncken e al. 2024). In his con ex , he li e a u e on Se ice-Dominan Logic (S-D Logic)
p o ides an al e na i e pe spec i e o unde s anding alue coc ea ion in ne wo ks, whe e
echnology ac s as bo h a acili a o and a esou ce in se ice ecosys ems (Va go e al. 2024).
G ounded in S-D Logic, Maglio and Spoh e (2008) pionee ed he ee alua ion o alue
coc ea ion, shi ing om isola ed, localized p ocesses o a global ne wo k ha le e ages
echnology (Demi kan and Spoh e 2018). This led o he es ablishmen o se ice science
as a discipline ocused on analyzing se ice sys ems as abs ac en i ies, explo ing he
mechanisms o se ice inno a ion wi hin economic ac i i ies (Yun e al. 2023;B eidbach
and Maglio 2015). How can a amewo k ha in eg a es echnology, S-D Logic, and se ice
science enhance alue coc ea ion and manage co-ope i ion among SMEs in he Po uguese
o namen al s one sec o ?
To add ess his ques ion, his esea ch s udy aims o de elop and alida e a comp e-
hensi e amewo k o co-ope i ion ne wo ks. This amewo k is designed o enhance alue
coc ea ion in he Po uguese o namen al s one (OS-PT) sec o , wi h a ocus on imp o ing
manu ac u ing e iciency and con ibu ing o Sus ainable De elopmen Goals (SDGs) (UN
2019). By syn hesizing heo e ical insigh s wi h p ac ical applica ions, he amewo k aims
o es ablish a new pa adigm a he in e sec ion o he Indus ial In e ne o Things (IIoT)
(Liu e al. 2024), S-D Logic, and se ice science.
The cu en ele ance o he IIoT lies in i s abili y o e olu ionize indus ial p ocesses
by enabling unp eceden ed le els o connec i i y (Yazdinejad e al. 2023a), eal- ime da a
p ocessing, and in elligen au oma ion. These ad ancemen s a e pa icula ly c ucial o
indus ies acing complex digi al and global p ocu emen challenges, such as hose in o-
duced by Building In o ma ion Modelling (BIM) in he A chi ec u e, Enginee ing, and
Cons uc ion (AEC) indus y (Hada i and Alizadehsalehi 2024). The OS-PT sec o , wi h
i s unique combina ion o adi ional c a smanship and mode n echnological demands,
p esen s an ideal con ex o explo ing he po en ial o co-ope i ion ne wo ks o alue
coc ea ion (Sil a and Ca doso 2023).
Based on insigh s om IoT- ela ed cases in he li e a u e (B ews e e al. 2017;Dospinescu
and Dospinescu 2018), his s udy hypo hesizes ha a co-ope i ion amewo k in eg a ing
he IIoT wi h S-D Logic and se ice science p inciples will enhance alue coc ea ion and
e ec i ely manage co-ope i ion among SMEs in he OS-PT sec o .
2. Li e a u e Re iew
Cen al o he S-D Logic in oduced by Va go and Lusch (2004) is he no ion ha
se ice— he applica ion o compe encies o he bene i o o he s—is undamen al o alue
coc ea ion wi h bene icia ies (Lusch and Va go 2007). This alue coc ea ion p ocess is
in ica ely acili a ed and bounded by ins i u ional amewo ks and a angemen s, which
se e as essen ial mechanisms wi hin ecosys ems (Va go and Lusch 2016). Despi e i s
con o e sies (Campbell e al. 2013), he adop ion o S-D Logic has signi ican ly in luenced
he dialogue a ound business models since 2004 (Va go and Lusch 2004), p o iding a
cohe en amewo k ha has seen no able p og ess and con ibu ions o se ice-cen ic
business models o e he pas decade (Va go and Lusch 2004). Ad ancemen s in S-D Logic
u he a icula e alue coc ea ion in se ice ecosys ems (Lusch e al. 2016). Coo dina ed by
ins i u ions and ins i u ional a angemen s, his concep anscends beyond me e angible
esou ces o include in angible asse s and ins i u ional s uc u es (Va go e al. 2024).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 125 3 o 16
In esponse o he ansi ion owa ds se ice-o ien ed models, Maglio and Spoh e
(2008) ad oca ed o a shi om isola ed, localized p ocesses o a globally in e connec ed
ne wo k acili a ed by echnology (Maglio and Spoh e 2008), culmina ing in he es ablish-
men o se ice science wi h a ocus on explo ing he concep o se ice sys ems (Demi kan
and Spoh e 2018). Cen al o se ice science is he no ion ha any in e ac ion be ween
en i ies inhe en ly ep esen s an oppo uni y o coc ea ing alue. This pe spec i e has
signi ican ly in luenced he de elopmen o business models, emphasizing he impo ance
o alue p oposi ion design and sys emic pa e ns (Maglio e al. 2009).
Cen al o se ice science is he se ice sys em concep , encompassing con igu a ions
o people, echnologies, o ganiza ions, and sha ed in o ma ion. These sys ems can c ea e
and deli e alue h ough se ice o a ious s akeholde s, including supplie s, use s, and
o he en i ies (Maglio e al. 2010). Despi e sligh di e ences in e minology om S-D Logic,
se ice science sha es a simila na u e, embodying dis inc i e and connec i e oles wi hin
ecosys ems and ne wo ks, acili a ing esou ce econ igu a ion and in e ac ion (Cella y
e al. 2019).
The discou se wi hin he li e a u e on se ice science inc easingly ocuses on ne wo ks
o se ice sys ems, whe e mul iple ac o s collabo a e o coc ea e mu ual alue. This
pe spec i e aligns wi h he S-D Logic iew o ne wo ks as adap i e ecosys ems o alue
c ea ion and sus ainabili y (Akaka e al. 2023).
S-D Logic and se ice science communi ies eme ge as na u al allies, sha ing o e lap-
ping esea ch in e es s, pe spec i es, and ounda ional philosophies (Lusch and Nambisan
2015). Bo h ields ad oca e o a holis ic app oach o s udying and scaling business ac i -
i ies, anscending he dis inc ion be ween angible and in angible asse s by in eg a ing
knowledge om di e se disciplines (Cella y e al. 2019). Despi e some disc epancies in
ocabula y, hese communi ies con e ge on a sha ed philosophical iew ha emphasizes
he impo ance o con ex in he coc ea ion o alue, a complex phenomenon a ising om
se ice exchange, esou ce in eg a ion, and alue-in-con ex , he eby p o iding a obus
ounda ion o he design o empi ical models (Pohlmann and Kaa emo 2017).
3. Technology Inno a ion o Value C ea ion
Degani e al. (2017) concep ualize echnology h ough he lens o he “ope an ” ad-
jec i e, de ining i as “some hing ha wo ks” o is “engaged in ac ion”. This pe spec i e
delinea es echnology as a esou ce capable o sel -go e nance, au onomy, and indepen-
dence om ex e nal con ol, spanning h ee dis inc logics: (1) au ho i y o c ea e and apply
i s own ules, (2) sel -su iciency wi hou ex e nal assis ance, and (3) eedom om ex e nal
in luence (Degani e al. 2017). This amewo k aligns wi h he eme gence o in elligen
echnologies ha can au onomously gene a e algo i hms and unde ake ini ia i es wi hou
human in e en ion, ma king a signi ican leap in echnological capabili ies (Bodkhe e al.
2020).
The in eg a ion o echnology as a cen al esou ce o inno a ion is ex ensi ely
highligh ed wi hin se ice science, unde sco ing he ans o ma i e impac o echnological
ad ancemen s on se ice p o ision, e olu ionizing how se ices a e deli e ed, inno a ed,
and managed (B eidbach and Maglio 2015). Pa allel o his, S-D Logic explo es he in luence
o echnology on se ice inno a ion and he coc ea ion o alue wi hin se ice ecosys ems,
acknowledging echnology’s dual ole as bo h an enable and a d i e o inno a ion
(Ma hies e al. 2016;Akaka e al. 2023).
Con inuing along he same ein, he li e a u e on co-ope i ion acknowledges he im-
po ance o echnology-based s a egic ne wo ks in os e ing collec i e unde s anding and
collabo a ion among di e se s akeholde s (Dogano a and Eyquem-Renaul 2009;Rusko
2014;Wang and Chen 2022). This iewpoin is in ha mony wi h S-D Logic and se ice
science, which ega d echnology as a c ucial ope and (enable ) and ope an (ini ia o )
esou ce in he alue c ea ion p ocess (Ma zne e al. 2018;Ba ile e al. 2019). The in e play
be ween ope an and ope and esou ces is acili a ed h ough human in e ac ion, echnol-
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 125 4 o 16
ogy, alue p oposi ions, and sha ed in o ma ion, laying he g oundwo k o inno a ion
and alue c ea ion (Ma hies e al. 2016).
In his con ex , eme gen and embedded echnologies like he In e ne o Things (IoT)
a e ecognized by S-D Logic (Va go e al. 2024) and se ice science (Akaka e al. 2023) as
he alding a new e a in which echnology p o oundly in luences ecosys ems. Empi ical
e idence unde sco es he ans o ma i e po en ial o IoT-based inno a ions in os e ing
no el se ice o e ings (Akaka e al. 2015).
Companies le e aging IoT capabili ies can ex end hei se ice po olio o include
emo e con ol op ions and p edic i e main enance solu ions (Mosch e al. 2023), ad ancing
ope a ional e iciency and opening new a enues o alue coc ea ion wi hin co-ope i ion
amewo ks (Salih e al. 2022). This echnological in eg a ion ca alyzes he de elopmen o
ecosys ems whe e companies, by ha nessing IoT, anscend adi ional compe i i e bound-
a ies (Coelho e al. 2022), acili a ing he seamless exchange o esou ces and collabo a ion
among once-compe ing en i ies (Mosch e al. 2023).
The IIoT ad ancemen beyond IoT amewo ks ma ks a signi ican e olu ion in indus-
ies’ ope a ions. Acco ding o Yazdinejad e al. (2023b), he IIoT in oduces unp eceden ed
e iciency and in elligence, enhancing global connec i i y and enabling di ec de ice- o-
de ice communica ions (Yazdinejad e al. 2023b). I acili a es he de elopmen o in elli-
gen a e ac s capable o dynamically adap ing o use in e ac ions and ac i ely enhancing
alue-c ea ion p ocesses (Hoppe 2023). Fu he mo e, he implemen a ion o ad anced
echnological amewo ks o p ognos ic heal h managemen , o ins ance, demons a es
he c i ical ole o he IIoT in imp o ing long- e m p edic ion accu acy and ope a ional
e iciency in indus ial applica ions (Li e al. 2024). Addi ionally, he in eg a ion o edge
compu ing wi hin IIoT sys ems has e olu ionized indus ial p ocesses by p o iding lexi-
ble da a sensing and eal- ime p ocessing se ices, ensu ing e icien esou ce sha ing and
maximizing social wel a e in edge-enabled IIoT en i onmen s (Liu e al. 2024).
To add ess he esea ch ques ion, he ollowing hypo hesis can be o mula ed: a co-
ope i ion amewo k ha in eg a es he IIoT wi h S-D Logic and se ice science p inciples
enhances alue coc ea ion and e ec i ely manages co-ope i ion among SMEs in he OS-PT
sec o . This in eg a ed amewo k is expec ed o imp o e ope a ional e iciency, os e -
ing a collabo a i e indus ial ecosys em ha suppo s sus ainable indus ializa ion and
con ibu es o achie ing ele an SDGs.
4. Designing a Co-Ope i ion-Cen ic F amewo k o Value Coc ea ion
4.1. The Role o Technology in Ne wo ks o Value Coc ea ion
Technology plays a cen al ole in co-ope i ion ne wo ks as an ini ia o and acili a o
o ac ions among ac o s (Elo e al. 2024). P o ide s, d i en by he p ospec o heigh ened
bene i s, may sha e and in eg a e hei esou ces wi h o he s, including compe i o s, o
pa ake in se ice exchanges ha en ich esou ce densi y and enhance alue coc ea ion
(Lusch and Nambisan 2015). This collabo a i e ye compe i i e app oach necessi a es
he mu ual p o ision o access o esou ces, os e ing a business model p edica ed on
co-ope i ion (Seepana e al. 2020).
Acco ding o his iew, echnology s ands ou as a c i ical elemen , ac ing as bo h
an ope an esou ce by ini ia ing ac ions and an ope and esou ce by acili a ing ac ions
(Akaka e al. 2023). I s in eg a ion in o he ne wo k ampli ies esou ce densi y, p opelling
alue and de eloping inno a i e esou ces designed o enhance he quali y o li e o all
ne wo k ac o s (Va go e al. 2024). Technology’s unique combina ion and applica ion in
co-ope i ion ne wo ks unde lines i s essen ial ole in ad ancing compe i i e collabo a ion
o mu ual and ecosys em-wide bene i s (Elo e al. 2024).
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 125 5 o 16
4.2. The Role o En i ies and Resou ces in Co-Ope i ion Ne wo ks
Unde s anding he dynamics o co-ope i ion ne wo ks necessi a es iden i ying he
oles played by a ious ac o s (se ice sys ems) and he esou ces hey le e age o mu ual
bene i . D awing om S-D Logic, he essence is ecognized ha o hese ne wo ks lies
in he se ice exchange among en i ies, aimed a ecip ocal bene i s (Ba ile e al. 2016).
This exchange cen e s on wo p ima y esou ce ypes: ope an esou ces (people and
o ganiza ions wi h he capaci y o ac ) and ope and esou ces ( angible asse s such as
echnologies and knowledge). The dis inc ion unde sco es ha se ice is no me ely an
o e ing bu he applica ion o compe encies o ano he ’s bene i (Joine and Lusch 2016).
Wi h i s in e disciplina y app oach, se ice science seeks o uni y he concep o
esou ces, asse ing ha any hing named and po en ially aluable—be i physical o non-
physical—cons i u es a esou ce (Va go and Akaka 2009). These esou ces a e cha ac e ized
by hei li ecycle (beginning, middle, and end), a ailabili y, c ea ion cos , main enance
expense, and he cos o ceasing access o use.
The dynamic in e play o hese esou ces wi hin co-ope a ion ne wo ks, spanning
indi iduals, echnology, o ganiza ions, and sha ed in o ma ion, ca alyzes ac ions unda-
men al o he ne wo k’s i ali y (Va go e al. 2023a). Ac o s s a egically in eg a e hese
esou ces o os e inno a ion and c ea e alue ac oss a ious le els wi hin he ne wo k
(Va go e al. 2023a).
This pe spec i e sugges s ha all ac o s wi hin he ne wo k a e alue coc ea o s (Sil a
and Gil 2020). Cus ome s assume he pi o al ole o e alua o s, assessing o e ings based
on hei expe iences, while p o ide s ac as acili a o s o alue coc ea ion (Elo e al. 2024).
Co-ope i o s con ibu e h ough esou ce sha ing (Bicen e al. 2021), compe i o s unc ion
as independen en i ies compe ing o cus ome a en ion (Akaka and Va go 2014), and
au ho i ies se e as egula o y bodies ensu ing sus ainable and equi able in e ac ions
wi hin he ne wo k (Va go and Lusch 2016).
Re enue expec a ions wi hin hese ne wo ks enabled by echnology a e shaped by
alue p oposi ions, which, in u n, a e d i en by he pe cei ed alue and he coc ea ion
p ocess. This cyclical engagemen os e s inc eased esou ce densi y, p opelling he ne wo k
owa ds inno a i e alue p oposi ions and enhanced coc ea ion oppo uni ies (Ng and
Wakenshaw 2017). Howe e , he success o his model hinges on he seamless access o
and sha ing o esou ces among en i ies, wi h he unde s anding ha alue pe cep ion is
inhe en ly subjec i e and oo ed in indi idual expe iences (Akaka e al. 2013).
Upon joining a co-ope i ion ne wo k, an ac o an icipa es e enue gene a ion, wi h
he p ocess delinea ed by S-D Logic’s se ice ecosys em iew (Va go e al. 2023b): ini ial ex-
pec a ions uel he c ea ion o alue p oposi ions, which in u n gene a e e enue, spu ing
u he alue p oposi ions and enhancing esou ce densi y o mo e signi ican coc ea ion
oppo uni ies (Va go e al. 2020). This cycle necessi a es mu ual access o esou ces among
en i ies, wi h he p oposi ion’s alue uniquely shaped by each bene icia y’s expe ience
(Jaakkola e al. 2024).
4.3. Ins i u ionalizing Co-Ope i ion Ne wo ks o Value Coc ea ion
By adop ing S-D Logic’s iew on se ice ecosys ems, in ne wo ks, all ac o s in eg a e
he esou ces in alue ne wo ks (Lusch e al. 2010), unde s ood as a chi ec u es o se ice
and in o ma ion low amewo ks (Zo and Ami 2008) whe e ac o s ha e oles, po en ial
bene i s, and sou ces o e enues, leading o business models (Zo e al. 2011).
D awing om hese ounda ional concep s, alue c ea ion anscends simple bila e al
exchanges, necessi a ing a mo e comp ehensi e a ay o esou ces and he in ol emen
o mul iple ac o s wi hin an in ica e ne wo k (No mann and Rami ez 1993). The no ion
o mic o-exchange wi hin hese as ecosys ems sugges s ha cus ome s and p o ide s
ep esen jus a ac ion o he en i e ne wo k, including nume ous ac o s engaging in
ecip ocal esou ce exchange o c ea e alue (Chandle and Va go 2011). Such complex
dynamics equi e a le el o coo dina ion acili a ed by endogenously c ea ed ins i u ions—
comp ising ules, no ms, symbols, and p ac ices ha aid collabo a ion—and ins i u ional
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 125 6 o 16
a angemen s (Elo e al. 2024), which a e in e dependen collec ions o hese ins i u ions,
mani es ing e en a a socie al scale (Meynha d e al. 2016).
In such ins i u ional echnology-enabled ne wo ks, ac o s, including compe i o s,
migh choose o collabo a e o mu ual bene i s, showcasing he olun a y na u e o co-
ope a ion e en among i als (Chandle and Va go 2011;Va go e al. 2024). The deploymen
o bo h ope an and ope and echnologies acili a es his co-ope a ion h ough esou ce
lique ac ion and enhanced esou ce densi y, u he cemen ing he ins i u ionaliza ion o
ne wo ks in o ully ledged se ice ecosys ems (Lusch and Nambisan 2015;Jaakkola e al.
2024).
5. Ope a ionalizing Co-Ope i ion Ne wo ks o Value Coc ea ion
The e olu ion o he IIoT b ings connec i i y and enables di ec de ice- o-de ice
communica ions (Dospinescu and Dospinescu 2018). This de elopmen suppo s c ea ing
in elligen sys ems ha dynamically adap o use in e ac ions, enhancing alue c ea ion
p ocesses (Yazdinejad e al. 2023b).
5.1. Sys emic In e ope abili y in IIoT-Based Co-Ope i ion Ne wo kss
In e ope abili y is undamen al o os e ing e ec i e collabo a ion wi hin ne wo ks,
acili a ing he achie emen o mu ual goals o enabling he con olled dissolu ion o co-
ope a ion in case o aul s (Hoppe 2023). In he con ex o co-ope i ion o alue coc ea ion,
exchanging in o ma ion be ween ope and and ope an echnology esou ces is c ucial
(O’B ien 2016). I necessi a es ha any a e ac designed o enable co-ope i ion wi hin
ne wo ks embeds mechanisms o add ess in e ope abili y, especially wi hin IoT- o IIoT-
based sys ems, ocusing on seman ic and p agma ic issues o ensu e ne wo k capabili ies
a e ully le e aged (Leal e al. 2019).
As se ice science highligh s, seman ic in e ope abili y ensu es ha he meaning o
exchanged in o ma ion is unde s ood ac oss di e en sys ems, while p agma ic in e op-
e abili y e ec i ely uses his in o ma ion in ope a ional con ex s (Ca doso e al. 2015).
Add essing hese in e ope abili y dimensions wi hin IIoT a e ac s is i al o enabling he
seamless in eg a ion o di e se echnologies and acili a ing collabo a i e en i onmen s
conduci e o co-ope i ion (Sil a e al. 2016).
Akaka and Va go (2014) highligh he impo ance o embedded in e ope abili y in
digi al echnologies o connec ne wo k esou ces, emphasizing speci ic mechanisms neces-
sa y o enhance in e ope abili y (B ews e e al. 2017). They unde sco e he signi icance o
sys emic embedded in e ope abili y wi hin digi al echnologies o connec ing ne wo k
esou ces and emphasize speci ic mechanisms o enhancing in e ope abili y (Akaka and
Va go 2014).
Resou ce densi y mechanisms: These mechanisms in ol e he p ocessing and analyz-
ing o in o ma ion o suppo decision-making and ac ion- aking p ocesses. By enhancing
he densi y o a ailable esou ces, IIoT can o e mo e nuanced insigh s and os e mo e
in o med co-ope i ion s a egies (Ng and Wakenshaw 2017).
Digi al ma e iali y mechanisms: This e e s o he capaci y o so wa e embedded in
physical objec s o manipula e digi al ep esen a ions, he eby enabling new unc ionali ies
and in e ac ions. Digi al ma e iali y b idges he gap be ween he physical and digi al
ealms, opening up new a enues o inno a ion and collabo a ion wi hin co-ope i ion
ne wo ks (Maglio e al. 2019).
By inco po a ing hese mechanisms, IIoT a e ac s can acili a e he dynamic exchange o
se ice in o ma ion, c ea ing an en i onmen conduci e o collabo a i e and compe i i e in-
e ac ions. Enhancing in e ope abili y co-ope i ion wi hin ne wo ks enables quicke esponses
o necessa y adap a ions, ul ima ely ha nessing he ull po en ial o alue coc ea ion.
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 125 7 o 16
5.2. Sys emic Usabili y and Accessibili y in IIoT-Based Co-Ope i ion Ne wo ks
Usabili y and accessibili y wi hin co-ope i ion ne wo ks a e pa amoun , gua an ee-
ing secu e se ice exchange among compe i o s and le e aging in e ac ions o enhance
alue c ea ion wi hin he ecosys em (Kahkonen and Lin ukangas 2012). As he S-D Logic
li e a u e emphasizes, acili a ing hese aspec s necessi a es a sys emic pe spec i e on as-
semblages and a chi ec u al modules designed o se ice in e ac ion (Va go and Lusch
2016). Ins i u ions and ins i u ional a angemen s acili a e his coo dina ion (Elo e al.
2024).
The in eg a ion o an IIoT sys em, encompassing bo h ope an (e.g., a i icial in elli-
gence o cogni i e assis an modules) and ope and modules, allows compe i o s wi hin
he ne wo k o engage in ac i i ies while lacking legal accoun abili y due o he absence o
igh s and du ies (Maglio e al. 2009). Consequen ly, i canno be ecognized as a se ice
sys em wi hin se ice science (Maglio e al. 2019).
To b idge his gap, he sys em mus inco po a e human esou ces capable o ope a -
ing, in e ac ing, and collabo a ing wi h ope an and ope and echnologies. Wi hin his
collabo a i e eam, a designa ed esponsible indi idual se es as he legal and ope a-
ional ep esen a i e o he ne wo k ac o s, ensu ing accoun abili y and o e sigh (Ng and
Wakenshaw 2017).
Figu e 1illus a es he p inciples o he IIoT a e ac , embedding mechanisms o
sys emic in e ope abili y, usabili y, and accessibili y o acili a e co-ope i ion and alue
coc ea ion wi hin ne wo ks.
Adm. Sci. 2024, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 o 17
Usabili y and accessibili y wi hin co-ope i ion ne wo ks a e pa amoun , gua an ee-
ing secu e se ice exchange among compe i o s and le e aging in e ac ions o enhance
alue c ea ion wi hin he ecosys em (Kahkonen and Lin ukangas 2012). As he S-D Logic
li e a u e emphasizes, acili a ing hese aspec s necessi a es a sys emic pe spec i e on as-
semblages and a chi ec u al modules designed o se ice in e ac ion (Va go and Lusch
2016). Ins i u ions and ins i u ional a angemen s acili a e his coo dina ion (Elo e al.
2024).
The in eg a ion o an IIoT sys em, encompassing bo h ope an (e.g., a i icial in elli-
gence o cogni i e assis an modules) and ope and modules, allows compe i o s wi hin
he ne wo k o engage in ac i i ies while lacking legal accoun abili y due o he absence
o igh s and du ies (Maglio e al. 2009). Consequen ly, i canno be ecognized as a se ice
sys em wi hin se ice science (Maglio e al. 2019).
To b idge his gap, he sys em mus inco po a e human esou ces capable o ope a -
ing, in e ac ing, and collabo a ing wi h ope an and ope and echnologies. Wi hin his
collabo a i e eam, a designa ed esponsible indi idual se es as he legal and ope a ional
ep esen a i e o he ne wo k ac o s, ensu ing accoun abili y and o e sigh (Ng and
Wakenshaw 2017).
Figu e 1 illus a es he p inciples o he IIoT a e ac , embedding mechanisms o sys-
emic in e ope abili y, usabili y, and accessibili y o acili a e co-ope i ion and alue coc e-
a ion wi hin ne wo ks.
Figu e 1. IIoT a i ac p inciples o enabling co-ope i ion and alue coc ea ion in ne wo ks (Ng and
Wakenshaw 2017).
This IIoT sys em ca ego izes wo ypes o esou ces c i ical o i s ope a ion: physical
and non-physical esou ces. The ca ego y o physical-wi h- igh s esou ces includes hu-
man esou ces, p o iding necessa y o e sigh , decision-making capabili ies, and legal ac-
coun abili y in ne wo k in e ac ions. Non-physical-wi h-no- igh s esou ces a e ope and
and ope an so wa e ha acili a e digi al in e ac ions and p ocesses.
By equipping he sys em wi h hese di e se esou ce ypes, co-ope i ion ne wo ks o
alue coc ea ion can e ec i ely manage usabili y and accessibili y, os e ing secu e and
p oduc i e se ice exchanges. This app oach enhances he po en ial o alue c ea ion
Figu e 1. IIoT a i ac p inciples o enabling co-ope i ion and alue coc ea ion in ne wo ks (Ng and
Wakenshaw 2017).
This IIoT sys em ca ego izes wo ypes o esou ces c i ical o i s ope a ion: physi-
cal and non-physical esou ces. The ca ego y o physical-wi h- igh s esou ces includes
human esou ces, p o iding necessa y o e sigh , decision-making capabili ies, and legal
Adm. Sci. 2024,14, 125 8 o 16
accoun abili y in ne wo k in e ac ions. Non-physical-wi h-no- igh s esou ces a e ope and
and ope an so wa e ha acili a e digi al in e ac ions and p ocesses.
By equipping he sys em wi h hese di e se esou ce ypes, co-ope i ion ne wo ks o
alue coc ea ion can e ec i ely manage usabili y and accessibili y, os e ing secu e and
p oduc i e se ice exchanges. This app oach enhances he po en ial o alue c ea ion
wi hin he ecosys em. I add esses he legal and ope a ional challenges o in eg a ing
ad anced echnologies like IoT in o co-ope i ion s a egies.
6. E alua ing Co-Ope i ion Ne wo ks o Value Coc ea ion
An expe imen al pilo p ojec was conduc ed wi hin he Po uguese o namen al s one
sec o o e alua e he e ec i eness o he p oposed amewo k. The objec i e was o assess
he impac o he co-ope i ion ne wo k and IIoT a i ac s on ope a ional e iciency and alue
coc ea ion among SMEs. This case s udy ocused on a ep esen a i e sample o SMEs in
he Po uguese o namen al s one sec o , an indus y cha ac e ized by adi ional p ac ices
and signi ican po en ial o digi al ans o ma ion.
6.1. The Po uguese O namen al S one Sec o
The Po uguese o namen al s one sec o , in eg al o Po ugal’s cul u al he i age and a
symbol o inno a i e excellence, has con ibu ed o globally enowned s one monumen s
since he 15 h cen u y (Machado e al. 2021). Acco ding o ecen s a is ics, he sec o boas s
a signi ican economic impac , expo ing o 116 coun ies, anking as he nin h la ges en i y
in he global s one ade, and holding second place in pe capi a in e na ional ade (Sil a
and Pa a 2022). The indus y’s expo s exceed i s impo s by 660%, gene a ing a u no e o
EUR 1.230 million and sus aining o e 16,600 di ec jobs, no ably suppo ing employmen
in inland egions (Machado e al. 2021). Known o i s adap abili y and esilience, he OS-PT
sec o has become a o midable indus ial o ce wi hin he coun y (Sil a and Gil 2020).
Howe e , i aces signi ican challenges due o digi al and global p ocu emen p ocesses
in oduced by BIM wi hin he AEC indus y, pa icula ly impac ing e iciency (Sil a and
Ca doso 2023).
Inno a i e echnologies de eloped unde he scope o he Ino s one4.0 R&D P ojec
(Sil a e al. 2020) exempli y he p ac ical applica ion o he IIoT in he OS-PT sec o . This
sys em has no ably ans o med he connec i i y o OS-PT SMEs wi h he AEC digi al
ma ke . B ews e e al. (2017) highligh ed he applica ion o IoT echnologies in ag i-
cul u e, demons a ing hei po en ial o d i e inno a ion and e iciency in adi ional
indus ies (B ews e e al. 2017). Simila ly, Dospinescu and Dospinescu (2018) emphasized
he ole o in o ma ion echnology in enhancing e hical p ac ices and ope a ional e iciency
(Dospinescu and Dospinescu 2018). To e ec i ely suppo co-ope i ion among i ms, a new
IIoT a i ac needed o be de eloped, embedding ad anced mechanisms o in e ope abil-
i y, usabili y, and accessibili y o in eg a e he OS-PT sec o in o a co-ope i ion ne wo k.
Al hough he echnical speci ics o his new a i ac a e beyond he scope o his esea ch,
hese de elopmen s culmina ed in he c ea ion o Cockpi 4.0+. This IIoT-based a i ac was
enginee ed o acili a e secu e in e ac ions among compe ing i ms wi hin he OS-PT sec o .
Consequen ly, Cockpi 4.0+ was u ilized o connec h ee compe i o i ms in a Co-
ope i ion Ne wo k Expe imen al Pilo P ojec (CN-EPP). As illus a ed in Figu e 2, he
CN-EPP os e ed a collabo a i e indus ial a mosphe e among hese OS-PT compe i o
i ms, demons a ing he po en ial o IIoT-based sys ems o suppo ad anced connec i i y
and co-ope a ion in an indus ial se ing.
In he CN-EPP, Cockpi 4.0+ suppo s ad anced connec i i y and communica ion
s a egies. I lays he ounda ion o an indus ial co-ope i ion ecosys em whe e i al
SMEs can collabo a e e ec i ely, d i ing inno a ion and enhancing collec i e ma ke
esponsi eness.
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