Te ps a‐Tong, Jane L. Y. e al.
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Gende composi ion a wo k and women's ca ee
sa is ac ion: An in e na ional s udy o 35 socie ies
Human Resou ce Managemen Jou nal
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Sugges ed Ci a ion: Te ps a‐Tong, Jane L. Y. e al. (2024) : Gende composi ion a wo k and women's
ca ee sa is ac ion: An in e na ional s udy o 35 socie ies, Human Resou ce Managemen Jou nal,
ISSN 1748-8583, Wiley, Hoboken, NJ, Vol. 35, Iss. 2, pp. 397-427,
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Re ised: 4 July 2024
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DOI: 10.1111/1748-8583.12570
SPECIAL ISSUE ARTICLE
Gende composi ion a wo k and women's
ca ee sa is ac ion: An in e na ional s udy o 35
socie ies
Jane L. Y. Te ps a‐Tong
1
|Len J. T e iño
2
|Ala a Cansu Yaman
3
|
Fabian Jin ae F oese
3,4
|Da id A. Rals on
5
|
Nikos Bozionelos
6
|Oli ie Fu e
7
|B ian Tjemkes
8
|
Fidel León‐Da de
9
|Yongjuan Li
10
|Pingping Fu
11
|
Ma io Mol eni
12
|Ian Palme
13
|Zuzana Tučko á
14
|
E na Szabo
15
|Gab ielle Poeschl
16
|Ma in Hemme
17
|
Ma ía Te esa de la Ga za Ca anza
18
|Sa oko Suzuki
19
|
Na asimhan S ini asan
20
|Jaime Ruiz Gu ié ez
21
|
An onin Rica d
22,23
|Zol an Buzady
24
|Luis Sigala Papa ella
25
|
Vik Naidoo
26
|Ma ia Kangasniemi‐Haapala
27
|Te ik Dalgic
28
|
Vojko Po ocan
29
|Yongqing Fang
30
|Cal in Bu ns
31
|
Ma ian C owley‐Hen y
32
|Vi ginia Lasio Mo ello
33
|
And e Peke i
34
|Shabnam Seyed Mehdi
35
|
Abdullah A. Aldousa i
36
|Maya Bal aza He e a
37
Co espondence
Fabian Jin ae F oese, Uni e si y o
Goe ingen, Pla z de Goe inge Sieben 5,
Goe ingen 37085, Ge many.
Email: [email p o ec ed]
Abs ac
D awing om s a us cha ac e is ics heo y, we de elop a
mul ile el model o explain he ela ionships be ween
gende composi ion (e.g., emale‐ emale supe iso ‐
subo dina e dyads, a emale majo i y a he nex highe
Abb e ia ions: CFA, con i ma o y ac o analysis; CFI, Compa a i e Fi Index; HLM, hie a chical linea modeling; ICC, in aclass co ela ion coe icien s;
MGCFA, mul i‐g oup con i ma o y ac o analysis; MNEs, mul ina ional en e p ises; RMSEA, oo mean squa e e o o app oxima ion; TLI, Tucke –
Lewis Index; WBL, Women, Business and he Law Index.
Jane L. Y. Te ps a‐Tong, Len J. T e iño and Ala a Cansu Yaman con ibu ed equally.
This is an open access a icle unde he e ms o he C ea i e Commons A ibu ion‐NonComme cial‐NoDe i s License, which pe -
mi s use and dis ibu ion in any medium, p o ided he o iginal wo k is p ope ly ci ed, he use is non‐comme cial and no modi ica-
ions o adap a ions a e made.
© 2024 The Au ho (s). Human Resou ce Managemen Jou nal published by John Wiley & Sons L d.
Hum Resou Manag J. 2025;35:397–427. wileyonlinelib a y.com/jou nal/h mj
-
397
le el, and a emale majo i y a he same job le el) in he
wo kplace and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. We hypo he-
sise ha wo king wi h a emale supe iso and a emale
majo i y a he same le el will be nega i ely ela ed o
women's ca ee sa is ac ion, while a emale majo i y a he
nex highe le el will be posi i ely ela ed o women's
ca ee sa is ac ion. Mo eo e , we p opose ha o mal so-
cie al (gende ‐equali y) ins i u ions and in o mal cul u al
(gende ‐egali a ian) alues, each has a mode a ing e ec on
he impac o gende composi ions on women's ca ee
sa is ac ion. Ou esul s om a mul ile el analysis o 2291
women ac oss 35 socie ies suppo he h ee hypo hesised
main e ec s. Whe eas ins i u ions ha suppo gende
equali y weaken he posi i e e ec o wo king wi h a e-
male majo i y a he nex highe le el, hey ampli y he
nega i e e ec o a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical
le el. Ou indings highligh he complex and pa adoxical
na u e o gende composi ion e ec s on women's ca ee
sa is ac ion. We discuss he heo e ical con ibu ions o ou
indings and hei implica ions o he di e si y manage-
men p ac ices o mul ina ional en e p ises.
KEYWORDS
ca ee sa is ac ion, gende s a us belie s, in agende compe i ion/
coope a ion, pa adox, queen bee phenomenon, s a us
cha ac e is ics heo y
1
|
INTRODUCTION
The p opo ion o jobs illed by women globally has inc eased subs an ially o e he las se e al decades (Fields &
Blum, 1997; O iz‐Ospina e al., 2018). In esponse, a esea ch s eam has eme ged ega ding he impac o gende
composi ion (e.g., emale‐majo i y, male‐majo i y, and mixed‐gende wo k en i onmen s) on indi idual and eam
ou comes. In he con ex o women a wo k, some no able con ibu ions include Engel e al. (2023), who ound ha
women conside ing joining a s a ‐up a e sensi i e o o ganisa ional gende composi ion and less willing o apply
o jobs in s a ‐ups wi h a mino i y o women. In addi ion, Bo n e al. (2022) epo ed ha women we e less willing
o lead han men, i espec i e o eam gende composi ion, bu mo e willing o lead a emale‐majo i y eam han a
male‐majo i y eam. Mo eo e , B adley e al. (2021) ound ha emale‐majo i y eams pe o med be e han male‐
majo i y eams when in e pe sonal dislikes we e p esen among eam membe s. Fu he mo e, Bo dalo e al. (2019)
disco e ed ha belie s abou one's abili y a e mo e gende ‐s e eo yped in mixed‐gende pai s han in same‐gende
pai s. These indings complemen one o he mos popula esea ch a eas in gende composi ion esea ch, namely
boa d gende composi ion and i s impac on o ganisa ional decisions and pe o mance (Ahmed & A i , 2021; Li &
Zhang, 2019; Romano e al., 2020).
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TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
Al hough he a o emen ioned s udies indica e ha subs an ial s ides ha e been made in unde s anding he
impac o gende composi ion on indi idual, eam, and o ganisa ional ou comes, li le is known abou how gende
composi ion ela es o he subjec i e e alua ion o ca ee s, including ca ee sa is ac ion. This is un o una e, as
ca ee s a e impo an o he as majo i y o people (Ande son e al., 2015), and ca ee sa is ac ion is he mos
widely used indica o o how people iew and e alua e hei ca ee s (Heslin & La zke, 2019; Hu e al., 2022; La an,
Jabbou , Jabou , Ali & Pe ei a, 2022; Te ps a‐Tong e al., 2022). Indeed, ca ee sa is ac ion e lec s indi iduals'
e alua ion o hei ca ee p og ession and p ospec s (Abele & Spu k, 2009; G eenhaus e al., 1990). The impo ance
o he subjec i e pe spec i e o ca ee s has been s ongly emphasised o i s u ili y in explaining and p edic ing how
indi iduals eel and ac in o ganisa ional en i onmen s (D ies, 2020). Fo example, ca ee sa is ac ion is ela ed o
willingness o sha e knowledge wi h colleagues (Kundi e al., 2023), inno a i e beha iou s (Zhu e al., 2022), and
u no e in en ions (Zhu e al., 2019). The e o e, how gende composi ion in he o ganisa ional en i onmen ela es
o ca ee sa is ac ion can p o ide insigh s in o how employe s can e ain women employees and mo i a e hem o
pe o m well (c . Ng & Feldman, 2014).
The inclusion o mo e women in leade ship posi ions has been ound o play a c ucial ole in acili a ing g ea e
women's ep esen a ion in lowe o ganisa ional le els (Cohen & B oschak, 2013; Kim & Kim, 2023). P omp ed by
his inding and he po en ial ou comes associa ed wi h inc eased ep esen a ion o women, we ex end he gende
composi ion li e a u e by in es iga ing whe he g ea e ep esen a ion o women a a ious le els wi hin an
o ganisa ion would simila ly lead o highe ca ee sa is ac ion—a psychological s a e ha mos employees and
employe s would aspi e o achie e. This leads o ou esea ch ques ion: To wha ex en does gende composi ion
con ibu e o he ca ee sa is ac ion o women employees? Answe ing his ques ion is impo an because gende
composi ion in an o ganisa ion is a modi iable social s uc u e achie able h ough delibe a e o ganisa ional
in e en ion, simila o changing he gende mix on a co po a e boa d. As such, we belie e ha modi ying gende
composi ion could be a ac ic ha o ganisa ions use o achie e hei wo kplace gende equi y objec i es. Addi-
ionally, we a gue ha gende composi ion is as impo an as inc easing he shee numbe o women gi en i s
associa ion wi h desi able o ganisa ional ou comes. To his end, we in es iga e h ee al e na i es. Fi s , we examine
he ex en o which wo king wi h a emale supe iso (i.e., a dyad) is ela ed o ca ee sa is ac ion o women
subo dina es. Second, we s udy he ex en o which wo king wi h a emale majo i y a he nex highe le el (i.e., a
c oss‐le el g oup) is ela ed o ca ee sa is ac ion o women. Thi d, we e alua e he ex en o which wo king wi h a
emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el (i.e., a pee g oup) is ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion. We selec
hese gende composi ion ela ionships because hey a e he mos immedia e and p oximal in e pe sonal con ex s
ha indi iduals encoun e in he wo kplace.
In de eloping he heo e ical ounda ion o his s udy, we d aw p ima ily om s a us cha ac e is ics heo y
(Ridgeway, 2011,2019) o concep ualise he po en ial in agende dynamics inhe en in he a o emen ioned
gende composi ion con ex s, ul ima ely impac ing women's ca ee sa is ac ion. Acco ding o Ridgeway (2019),
s a us e e s o he compa a i e social anking o indi iduals o g oups, de e mined by he le el o honou , espec ,
and es eem acco ded o hem. S a us, deeply ing ained in people's minds, ac s as a ‘cul u al schema ha indi iduals
employ o manage si ua ions whe e hey a e ei he coope a i ely in e dependen o achie e desi able goals, o
compe i i ely in e dependen o enhance hei pe sonal ou comes om collabo a i e e o s’ (Ridgeway & Ma -
kus, 2022, p. 3). The e o e, s a us belie s and pe cep ions shape how indi iduals espond o social si ua ions.
Ex apola ing on his poin , we posi ha s a us belie s and pe cep ions also guide indi iduals o assess he ex en
o which hey pe cei e a si ua ion as compe i i e o coope a i e, o bo h. Acco dingly, we posi ha gende
composi ion ep esen s a con ex wi hin which women engage in compe i ion, coope a ion o bo h in he pu sui o
ca ee sa is ac ion. We a gue ha he balance be ween compe i ion and coope a ion a ies acco ding o women's
psychological p opensi ies in coping wi h di e en gende composi ion con ex s in o ganisa ional se ings. In he
wo kplace, his compe i ion‐coope a ion dynamic is likely mo e p onounced among women han men, gi en he
o en‐ epo ed emale‐on‐ emale hos ili y and compe i i e beha iou s owa ds one ano he (Apicella e al., 2017;
Heim e al., 2001; Miz ahi, 2003). Howe e , women a e also known o celeb a ing sis e hood and uni y in some
TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
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399
con ex s (Hu man, 2013; McNul y, 2018), sugges ing a complex ela ionship be ween collabo a ion and i al y.
Fu he mo e, o explain how women espond o compe i i e si ua ions in he wo kplace, we highligh he ‘in isible
bu dens’ (i.e., disad an ages ela i e o men) hey end o endu e a wo k (Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022, p. 627).
To de elop ou h ee main hypo heses, we begin wi h a e iew o he cen al ene s o s a us cha ac e is ics
heo y and he coope a ion‐compe i ion amewo k, and we supplemen hem wi h addi ional concep ual ools
commonly used in he gende s udies li e a u e o unea h he challenges ha women ace in a gi en con ex . Fo
example, Hypo hesis 1is ela ed o emale‐ emale subo dina e‐supe iso dyads and, as such, we u n o he
li e a u e on he queen bee phenomenon o suppo ou heo isa ion, gi en he equen ly epo ed ension be-
ween emale dyads. Fo Hypo hesis 2, which ocuses on c oss‐le el g oups, we adop he social compa ison lens o
explica e he possible compe i i e o coope a i e dynamics gi en he ob ious s a us di e ence and nume ical
di e en ials. Fo Hypo hesis 3, which is ela ed o pee g oups, we ocus on he ca ee ‐as‐a‐ ou namen model due
o he embedded compe i ion among pee s in his con ex . While hese h ee concep ual ools may appea un e-
la ed, hey all all unde he domain o concep s ha a e use ul o explaining compe i ion/coope a ion dynamics
and women's esponses in he wo kplace. Pai ed wi h s a us cha ac e is ics heo y, hese concep ual ools enable
us o cap u e he dominan in agende dynamics inhe en in a gi en gende composi ion con ex , and how he
na u e o he con ex a ec s women's pe cep ions o hei ca ee s.
To his end, we u ilise a p ima y in e na ional da ase o 2291 pa icipan s spanning 35 socie ies. As indi iduals'
beha iou s a e nes ed in socie ies, and ca ee s e ol e wi hin ecosys ems and ex e nal en i onmen s, socie al
ac o s exe simul aneous in luences on women's ca ee pe cep ions (Ba uch, 2015; Kossek e al., 2017).
Fu he mo e, gende s a us, as a cul u al schema, may a y ac oss cul u es and, as such, i s impac could be a ec ed
by he p e ailing s a us pe cep ions owa ds women in a gi en socie y. The e o e, we include o mal ins i u ions
(gende equali y laws and egula ions) and in o mal cul u al en i onmen s (gende egali a ianism alues)
(No h, 1990) ha shape membe s' gende ‐ ela ed esponses and beha iou s, as socie al mode a o s in ou
mul ile el models. By explo ing hese ela ionships ac oss di e se cul u al se ings, ou s udy seeks o p o ide a
nuanced unde s anding o he in e play be ween o ganisa ional gende composi ion and women's ca ee sa is-
ac ion. Figu e 1p o ides ou hypo he ical model.
Ou mul i‐socie y, mul ile el s udy makes se e al impo an con ibu ions o he gende composi ion li e a u e.
Fi s , in es iga ing he ela ionship be ween gende composi ion and ca ee sa is ac ion seen h ough he lens o
s a us cha ac e is ics heo y and he pa adoxical compe i ion‐coope a ion pe spec i e ep esen s a no el heo-
e ical app oach. While he compe i ion‐coope a ion pe spec i e is o en u ilised in he s a egy li e a u e, i has
FIGURE 1 Concep ual model.
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TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
a ely been applied in wo kplace beha iou al s udies. This is e idenced by he call o pu sue his line o esea ch by
Ka k, Yacobo i z, Seagl‐Caspi and Kalke ‐Zimme man (2023). Second, ou indings enhance ou unde s anding o
con ex ual de e minan s o ca ee sa is ac ion, he eby add essing he call o mo e con ex ‐ ela ed esea ch on
ca ee success (Spu k e al., 2019) and expanding he knowledge bounda ies o he ca ee success li e a u e. Thi d,
ou da ase , which includes da a om 35 socie ies, is a signi ican imp o emen o e p io single‐coun y esea ch.
As such, ou c oss‐socie al s udy b oadens he geog aphic bounda ies o he li e a u e, allowing us o de elop
globally gene alisable insigh s (Gel and, 2024; Hennekam e al., 2017). Speci ically, ou mul i‐socie y indings enable
us o disce n which indi idual‐le el indings a e likely o be global (in he absence o a socie al mode a ing e ec )
and which a e likely o be idiosync a ic (in he p esence o a socie al mode a ing e ec ). Whe e socie al mode a ing
e ec s a e iden i ied, we assess whe he he socie al in luence is supplemen a y (magni ying he indi idual‐le el
e ec ) o complemen a y (weakening he indi idual‐le el e ec ). By examining hese ela ionships c oss‐
cul u ally, we explo e he nuances and deepen ou unde s anding o he impac o gende composi ion in he
wo kplace. This is c ucial o heo e ical e inemen , as mul i‐socie y s udies help o cla i y he geog aphic
bounda y condi ions o heo ies ha ha e been de i ed om single‐le el s udies. Fou h, he in eg a ion o ou
mul ile el esea ch design wi h ou mul i‐socie al da ase add esses conce ns ega ding indi idual‐le el ela ion-
ships nes ed in socie al‐le el mac oeconomic en i onmen s (Smi h & Bond, 2019), allowing us o delinea e he
a iance explained a he indi idual‐le el e sus he socie al‐le el and yielding mo e p ecise indings (Hox
e al., 2017).
2
|
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Ou heo e ical amewo k begins wi h s a us cha ac e is ics heo y, whe ein we highligh he impac o lowe
s a us on women's p o essional li es. We hen elabo a e on he in e play be ween compe i ion and coope a ion in
an examina ion o he impac o gende composi ion on women's s a egies o ca ee sa is ac ion, se ing he s age
o a deepe discussion in he hypo hesis de elopmen sec ion.
2.1
|
S a us cha ac e is ics heo y
Women's p o essional expe iences in he wo kplace can be unde s ood h ough s a us cha ac e is ics heo y
(Be ge e al., 1977; Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006). S a us e e s o he es eem, espec and honou acco ded o an
indi idual o a g oup in compa ison o o he s, based on social cha ac e is ics such as gende o ace (Co ell &
Ridgeway, 2006; Ridgeway, 1991). People o highe s a us a e pe cei ed o ha e highe gene al compe ence and
abili y ac oss asks and domains (Bunde son, 2003). S a us ma e s in all social ela ions as i shapes o he ‐and
sel ‐expec a ions abou how one should ac , eac , ea o he s, and be ea ed (Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006;
Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). In essence, i ac s as a basis o he di e en ia ion o expec a ions. In he wo kplace,
s a us belie s a ec employees' pe cei ed sel ‐compe ence and o he s' pe o mance pe cep ions o hem, he eby
in luencing hei access o esou ces and oppo uni ies (Be ge e al., 1977; Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006; Ridgeway
e al., 2022). As such, lowe ‐s a us people, compa ed o highe ‐s a us people, ace ce ain ‘in isible bu dens’
(Ridgeway e al., 2022, p. 627). Speci ically, women end o be pe cei ed as less compe en han men, as well as less
i o ha ing au ho i y (Ridgeway, 2011). These a e bu dens wi h which men a e no encumbe ed and o which men
ypically a e no e en awa e ha women a e so encumbe ed, simply because women a e pe cei ed as lowe s a us
ela i e o men.
Gende , as a p o o ypical di use s a us cha ac e is ic (Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006) and a p ima y s a us schema,
unc ions as a men al sho cu . I enables o he s o e icien ly gauge an indi idual's compe ence and abili ies, e en
when he e is limi ed knowledge abou he pe son's speci ic cha ac e is ics and capabili ies (DiMaggio, 1997;
TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
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401
Elleme s, 2018; Ridgeway, 2011). This aming mechanism has led o pe asi e gende s e eo ypes wi hin he
wo kplace, whe e women a e o en pe cei ed o be lacking he compe encies and abili ies necessa y o high‐s a us
oles (Ka ila & Me iläinen, 1999; Ridgeway & Co ell, 2006). Ins ead, hey a e expec ed o exhibi ypical communal
cha ac e is ics such as nu u e, exp essi eness and compassion. I is c ucial o ecognise ha hese gende s a us
belie s a e common, consensual knowledge ope a ing on an unconscious and implici le el, and ha hey a e
au oma ically ac i a ed when people (women and men) y o make sense o social si ua ions (Eagly e al., 2020;
Ridgeway, 2011).
Indi iduals wi h highe asc ibed s a us a e o e ed mo e oppo uni ies o pa icipa e in and in luence hei
o ganisa ions because hey ep esen an ‘ideal wo ke ’ image (Ridgeway e al., 2022, p. 627). Consequen ly, hey
ecei e mo e posi i e e alua ions om o he s and hei con ibu ions o he g oup a e pe cei ed as mo e aluable
han hose wi h lowe asc ibed s a us (Co ell, 2004), all o which lead o mo e ca ee suppo and esou ces (Spu k
e al., 2019). Gi en hese ad an ages, indi iduals wi h highe asc ibed s a us (e.g., men) a e mo e p one o
demons a e ini ia i e, sha e hei ideas, and e en in e up o he s in wo kplace se ings (McDonald e al., 2004),
u he ein o cing hei ele a ed s a us. Con e sely, s a us belie s p o ide no ma i e guidance o women o
assume a subo dina e ole in he wo kplace, encou aging hem o downplay hei con ibu ions and exhibi less
ini ia i e han men (Weck e al., 2022). Un o una ely, his c ea es a sel ‐ ul illing p ophecy (Cohen & Rope , 1972),
ein o cing women's in e io posi ion wi hin an o ganisa ion.
In spi e o hese obs acles, ca ee ‐o ien ed women can al e o he s' pe cep ions o hei s a us and hence
lessen he impac o in isible bu dens hey ace by achie ing speci ic s a us cha ac e is ics. Speci ic s a us cha -
ac e is ics con ey in o ma ion abou an indi idual's compe ence o expe ise in ela ion o a well‐de ined and
iden i iable ask (Be ge e al., 1977). Wo king diligen ly and displaying e idence o pe o mance a e e ec i e ways
o enhance he pe cep ion o speci ic s a us cha ac e is ics. Indeed, c oss‐socie al s udies (e.g., Rals on e al., 2024)
ha e ound ha women a e as p oac i e as men in applying o ganisa ionally bene icial, sel ‐se ing, and image‐
building upwa d in luence s a egies, and hese s a egies can be applied in he p ocess o na iga ing one's ca ee .
Howe e , because o hei di use lowe ‐s a us cha ac e is ic and being pe cei ed as less‐compe en han men,
women end o no only ou pe o m hei male coun e pa s o p o e hei abili ies, bu addi ionally, hey end o
shoulde he ‘bu den o p oo ’ (Wagne & Be ge , 2017) by demons a ing hei ela i e pe o mance. This bu den
has been e e ed o as double s anda ds (Foschi, 1996), and in p ac ice, i means ha he pe o mance o lowe ‐
s a us indi iduals (e.g., women) is usually highly sc u inised because excep ional pe o mance by hem is unex-
pec ed, based on hei lowe s a us‐based expec a ions. These deeply ing ained cul u al belie s abou compe ence
in luence e e yday in e ac ions, policies, and job e alua ions, mos ly disad an aging women (Ridgeway, 2011;
T e iño e al., 2018; Webbe & Giu e, 2019). To e ec i ely coun e hese cul u al belie s abou compe ence, we
posi ha women mus coo dina e hei social ela ions wi h o he s by s a egically engaging in ei he compe i ion
o coope a ion, o bo h, wi h hei colleagues (Ridgeway, 2011,2019).
2.2
|
Coope a i e and compe i i e in e pe sonal dynamics
The compe i ion‐coope a ion in e dependence e lec s a undamen al ension in human socie y and in he wo kplace,
whe e people need o coope a e wi h o he s o gain access o esou ces necessa y o su i al, while simul aneously
compe ing wi h hem o maximise wha hey can ob ain om hese coope a i e endea ou s (Ridgeway, 2019;
Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). In he wo kplace, compe i i e in e dependence e e s o indi iduals engaging in con lic
o e ini e esou ces o ewa ds, mani es ing as a d i e o ou pe o m o he s o secu e indi idual bene i s. In con as ,
coope a i e in e dependence mani es s in indi iduals wo king oge he ha moniously o a ain sha ed goals. This
in ol es mu ual assis ance, in o ma ion sha ing, and coo dina ed e o s o maximise join ou comes, mi o ing
women's communal gende ed expec a ions (Eagly & Wood, 2012). These compe i ion e sus coope a ion social si -
ua ions ep esen a con ex in which he gende game ubiqui ously comes in o play (Ridgeway, 2011).
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TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
The compe i ion‐coope a ion pa adox is complex and can lead o a ious ou comes, as coope a i e si ua ions
can gene a e p omo i e in e ac ion h ough which membe s achie e posi i e ou comes a g oup and indi idual
le els (Tjos old & Johnson, 2013). As de ailed by Tjos old and Johnson (2013, pp. 418–420), p omo i e in e ac ion
in ol es a mu ual exchange o help and suppo , bo h in e ms o ask accomplishmen and he sha ing o alued
esou ces and in o ma ion, and in e ms o ecip ocal c i ique and ein o cemen o each o he 's wo k and
collabo a i e e o s. The la e s imula es bo h pa ies o engage in c i ical hinking, and mu ually mo i a es hem
o s i e owa ds highe accomplishmen s. These mul i‐dimensional in e ac ions no only ad ance he accom-
plishmen o collec i e goals bu also enhance pe sonal de elopmen , job sa is ac ion, and ca ee sa is ac ion o he
indi idual (Tjos old & Johnson, 2013). Con e sely, a compe i i e si ua ion could be a double‐edged swo d, as
compe i ion can mo i a e people o engage mo e a wo k, bu i can also lead o bu nou , wi h a nega i e ne e ec
on ca ee sa is ac ion (Spu k e al., 2021).
En e ing a compe i ion is a na u al esponse o sca ci y o alued esou ces, especially when indi iduals' s a us
is a isk. Indeed, s a us wi hin an o ganisa ion is o en a ze o‐sum esou ce, as F ank (1985) desc ibed, and
he e o e, employees equen ly e alua e whe he hei s a us is h ea ened (Ande son e al., 2006). When a h ea
is pe cei ed, heigh ened compe i ion is likely o ensue. The e alua ion can be guided by he pe cei ed dis ance o a
s a us gap ha in ol es social compa ison. Following he cen al idea p oposed by Reh e al. (2022), social com-
pa ison ha is ela ed o p oximal s a us gaps (e.g., among pee s) as opposed o dis al s a us gaps (e.g., be ween
employees o di e en hie a chical le els), can igge a s a us h ea . Con e sely, when indi iduals pe cei e dis al
s a us gaps wi h hose wi h whom hey in e ac , hey a e likely o see hese gaps as inspi a ional, a he han
h ea ening, and o espond wi h sel ‐imp o emen beha iou s, such as he pu sui o g ow h.
In addi ion, women end o shy away om compe i ion (Niede le & Ves e lund, 2007), and hey compe e
agains women mo e o en han agains men (Buunk e al., 2011). Fu he , hei app oach o compe i ion
dis inc i ely di e ges om ha o men, in luenced by physiological and sa e y conside a ions ha lead o an inna e
inclina ion owa ds a oiding di ec compe i ion (Vaillancou & K ems, 2018). When engaging in compe i i e be-
ha iou s, women a e mo e likely o adop low‐ isk, indi ec s a egies, in con as o he di ec and o e ac ics
ypically employed by men. The compe i i e manoeu es o women o en mani es h ough nuanced social dy-
namics, including social exclusion, unde mining, and he o ma ion o alliances (Ma in e al., 2014; Vaillancou &
K ems, 2018). These s a egies aim o sub ly diminish a i al's s a us wi hou engaging in open con lic , e lec ing a
sophis ica ed applica ion o social ne wo ks and a conce n o main aining communal ha mony while pu suing
compe i i e ad an age. This complex in e play be ween compe i ion and social in e ac ion highligh s he unique
ways in which women na iga e compe i i e en i onmen s, employing s a egies ha le e age social in elligence
and ela ional acumen o achie e hei objec i es in social ela ions.
Wi h he backg ound in o ma ion on he p e alence o compe i ion and coope a ion in he wo kplace, he
in isible bu dens women bea , hei p e e ence o a oiding compe i ion, and hei inclina ion owa ds indi ec
compe i i e s a egies, we will u he elabo a e in he nex sec ion on how hese ac o s a ec he impac o he
h ee di e en gende composi ions on women's ca ee sa is ac ion. The na u e o compe i i e en i onmen s,
coupled wi h women's dis inc i e app oaches o compe i ion and coope a ion, signi ican ly impac s hei ca ee
sa is ac ion. This impac likely leads o educed sa is ac ion in highly compe i i e se ings whe e hei indi ec
s a egies and communal expec a ions may be unde alued o mispe cei ed.
3
|
HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT
3.1
|
In e pe sonal dynamics wi h a emale supe iso
The ela ionship be ween a supe iso and a subo dina e usually in ol es bo h coope a i e and compe i i e
in e dependence. Howe e , we a gue ha in emale‐ emale supe iso ‐subo dina e dyads, he in e pe sonal
TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
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403
dynamics likely exhibi mo e compe i ion han coope a ion han in male‐male dyads o in mixed‐gende dyads. We
posi so based on he di use gende s a us cha ac e is ics ha ad an age men in he wo kplace, and he associa ed
queen bee and upwa d challenge e ec s o which we now u n.
Due o uni e sal gende s a us belie s, e e y woman en e s he wo kplace unde he weigh o in isible
bu dens. As socie y ends o iew women h ough a communal lens due o s a us belie s, he quali ies o ca ing and
nu u ing a e emphasised (Conway e al., 1996; Zheng e al., 2018). This places women in a lowe ‐s a us posi ion in
he co po a e domain because he ideal, p omo able wo ke is ypically po ayed as male, cha ac e ised by
quali ies such as d i enness, dominance, and asse i eness (Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). In mos wo kplaces,
masculini y, adi ionally associa ed wi h men, is s ill highly alued and ewa ded, whe eas eminini y, ypically
associa ed wi h women, is s ill unde alued (Ca lsson, 2020; Hecha a ia & Ing am, 2016). When women a ain
supe iso y oles, hei supe iso s a us does no elimina e hei di use gende s a us; ins ead, hey a e bu dened
wi h dual oles (i.e., a double bind)—being a supe iso and being a woman (Bie ema, 2016). Wi h he pe sis ing
backg ound e ec s o lowe ‐s a us, emale supe iso s a e o en iewed as less compe en han hei male
coun e pa s (Ayalew e al., 2021; Samuel & Mokoaleli, 2017). Thus, while women end o see and ea hei male
manage s as ‘manage s’, subo dina e women end o see and ea hei emale manage s as ‘women’ (Ma in, 2006).
The e o e, hey a e mo e inclined o exhibi compe i i e beha iou s owa d a emale supe iso han owa d a male
supe iso , esul ing in wha we label, an upwa d challenge (c . Ka k, e al., 2023).
This hie a chical compe i ion ope a es in bo h di ec ions, and i could be di ec ed downwa ds whe e a emale
supe iso exhibi s compe i i e beha iou s owa d subo dina e women, esul ing in he ‘queen bee’ phenomenon
(G angei o e al., 2024; S aines e al., 1974). The queen bee phenomenon desc ibes beha iou s exhibi ed by suc-
cess ul women leade s in mixed‐gende wo kplaces ha hinde he ad ancemen o hei emale colleagues in
lowe ‐le el posi ions. Speci ically, ‘queen bees’ may speak nega i ely abou hei emale subo dina es' leade ship
abili ies as hey pe cei e hem as compe i o s o high‐s a us oles (Elleme s e al., 2004; Johnson & Ma hu ‐
Helm, 2011). The queen bee phenomenon e e s o in agende dynamics in ol ing women, bu no men (Ma in
e al., 2014). In agende compe i ion is mo e common han in e gende compe i ion o bo h women and men
(Sheppa d & Aquino, 2017) because people end o compa e hemsel es wi h simila (e.g., same‐gende ), ins ead o
dissimila (e.g., opposi e‐gende ), o he s (Ga cia e al., 2013). Applying he a o emen ioned s a us gap analysis (Reh
e al., 2022), he di use s a us be ween women and men se s hem apa , making a male supe iso less likely o be
a compe i o o a subo dina e woman. The e o e, we p opose ha he queen bee mindse subconsciously held by
emale supe iso s, coupled wi h he compe i i e endency o emale subo dina es, inc ease ension in his dyadic
ela ionship. This ension may lead subo dina e women o pe cei e less ca ee suppo om a emale supe iso
han hey would pe cei e om a male supe iso . Addi ionally, due o he p oximal dis ance in he dyad, he ension
expe ienced may signi ican ly educe ca ee sa is ac ion o women who wo k wi h a emale supe iso compa ed o
hose who do no . Thus, we hypo hesise:
H1 Wo king wi h a emale supe iso is nega i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion.
3.2
|
In e pe sonal dynamics wi h a emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical le el
In emale‐ emale dyadic ela ionships, we ha e hypo hesised a nega i e impac on subo dina e women's ca ee
sa is ac ion. Con e sely, in si ua ions whe e a junio woman in e ac s wi h a emale majo i y a he nex highe
hie a chical le el, a scena io no domina ed by a single emale supe iso , we p opose a posi i e e ec on ca ee
sa is ac ion. This di e ence s ems om he inc eased numbe o po en ial compe i o s, which likely educes he
compe i i eness among junio women. As Ga cia e al. (2013) epo ed, indi iduals exhibi lowe compe i i eness
wi h a g ea e numbe o compe i o s, pe cei ing diminished odds o success and a educed mo i a ion o compe e.
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TABLE 1(Con inued)
N
Ca ee
sa is ac ion Female majo i y
(nex highe le el)
% yes
Female majo i y
(same le el) Age Educa ion
O g.
Tenu e
Fi m
size
Se ice
indus y Gende –equali y
ins i u ion
a
Gende
egali a ian
alues
b
Mean Alphas % yes Mean Mean Mean % la ge % yes
Malaysia 62 5.9 0.92 19.4 45.2 33.7 3.8 7.7 61.3 53.2 50.0 3.78
Mexico 69 7.7 0.94 21.7 50.7 32.7 4.6 4.8 76.8 68.1 83.8 4.73
Ne he lands 61 6.5 0.88 3.3 29.5 32.1 4.8 5.0 75.4 59.0 97.5 4.99
New Zealand 61 6.3 0.94 14.8 32.8 42.5 4.4 5.6 75.4 47.5 91.9 4.23
Philippines 67 6.7 0.86 40.3 47.8 33.6 3.5 7.7 61.2 79.1 78.8 4.58
Po ugal 68 6.4 0.91 20.6 44.1 37.4 3.6 8.8 8.8 63.2 97.5 5.13
Singapo e 57 6.0 0.87 40.3 51.4 31.4 3.6 4.2 71.9 42.1 82.5 4.51
Slo enia 115 5.9 0.83 22.8 45.6 42.0 4.2 8.6 72.2 63.5 90.6 4.83
Sou h Ko ea 47 5.8 0.83 42.6 58.3 32.4 3.9 4.3 70.2 38.3 85.0 4.22
Spain 57 6.3 0.94 23.4 27.7 40.6 3.9 10.2 57.9 79.0 97.5 4.82
Swi ze land‐
F ench
49 6.7 0.92 33.3 57.9 45.3 3.0 12.4 40.8 59.2 85.6 4.92
Swi ze land‐
Ge man
53 6.5 0.90 20.8 34.0 48.1 3.1 11.1 45.3 47.2 85.6 4.92
Tu key 94 6.3 0.94 20.7 40.0 34.9 3.7 5.9 66.0 60.6 82.5 4.50
UK 57 7.0 0.90 22.3 37.2 41.5 3.8 11.5 84.2 87.7 97.5 5.17
Venezuela 72 7.6 0.87 12.2 42.9 33.9 4.1 5.0 41.7 48.6 85.0 4.82
To al 2291 6.31 0.89 20.7 40.0 37.0 4.0 7.5 64.0 58.0 83.7 4.54
a
Women's Business and Law Index.
b
GLOBE alues.
c
Wes Ge man da a.
TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
-
411
4.2.3
|
Socie y‐le el a iables
We assessed socie ies' gende ‐ ela ed o mal ins i u ions wi h he Women, Business and he Law Index compiled
by he Wo ld Bank (Wo ld Bank, 2015). This index measu es how laws and egula ions a ec women's economic
oppo uni ies. The o e all sco e was he a e age o eigh ace s o women's igh s (mobili y, wo kplace, pay,
ma iage, pa en hood, en ep eneu ship, asse s, and pension). The possible sco es ange om 1 o 100. In ou
sample, I an sco ed he lowes , a 31.3, and F ance sco ed he highes , a 100. We assessed he in o mal (cul u al)
en i onmen wi h gende ‐egali a ian alues om he GLOBE s udy (Em ich e al., 2004); he highe he sco e, he
highe he GE alues a socie y emb aces. The o iginal a ing was a i e‐poin scale (1–5) wi h ‘5’ indica ing he
highes impo ance. In addi ional analyses, we eplaced he GLOBE ‘ alue’ sco es wi h ‘p ac ice’ sco es bu he
esul s we e essen ially he same. Table 1p o ides he ull lis o bo h indices.
4.2.4
|
Con ol a iables
We con olled o i e demog aphic a iables: age, educa ion a ainmen , o ganisa ional enu e, company size, and
indus y. Such a iables ypically appea in ca ee sa is ac ion esea ch (Ng & Feldman, 2014). Age and enu e we e
measu ed in yea s. Educa ion was measu ed om 1 =p ima y school o 6 =doc o a e deg ee. Company size was
measu ed as 0 =less han 100 employees, and 1 =mo e han 100 employees. The indus y a iable was dummy
coded as 1 =se ice indus y, and 0 =o he .
4.3
|
Analy ical s a egy
We used STATA e sion 17 o all s a is ical compu a ions excep assessing measu emen in a iance o which
we used MPlus 8.6. To alida e ou mul i‐i em scale (ca ee sa is ac ion) and assess i s measu emen in a iance
ac oss socie ies, we used he alignmen me hod wi h maximum likelihood es ima ion (Aspa ouho &
Mu hén, 2014a). The non‐in a iance a e o in e cep s and loading we e 14.3% and 11.4%, espec i ely. Hence,
he a e age non‐in a iance was 12.9%, a less han he cu ‐o poin o 25% sugges ed by Mu hén and
Aspa ouho (see 2014, pp. 3–4). Thus, we ha e secu ed us wo hy alignmen esul s o he uni ac o ial scale,
ca ee sa is ac ion. We epo he de ails o he alignmen me hod and he esul s in he Suppo ing
In o ma ion S1.
To es ou hypo heses, we analysed ou wo‐le el da a wi h hie a chical linea modelling (HLM) and ol-
lowed he s anda d p ocedu es (Raudenbush & B yk, 2002). Fi s , we compu ed he in aclass co ela ion co-
e icien s (ICCs) o he null model o ca ee sa is ac ion, o assess whe he he e was su icien be ween‐g oup
a iance o jus i y HLM analyses. The ICCs indica ed ha 15.0% o a iance o ca ee sa is ac ion could be
explained by ac o s a he socie al le el, which signalled a la ge‐sized g oup e ec (Hox e al., 2017). Then, we
g and‐mean cen ed he socie al a iables p io o en e ing hem in o he HLM eg essions. A e es ima ing a
model wi h only co a ia es a he indi idual le el, we an a se ies o mixed e ec andom in e cep s models
(Rabe‐Heske h e al., 2005). We i s es ed he di ec e ec o he gende composi ion a iables, which was hen
ollowed by models ha es ed each o he hypo hesised c oss‐le el mode a ing e ec s. Finally, we assessed
successi e model i by he educ ion in de iance (i.e., he di e ence o log likelihood imes minus wo) o he
nes ed HLM models. Be e model i s a e indica ed by smalle de iance alues wi h signi ican di e ences in
de iance alues be ween nes ed models.
412
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TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
5
|
RESULTS
Table 2shows he desc ip i e s a is ics and co ela ions o he indi idual‐le el and socie al‐le el a iables o he
pooled sample. Table 3p esen s all HLM esul s.
Hypo hesis 1, which s a ed ha wo king wi h a emale supe iso would be nega i ely ela ed o women's
ca ee sa is ac ion, was suppo ed (γ= −0.154, p<0.05, Model 2). A emale majo i y a he nex hie a chical le el
was ound o be posi i ely ela ed o ca ee sa is ac ion (γ=0.225, p<0.05, Model 2), suppo ing Hypo hesis 2.
Hypo hesis 3, which s a ed ha wo king wi h a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el would be nega i ely
ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion, was also suppo ed (γ= −0.319, p<0.001, Model 2).
Hypo heses 4a,4b, and 4c s a ed ha laws and egula ions ha aim o p o ec GE would weaken he
hypo hesised ela ionships be ween ca ee sa is ac ion and he gende composi ion a iables ( emale supe iso , a
emale majo i y a he nex hie a chical le el, and a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el). Model 3 shows
ha he mode a ing e ec o o mal ins i u ions on he ela ionship be ween ha ing a emale supe iso and
women's ca ee sa is ac ion was no s a is ically signi ican (γ=0.002, p=0.776). Hence, H4a was no suppo ed.
TABLE 2Desc ip i e s a is ics o s udy a iables.
Indi idual‐le el
a iable Mean S.D. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
1. Ca ee
sa is ac ion
6.20 1.74
2. Female
supe iso
0.41 0.49 −0.014
3. Female
majo i y (nex
highe le el)
0.27 0.44 0.023 0.423***
4. Female
majo i y (same
le el)
0.55 0.50 −0.048* 0.335*** 0.401***
5. Age (yea s) 36.79 10.42 0.106*** −0.015 0.023 0.012
6. Educa ion 4.0 0.93 0.076*** −0.048* −0.070*** −0.057** −0.034
7.
O ganisa ional
enu e (yea s)
7.53 7.38 0.048* −0.028 0.016 −0.001 0.622*** −0.105***
8. Company size 0.64 0.48 −0.028 −0.013 −0.108*** −0.114*** −0.039 0.099*** 0.019
9. Se ice
indus y
0.59 0.64 −0.002 0.105*** 0.098*** 0.099*** −0.010 0.004 −0.004 −0.003
Socie y‐le el
a iable Mean S.D.
1. Gende
equali y
ins i u ions
83.65 17.21
2. Gende
egali a ianism
alues
4.54 0.47 0.670***
No e:N=2291 a he indi idual le el and 35 a he socie al le el.
*p<0.05; **p <0.01; ***p <0.001.
TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
-
413
TABLE 3Resul s o hie a chical linea models.
Null model Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Model 6 Model 7 Model 8
Indi idual‐le el a iable
In e cep 6.306*** 5.320*** 5.500*** 5.492*** 5.473*** 5.460*** 5.507*** 5.503*** 5.506***
Age 0.013** 0.013** 0.013** 0.013** 0.014** 0.013** 0.013** 0.013**
Educa ion 0.124** 0.114** 0.115** 0.110** 0.110** 0.114** 0.114** 0.112**
O ganisa ional enu e 0.098 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009 0.009
Company size −0.063 −0.074 −0.073 −0.066 −0.080 −0.074 −0.074 −0.072
Se ice indus y −0.059 −0.033 −0.033 −0.025 −0.025 −0.029 −0.031 −0.031
Female supe iso −0.154* −0.164* −0.137 −0.136 −0.171* −0.156* −0.156*
Female majo i y (nex highe le el) 0.225* 0.225* 0.310** 0.219* 0.227* 0.230* 0.231*
Female majo i y (same le el) −0.319*** −0.321*** −0.320*** −0.220*** −0.319*** −0.314*** −0.319***
Socie al‐le el a iable
Gende equali y (GE) ins i u ions 0.004 0.008 0.010
Gende egali a ianism (GEG) alues 0.413 0.542* 0.507*
C oss‐le el in e ac ion e ec
GE ins i u ions � emale supe iso 0.002
GE ins i u ions � emale majo i y
(nex highe le el)
−0.017**
GE ins i u ions � emale majo i y (same le el) −0.018***
GEG alues � emale supe iso 0.222
GEG alues � emale majo i y (same le el) −0.139
GEG alues � emale majo i y (nex highe le el) −0.086
De iance (−2�log likelihood) 8648.768 8611.328 8586.55 8586.076 8577.226 8571.924 8580.77 8581.846 8582.472
ΔDeg ee o eedom 5 3 2 2 2 2 2 2
De iance di e ence ( s. Model 1) 24.78*** 25.25*** 39.40*** 34.10*** 30.56*** 29.48*** 28.86***
No e: Indi idual‐le el N=2291; Socie al‐le el N=35; *p<0.05 **p<0.0; ***p<0.001.
414
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TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
Howe e , he e was a signi ican c oss‐le el in e ac ion be ween gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions and he
gende wo k con ex wi h a emale majo i y a he nex hie a chical le el (γ= −0.017, p<0.01, Model 4), and he
mode a ing e ec was weakening. Hence, H4b was suppo ed. H4c was no suppo ed as we ound a signi ican
magni ying e ec (ins ead o a weakening e ec as hypo hesised) on he nega i e ela ionship be ween a emale
majo i y a he same hie a chical le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion (γ= −0.018, p<0.001, Model 5). To
isualise he in e ac ion e ec s, we c ea ed wo mode a ion plo s. Figu e 2shows ha he slopes o he eg ession
lines we e less s eep a s onge gende ‐equali y ins i u ional en i onmen s, signalling a weakening e ec . Figu e 3
shows ha he slope was s eepe o socie ies wi h s onge gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions han o socie ies
wi h weake laws and egula ions, indica ing a magni ying e ec .
FIGURE 2 Mode a ing e ec o gende ‐equali y ins i u ions on he ela ionship be ween a emale majo i y a
he nex highe hie a chical le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. [Colou igu e can be iewed a
wileyonlinelib a y.com]
FIGURE 3 Mode a ing e ec o gende ‐equali y ins i u ions on he ela ionship be ween a emale majo i y a
he same hie a chical le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. [Colou igu e can be iewed a
wileyonlinelib a y.com]
TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
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415
Las ly, Models 6–8 p esen he esul s ega ding he mode a ing e ec s o gende ‐egali a ian alues. None o
he c oss‐le el in e ac ion e ms we e signi ican , indica ing no mode a ing e ec by cul u al alues. Hence, no
elemen o Hypo hesis 5was suppo ed.
6
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DISCUSSION
We adop ed a no el heo e ical app oach by concep ualising he ole ha s a us cha ac e is ics play in in e pe -
sonal dynamics. This enabled us o disen angle and explica e how hese dynamics impac women's ca ee sa is-
ac ion a he indi idual and o ganisa ional le els, while nes ed in a c oss‐cul u al socie al con ex . Using a 35‐
socie y da ase and a mul ile el esea ch design, we demons a e empi ically ha women's ca ee sa is ac ion is
nega i ely a ec ed by a emale supe iso , posi i ely in luenced by a emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical
le el, and nega i ely impac ed by a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el. We also ound ha gende ‐
equali y laws and egula ions weaken he posi i e ela ionship be ween a majo i y o women a he nex highe
hie a chical le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion bu ampli y he nega i e ela ionship be ween a majo i y o
women a he same job le el and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. The e o e, ou indings iden i y a a he limi ed
socie al impac ( o mal ins i u ions) on hese di ec ela ionships, wi h wo o he six mode a ing hypo heses
suppo ed. These esul s p o ide one o he i s se s o c oss‐cul u al e idence on he likely uni e sal in luence o
gende dynamics on women's ca ee sa is ac ion.
6.1
|
Theo e ical implica ions
Ou inqui y, using a pa adoxical compe i ion‐coope a ion amewo k o explain he complexi y inhe en in he
h ee in agende ela ionships, iden i ied an in iguing pa adox: women's ca ee sa is ac ion is lowe when
wo king wi h a emale supe iso , ye highe in en i onmen s wi h a emale majo i y a he nex hie a chical le el.
By applying s a us cha ac e is ics heo y, we disen angled he unde lying compe i ion and coope a ion dynamics o
econcile hese seemingly con lic ing indings. Schad e al. (2016, p. 10) de ine a pa adox as a ‘pe sis en con a-
dic ion be ween in e dependen elemen s’. D awing on his, ou esea ch conside ed he pa adoxical, consensual
and implici expec a ions shaping wo king women's exis ence: being communal a wo k and non‐wo k si ua ions
e sus being agen ic o quali y o ad ancemen , and being a ‘woman’ e sus being a ‘manage ’ ( o manage ial
women); in addi ion o exhibi ing compe i i e e sus coope a i e beha iou s in an accep able eminine way. This
ocus on pa adoxes enabled us o unco e nuances and complexi ies wi hin he h ee in e pe sonal con ex s in ou
s udy, he eby con i ming he hypo hesised pa adox while de eloping a deepe unde s anding o he con ex ual
d i e s o ca ee sa is ac ion ac oss socie ies. In ou s udy, gende composi ion is mo e han he nume ic ep e-
sen a ions o women. Ra he , i en ails a na u al o ganisa ional se ing whe e women play ou hei social games, o
using Ridgeway's e m (2011, p. 34, 35 & 56), whe e hey coo dina e hei ‘dance’ among a ious ongoing social
ela ions. By neglec ing he dynamics inhe en in hese pa adoxes, esea che s could easily o e look he ‘pe sis-
ence o he ensions and he associa ed i uous and icious cycles’ (Smi h & Lewis, 2011, p. 391), leading o
o e simpli ying eali ies while losing an oppo uni y o build a mo e comp ehensi e, ye e ined model. One
example would be s udies on he queen bee phenomenon. We ag ee wi h Ka k e al. (2023) ha he conclusion o
some queen bee s udies implica ing women being he culp i o no ha ing mo e women a he op could ha e
o e looked a ious mechanisms embedded in in agende ela ions, and he posi i e e ec s emming om ha ing
mo e women a he nex highe le el.
The second heo e ical implica ion s ems om ou applica ion o a s a us lens in examining gende composi ion
e ec s. Ou s udy explici ly embedded s a us cha ac e is ics heo y in o he ounda ion o ou heo e ical
amewo k, which we en iched by in eg a ing o he ela ed pe spec i es commonly used in gende s udies. This
416
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TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
heo e ical sca olding de ia es om he adi ional masculine gende bias app oach upon which many s udies we e
de eloped (e.g., A a e e al., 2018; Bo n, e al., 2022; See Kossek e al., 2017 o a e iew). The bias app oach
ocuses on o he s' pe cep ions o women and how biases a e o med, cen ing on he pe cei e s and e alua o s. In
con as , he s a us pe spec i e we adop ed akes a mo e balanced app oach by conside ing he pe cep ions o
bo h subo dina e women and o he women in he o ganisa ional hie a chy wi h whom hey in e ac . Al hough we
did no di ec ly measu e women's assessmen o he deg ee o compe i ion and coope a ion in he s udied
in agende ela ional se ings, we o e a plausible heo e ical a ionale o es ablish he hypo hesised ela ionships.
Consequen ly, ou app oach can help in he examina ion o in e pe sonal dynamics and implici mechanisms ha
unde pin in agende in e ac ions (Co ell & Ridgeway, 2006; Ridgeway, 1997; Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). The
s a us app oach can also be ins umen al in gaining insigh s in o a ious gende di e si y issues in he wo kplace,
such as how o p omo e he igh s o gende mino i ies and o he mino i ies who do no sha e he same cha ac-
e is ics as he dominan majo i y. Fu he mo e, gende di e si y issues can be amed as inequali y and hence, a
s a us p oblem (Ridgeway & Ma kus, 2022). Acco ding o Ridgeway e al. (2022), s a us unc ions as a social
s uc u e, se ing a dual pu pose. On one hand, i ac s as a cul u al schema, in luencing and shaping he expec-
a ions o bo h indi iduals and o he s ega ding app op ia e beha iou s. On he o he hand, i plays a c ucial ole in
de e mining he p ac ical alloca ion o o ganisa ional esou ces, he eby in luencing ca ee sa is ac ion. In essence,
he s a us app oach p o ides a aluable amewo k o unde s anding how cul u al no ms and esou ce dis ibu ion
mechanisms in e ac o shape he dynamics o gende di e si y in he wo kplace.
The hi d heo e ical implica ion o ou indings is ha hey suppo he plausible uni e sali y o s ained
emale‐ emale dyadic ela ionship. Based on ou 2291 obse a ions om 35 socie ies, we ound ha wo king wi h a
emale supe iso was nega i ely ela ed o women's ca ee sa is ac ion, and his nega i e ela ionship was no
mode a ed by socie ies' o mal o in o mal ins i u ions ela ed o GE. Al hough we did no di ec ly measu e su-
pe iso beha iou s, ou sizable sample p o ides s ong e idence o he nega i e associa ion be ween wo king
wi h a emale supe iso and women's ca ee sa is ac ion. As ou mul ile el model con olled o he gende
composi ions, wi h a emale majo i y a he same and he nex highe hie a chical le els, ou inding sugges s he
queen bee phenomenon could exis beyond con ex s in which senio women a e okens (c . Duguid, 2011; Duguid
e al., 2012). Ou indings indica e u he esea ch is necessa y o cla i y he p edic o s o in e pe sonal ela ions
in emale‐ emale dyads.
Las ly, we iden i ied wo signi ican mode a ing e ec s o he ins i u ional en i onmen bu none o he cul u al
en i onmen . These indings lead us o in e ha , due o hei coe ci e na u e, he o mal ins i u ional en i onmen ,
as ep esen ed by gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions, is mo e e ec i e han he cul u al en i onmen in
eshaping he indi idual‐le el impac o gende composi ion. In e es ingly, ins i u ions played a complemen a y ole
by weakening he posi i e impac o a emale majo i y a he nex highe hie a chical le el, bu a supplemen a y
ole by s eng hening he nega i e impac o a emale majo i y a he same hie a chical le el. This inding sugges s
ha u u e esea ch should be disce ning in heo ising he socie al e ec s on indi idual‐le el phenomena and
ela ionships.
6.2
|
Limi a ions and u u e esea ch
Despi e he mul i‐socie y design o ou s udy, he e a e some limi a ions ha could be add essed in u u e esea ch.
Fi s , we collec ed c oss‐sec ional da a, limi ing he causali y o he in es iga ed ela ionships. Fu u e esea ch
could conside using ield expe imen s (e.g., Bo n e al., 2022) o complemen su ey esea ch indings, such as ou s.
Gi en global In e ne connec i i y, esea che s could o m o le e age hei exis ing in e na ional esea ch ne wo k
o conduc expe imen s on a global scale. While he challenges o o ming a wo ldwide lab a e conside able, such an
ini ia i e would likely yield gene alisable indings. Second, we used dummy a iables o he gende composi ions in
ou models. Fu u e esea ch could conside using con inuous measu es (i.e., he pe cen age o a gende a a job
TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
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417
le el) o deli e mo e e ined s a is ical esul s (e.g., Qian & Fan, 2019). Thi d, we did no inco po a e any lowe ‐
le el media ing a iable o mode a ing a iables. Fu u e esea ch could conside adding ei he one o bo h in
building a mo e comp ehensi e model. Howe e , we acknowledge ha a mul ile el model like ou s is al eady
complex, and u he complexi y could pose a challenge o s a is ical analysis (Vandenbe g, 2020). To build a
media ion model, one possibili y could be o de elop a measu e o coope i ion, as p oposed by Ka k e al. (2023) o
assess he ex en o coope a ion and compe i ion be ween co‐wo ke s o di e en hie a chical le els. Using he
example o emale‐ emale supe iso ‐subo dina e dyads, esea che s can concep ualise hei ela ionships along a
con inuum o coope a ion and compe i ion.
Fou h, ou mul ile el models may no ha e cap u ed some con ounding a iables, such as he nuance bego by
he p o essional labou ma ke 's demand and supply in he sampled coun ies. This could ha e been help ul in
explaining he inding ha uns con a y o expec a ions, namely ha an en i onmen wi h s onge gende ‐
equali y laws and egula ions was ound o s eng hen (ins ead o weakening) he nega i e ela ionship o a e-
male majo i y a he same le el wi h women's ca ee sa is ac ion. I could be ha he expanded pool o emale
compe i o s inc eases he in ensi y o compe i ion among pee s, explaining he ampli ying mode a ion e ec . Fi h,
ou indings sugges a uni e sali y o ension be ween emale supe iso and emale subo dina e, ep esen ing a
di e en conclusion om he sys ema ic e iew o Ka k e al. (2023). As he ex an esea ch on emale‐ emale
supe iso ‐subo dina e ela ionships is mos ly quali a i e o expe imen al using s uden samples (Bo n
e al., 2022; Ka k e al., 2023; Webbe & Giu e, 2019), u u e esea ch could conside applying su ey me hod-
ologies in wo kplace se ings and he new cons uc , coope i ion, o examine he leade ‐membe ension o same‐
sex dyads (simila o B oue & Ha is, 2007).
Six h, socie al gende ‐egali a ian alues had no mode a ing e ec s in ou s udy, which was su p ising. Fu u e
esea ch could also explo e ha mode a ing e ec using o he cul u al cons uc s (e.g., he business alues di-
mensions om Rals on, Russell and Eg i (2018)) on he pa adoxical ela ionship be ween gende composi ion and
ca ee sa is ac ion. Las ly, desc ibing p ecisely when and why women engage in compe i ion o coope a ion is
beyond he scope o his s udy. Al hough ou indings imply ha emale‐ emale subo dina e‐supe iso dyads and a
emale majo i y a he pee le el a e cha ac e ised by compe i ion, u he s udies a e needed o iden i y which
pe sonal, in e pe sonal, eam, leade ship, o en i onmen al ac o s suppo women's coope a ion o e compe i ion,
and ice e sa.
Las ly, i is impo an o acknowledge ha he explana ions p o ided in his pape ep esen only one o he
possible lines o easoning abou how in agende con ex s may a ec women's ca ee sa is ac ion. Addi ionally,
ou s udy did no explici ly measu e he in e pe sonal dynamics p oposed in ou concep ualisa ion. These limi a-
ions highligh he necessi y o u he esea ch o unde s and why hese ela ionships occu . We encou age
u u e s udies o collec mo e di ec da a on he expe iences o women who a e led by o he women, employing
quali a i e me hods o longi udinal designs. Such esea ch could p o ide deepe insigh s in o he dynamics o
emale‐ emale supe iso ‐subo dina e in e ac ions, he impac o ha ing a emale majo i y a he nex highe le el,
and he e ec s o pee dynamics in emale‐majo i y g oups. Explo ing hese al e na i e explana ions wi h mo e
nuanced da a would en ich ou unde s anding o he phenomena and in o m in e en ions aimed a imp o ing
ca ee sa is ac ion among women in di e se o ganisa ional con ex s.
6.3
|
Manage ial implica ions
On one hand, he absence o c oss‐socie al di e ences o ce ain ela ionships sugges s he po en ial o policies wi h
uni e sal applicabili y. On he o he hand, ou inding ha he p esence o gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions
mode a es issues o ca ee sa is ac ion in wo ou o h ee main e ec s sugges s he need o (mul ina ional en e -
p ises) MNEs o ailo hei gende di e si y s a egies o he dis inc legal en i onmen s o hei hos coun ies.
418
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TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
Ou indings sugges ha emale‐ emale supe iso /subo dina e dyads a e de imen al o women's ca ee
sa is ac ion, and his is possibly a global phenomenon. This means ha MNEs, ega dless o he coun y in which
hey ope a e, should iden i y he challenges aced by emale‐ emale dyads and, as app op ia e, de elop ac ics o
educe ensions he ein. One po en ial in e en ion ac ic would be o ain supe iso s o p o ide men o ship o
hei subo dina es (e.g., o e ing emo ional suppo , counselling, ca ee de elopmen ad ice, and ole modelling)
ha has been p o en o imp o e subo dina es' ca ee sa is ac ion (Pan e al., 2011). Indeed, encou aging women o
men o hei emale subo dina es as pa o an in o mal men o ing cul u e o a o mal men o ing p og am can help
o alle ia e o e en e e se he de imen al e ec o ha ing a emale supe iso on women's ca ee sa is ac ion.
Conside ing ha men o ing deli e s ca ee bene i s ac oss cul u es (Bozionelos e al., 2016), his can be a ealis ic
human esou ce in e en ion ha MNEs can u ilise ac oss he boa d.
The obse ed associa ion be ween wo king wi h a emale supe iso and lowe ca ee sa is ac ion among
women highligh s complex dynamics wi hin wo kplace gende ela ions, a he han a ibu ing blame o women o
pe pe ua ing gende inequali y. This phenomenon unde sco es he in ica e ways in which socie al no ms and
s uc u al inequali ies a e e lec ed wi hin o ganisa ional con ex s. I sugges s ha he challenges aced by women
in leade ship oles, including na iga ing gende ed expec a ions and biases, can ha e ipple e ec s on hei sub-
o dina es' expe iences and pe cep ions o ca ee p og ession. The e o e, add essing hese issues equi es changes
in o ganisa ional cul u e o suppo women a all le els o he o ganisa ion, encou aging a cul u e o mu ual
suppo , men o ship, and ecogni ion o di e se leade ship s yles. By ocussing on s uc u al solu ions and os e ing
an en i onmen ha alues di e si y and inclusion, o ganisa ions can wo k owa ds dissol ing he ba ie s ha
con ibu e o gende inequali y in he wo kplace.
Se e al s udies ha e indica ed ha highe women's ep esen a ion a an ea lie ime ( ime 1) likely leads o
inc eased o e all women's ep esen a ion a a la e ime ( ime 2) (e.g., Cohen & B oschak, 2013). Ou s udy builds
on his inding and demons a es ha ha ing a signi ican p opo ion o women a he nex hie a chical le el is
associa ed wi h highe ca ee sa is ac ion. This sugges s ha i an MNE plans o inc ease women's ep esen a ion,
i should s i e o ensu e a subs an ial p esence o women a senio le els, a he han a oken pe cen age.
Addi ionally, hese e ec s a e con ingen on he socie al laws and egula ions ega ding GE. The e o e, o design
he mos e ec i e gende ‐ ocused policies and p ac ices, MNEs mus pay a en ion o he legal en i onmen o
hei subsidia ies'socie ies. Gi en ha he posi i e e ec is weake in socie ies wi h s onge gende ‐equali y laws
and egula ions, MNEs should ensu e ha women a e well‐ ep esen ed a highe le els, pa icula ly in subsidia ies
loca ed in socie ies wi h weake gende ‐equali y ins i u ional en i onmen s. In addi ion, hei in es men in GE
should be g ea e in subsidia ies loca ed in weake ins i u ional en i onmen s han in hose loca ed in socie ies
wi h s onge ins i u ional en i onmen s. Fu he mo e, as discussed, MNEs need o be awa e ha women may
expe ience highe compe i i e s ess and less ca ee sa is ac ion in a emale‐majo i y pee le el. This e ec is
ampli ied in subsidia ies loca ed in socie ies wi h s onge gende ‐equali y laws and egula ions. As such, MNEs
may wan o alloca e mo e unds o add ess employees' well‐being and ca ee needs in socie ies wi h s onge legal
p o ec ion o women.
Finally, seen h ough he lens o s a us, gende di e si y can be iewed as an inequali y p oblem, as explained
abo e. By aming di e si y issues as inequali y, MNEs' di e si y manage s may become mo e sensi i e o o gan-
isa ional no ms and he di e en s a us belie s ha indi iduals b ing o he o ganisa ion, as well as o how socie ies
in which subsidia ies a e embedded impac in e pe sonal dynamics. MNEs ope a ing in di e en cul u al en i-
onmen s should ecognise ha he implici and unspoken na u e o cul u al p og amming, especially ha asso-
cia ed wi h s a us, adds a nuanced laye o complexi y o he company's di e si y objec i es. This is especially
pe inen in a mul i‐cul u al, mul i‐ ai h wo k o ce, whe e unde s anding and na iga ing hese sub le ies becomes
c i ical. The e o e, a s ong op managemen commi men o di e si y alues (Kelan & W a il, 2021) is also essen ial
o implemen ing e ec i e, b oad‐based di e si y ini ia i es in MNEs.
TERPSTRA‐TONG ET AL.
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7
|
CONCLUSION
Unde s anding how gende composi ion in he wo kplace leads o women's ca ee sa is ac ion is an impo an
esea ch agenda, no only because o he impac i has on indi idual emale employees' ca ee s, bu also because o i s
aspi a ional impac on o he emale employees embedded in he o ganisa ional s uc u e. Ou indings con i m a
pa adoxical ou come, namely ha women's ca ee sa is ac ion is lowe when wo king wi h a emale supe iso bu
highe when wo king wi h a majo i y o women a he nex highe le el. This ex ends he compe i ion‐coope a ion
amewo k by no only delinea ing he con ex wi hin which women manage how and when o coope a e and/o
compe e o ad ance hei own ca ee s bu also hose o o he emale employees in lowe le els o he o ganisa ion.
O e all, ou no el heo e ical app oach and indings lay he g oundwo k o u u e esea ch in o gende composi ion
and in agende wo k dynamics, while ad oca ing o a pa adoxical amewo k suppo ed by a mul i‐socie y da ase .
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Monash Uni e si y, Kuala Lumpu , Malaysia
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Flo ida A lan ic Uni e si y, Boca Ra on, Flo ida, USA
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Uni e si y o Goe ingen, Goe ingen, Ge many
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Leeds Uni e si y Business School, Uni e si y o Leeds, Leeds, UK
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Uni e si y Fellows In e na ional Resea ch Conso ium, F Mye s, Flo ida, USA
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Emlyon Business School, Lyon, F ance
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V ije Uni e si ei Ams e dam, Ams e dam, Ne he lands
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Chinese Academy o Sciences, Beijing, China
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No ingham Uni e si y Business School China, Ningbo, China
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RMIT Uni e si y, Melbou ne, Vic o ia, Aus alia
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Johannes Keple Uni e si y, Linz, Aus ia
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